Chp 7

Boycott

A form of pressure or protest-an organized refusal to purchase a particular product or deal with a particular business.

boycott

A form of pressure or protest—an organized refusal to purchase a particular product or deal with a particular business.

material incentive

A reason or motive based on the desire to enjoy certain economic benefits or opportunities.

Direct Technique

An interest group activity that involves interaction with government officials to further the group's goals.

direct technique

An interest group activity that involves personal interaction with government officials to further the group's goals.

Learning Outcome 1

An interest group is an organization whose members share common objectives and actively attempt to influence government policy. Interest groups proliferate in the United States because they can influence government at many points in the political structure and because they offer solidary, material, and purposive incentives to their members. Interest groups are often created out of social movements.

Discuss President Obama's interaction with lobbyists.

At first Obama said no former lobbyists would be part of his administration due to the fact that they should not work where they had recently lobbied. Obama denied lobbyists access to administration officials. However by 2010 many lobbyists had gained top positions in his administration. Health care reforms would not have passed without lobbyists.

AFL-CIO

First successful labor union organization in the United States The AFL-CIO remained the predominant labor union organization for fifty years. In 2005, however, four key unions left the federation and formed the Change to Win Coalition. Today, Change to Win has a membership of about 4 million workers. Labor's Decline. The role of unions in American soci-ety has been waning, as witnessed by the decline in union membership (see Figure 7-2). In the age of auto-mation and with the rise of the service sector, tradi-tionally unionized blue-collar workers in basic industries (auto, steel, and the like) represent a smaller and smaller percentage of the total working population. As a result, unions are looking to other areas for their membership, including migrant farmworkers, ser-vice workers, and especially public employees. These include police officers, firefighting personnel, teach-ers, college professors, and even graduate assistants. Indeed, public-sector unions make up an ever-greater share of the labor movement.Public Employee Unions. The degree of unionization in the private sector has declined over the past fifty years, but this decline has been partially offset by growth in the union-ization of public employees. With a total membership of more than 7 million, public-sector unions are a powerful force. Figure 7-2 displays the growth in public-sector unionization. (Note that the percentage of the workforce that consists of union members, as shown o this graph, is several points lower than the percentage of workers represented by a union, because most unions represent some nonmembers.)Over the years, public employee unions have sometimes been involved in strikes. Most of these strikes are illegal, because almost no public employees have the right to strike. In recent years, conservatives have taken a strong stand against public employee unions, particularly teachers' unions such as the National Education Association and the American Federation of Teachers. In some states, mostly in the South, bargaining with public sector unions is prohibited. In 2011 and 2012, Republican governors in several Midwestern states—notably Ohio and Wisconsin—attempted to restrict or abolish the bargaining rights of public employees. The cost of public employee pension funds has also been an issue.The Political Environment Faced by Labor. The success or failure of attempts to form unions depends greatly on popular attitudes. Many business-oriented conservatives have never accepted unions as legitimate institutions. In states where this position is widely held, local laws and practices can make it hard for labor to organize. For example, Georgia and North Carolina are major manufacturing states, but the percentages of union members in these two conservative states are 4.0 percent and 3.0 percent, respectively. States where the voting public is more sympathetic to labor, such as California and New York, have unionization rates of 15.9 percent and 24.7 percent, respectively. These rates are more typical of the world's wealthy nations than are the rates in conservative southern states.One way a state can make it more difficult to form unions is by adopting "right-to-work" laws. Such legislation bans contracts that require all employees to pay union dues or fees. The result is a free-rider problem for the unions. Twenty-five states have such laws. Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin are the most recent states to adopt them.

labor movement

Generally, the economic and political expression of working-class interests; politically, the organization of working-class interests.

Why do people join interest groups?

Logically it is not beneficial for the individual to work for a group benefit because many times they can reap the rewards without having to invest time in the group. (see free rider problem in definitions) So in order to join interest groups there are incentives (see below).

Discuss the various types of public interest groups including their goals, membership, examples and tactics.

Public interest groups have formed for many causes believed to be beneficial for the public although not all can agree on what the public interest is. Ralph Nader is an important individual in the founding of consumer activist groups. He wrote a book about General Motors trying to keep information about it's rear engine Corvair. As a result of his book Unsafe at any Speed Congress considered an automobile safety bill. Other public interest groups include Common Cause, founded in 1970. Anyone is able to become a member if they pay dues. Its goal is to reorder national priorities toward "the public" and to make governmental institutions more responsive to the needs of the public. Members are polled regularly in order to obtain information on local and national issues. Other public interest groups include the League of Women Voters. They lobby for the Equal Rights Amendments and government reform. Other groups such have the American Civil Liberties Union has supported draft resistors and now enters legal disputes on issues related to the Bill of Rights.

Describe the relationship between social movements and interest groups.

Social movements usually lead to the formation of interest groups because they are a sign that some want political, social, or economic changes. For example the Civil Rights movement was a social movement that spawned groups such as the Southern Christian Leadership Conference or the NAACP.

Public Interest

The best interests of the overall community; the national good, rather than the narrow interests of a particular group.

Union membership in the United States has

been declining in recent years, except in the public sector

The U.S. Chamber of Commerce is an example of a

business interest group

6.Interest groups have been described as examples of both the

elite and pluralists theories of politics.

United States v. Harriss

1954, The Court agreed that the lobbying law did not violate due process, freedom of speech or of the press, or the freedom to petition. The Court narrowly construed the act, however, holding that it applied only to lobbyists who were influencing federal legislation directly.

Citizens United v. FEC

2010, the United States Supreme Court ruled that corporations (and implicitly, unions) may spend freely to support or oppose political candidates, so long as they do not contribute directly to candidate campaigns.

Social Movement

A movement that represents the demands of a large segment of the public for political, economic, or social change.

social movement

A movement that represents the demands of a large segment of the public for political, economic, or social change.

purposive incentive

A reason for supporting or participating in the activities of a group that is based on agreement with the goals of the group. For example, someone with a strong interest in human rights might have a purposive incentive to join Amnesty International.

Purposive Incentive

A reason for supporting or participating in the activities of a group that is based on agreement with the goals of the group. For example, someone with a strong interest in human rights might have a purposive incentive to join Amnesty International. Interest groups also offer the opportunity for individuals to pursue political, economic, or social goals through joint action. Purposive incentives offer individuals the satisfaction of taking action when the goals of a group correspond to their beliefs or prin-ciples. The individuals who belong to a group focusing on the abortion issue or gun control, for example, do so because they feel strongly enough about the issues to support the group's work with money and time.

Material Incentive

A reason or motive based on the desire to enjoy certain economic benefits or opportunities or other individuals, interest groups offer direct material incentives. A case in point is AARP (formerly the American Association of Retired Persons), which provides discounts, insurance plans, and organized travel opportunities for its members. (You can find information about these benefits at the AARP home page.) Because of its exceptionally low dues ($16 annually) and the benefits gained through membership, AARP has become the largest—and a very powerful—interest group in the United States. AARP can claim to represent the interests of millions of senior citizens and can show that they actually have joined the group. For most seniors, the material incentives outweigh the membership costs. Another example of such an interest group is the American Automobile Association (AAA). Most people who join this organization do so for its emergency roadside assistance and trip planning. Many members may not realize that the AAA is also a significant interest group seeking to shape laws that affect drivers.

solidary incentive

A reason or motive that follows from the desire to associate with others and to share with others a particular interest or hobby.

Solidary Incentive

A reason or motive that follows from the desire to associate with others and to share with others a particular interest or hobby. Interest groups offer solidary incentives for their members. Solidary benefits include companionship, a sense of belonging, and the pleasure of asso-ciating with others. Although the National Audubon Society was originally founded to save the snowy egret from extinction, today most members join to learn more about birds and to meet and share their pleasure with other individuals who enjoy bird-watching as a hobby. Even though the incentive might be solidary for many members, this organization nonetheless also pursues an active political agenda, working to preserve the environment and to protect endangered species. Still, most members may not play any part in work-ing toward larger, more national goals unless the organization can convince them to take political action or unless some local environmental issue arises

Indirect Technique

A strategy employed by interest groups that uses third parties to influence government officials.

indirect technique

A strategy employed by interest groups that uses third parties to influence government officials.

lobbyist

An organization or individual who attempts to influence legislation and the administrative decisions of government

Lobbyist

An organization or individual who attempts to influence legislation and the administrative decisions of the government.

interest group

An organized group of individuals sharing common objectives who actively attempt to influence policymakers.

Interest Group

An organized group of individuals sharing common objectives who actively attempt to influence policymakers. Alexis de Tocqueville observed in the early 1830s that "in no country of the world has the principle of association been more successfully used or applied to a greater multitude of objectives than in America."1 The French traveler was amazed at the degree to which Americans formed groups to solve civic problems, establish social relationships, and speak for their economic or political interests. Perhaps James Madison, when he wrote Federalist Paper No. 10 (see Appendix C), had already judged the character of his country's citizens similarly. He supported the creation of a large republic with many states to encourage the formation of multiple interests. The multitude of interests, in Madison's view, would work to discourage the formation of an oppressive majority interest. Poll data show that more than two-thirds of all Americans belong to at least one group or association. Although the majority of these affiliations could not be classified as "interest groups" in the political sense, Americans certainly understand the principles of working in groups. Today, interest groups range from the elementary school parent-teacher association to the statewide association of insurance agents. They include small groups such as local environmental organizations and national groups such as the American Civil Liberties Union, the National Education Association, and even the Association of Government Relations Profession-als, formerly the American League of Lobbyists.

Discuss the various types of economic interest groups including their goals, membership, examples and tactics.

Business Interest Groups- Business interest groups and trade associations work to influence government policies to affect their respective industries. Groups called "Umbrella Groups" represent a multitude of businesses. Some groups represent a wide variety of business, while some may only focus on manufacturers. Groups like the American Pet Products Manufacturers Association only work to support pet shops manufacturers of pet food, toys, and other pet products. Many of these groups lobby in the capitol in order to represent their opinions and business interests. Some groups such such as the Better Business Bureaus, only take positions on policies but do not lobby int the capitol. Agricultural Interest Groups Some groups such as the American Farm Bureau Federation work to represent American farmers over a widespread geographic region. Other groups have a more narrow focus including the American Dairy Association and the Peanut Growers Group. Some causes agricultural groups support are to oppose immigration restrictions, to advocate international trade, and to support policies that conserve farmland and resources. Other agricultural groups support raising the prices for their goods to support their industry as well as tax breaks. Lobbying is a method used by these groups. Labor Interest Groups- traditionally these groups were formed from blue collar workers (auto, steel and manufacturing jobs) in order to ensure fair hours and wages. Now unionization has declined for groups such as those due to the rise of the service sector( see definitions) and the growth of public employee unions. This includes teachers unions and unions for police officers in order to ensure fair policies in their treatment and to work for their goals. Interest groups have formed around professions including the American Bar Association for lawyers and groups for doctors, contractors, engineers, electricians and NAMM (National Association for Music Merchants sorry I wanted to throw this one in there) Interest Groups of Professionals. Many professional organizations exist, includ-ing the American Bar Association, the Associated General Contractors of America, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, and others. Some professional groups, such as those representing lawyers and physicians, are more influential than others because of their ability to restrict entry into their professions. Lawyers have a unique advantage—a large number of members of Congress share their profession

What tactics are employed by interest groups to achieve their goals? (Make sure to discuss both direct and indirect techniques.)

Direct techniques are when an interest group and it's lobbyists directly approach officials to present their case. Indirect techniques use the general public or individual constituents to influence the government on behalf of the interest group. One direct technique is lobbying which includes Research issues • Build coalitions w/ other groups • Develop strategy • Meet with legislators & staff • Attend/testify at committee hearings • Negotiate with other legislators, administration, etc. Lobbyists also influence legislators by inviting them to social occasions such as cocktail parties, boating expeditions and events at exotic locales. So yeah, they pretty much are bribing them. Another direct techniques is for interest groups to provide rating systems for legislators. By monitoring voting records of the legislator they are able to determine if that legislator is worthy of their support. -Another method used by groups is to build alliances. Groups with similar causes work together to support their common goals. Interest groups also work together to support the reelection campaigns of candidates. Indirect techniques involve trying to influence government policy by manipulating others. Forms include: generator public pressure, this is often done through media campaigns, and if the public opposes a piece of legislation a legislator may be deterred (see climate control in definitions). Public demonstrations can be used as well as boycotts. Another method is to use Constituents to lobby. Using this method an interest group gets elected officials to lobby for their cause. Other methods include the shotgun approach, astroturf lobbying and the rifle technique detailed below.

Describe environmental interest groups.

Environmental interest groups represent a variety of interest groups who pursue means of conservation through different methods. Some groups focus on education such as the National Wildlife Federation while some such as the Environmental Defense Fund focus on changing federal policy. The Nature Conservancy uses funds from members to buy threatened natural areas and protect them. Other groups include the Greenpeace Society and Earth First. Even conservatives have funded groups such as the Union Sportsmen's Alliance have evolved to represent the interests of hunters.

Learning Outcome 3

Factors that can help make an interest group effective include membership size, financial resources, strong leadership, and cohesion around specific issues. The existence of interest groups has been seen as confirming both the elite theory and the pluralist theory of American politics. Many groups are considered to be part of the coalitions that support the two major parties.

Learning Outcome 4

Interest groups use direct and indirect techniques to influence government. Direct techniques include testifying before committees and rulemaking agencies, providing information to legislators, rating legislators' voting records, building alliances, and aiding political campaigns. Indirect techniques to influence government include campaigns to rally public sentiment, letter-writing campaigns, efforts to influence the climate of opinion, and the use of constituents to lobby for the group's interest. Unconventional methods of applying pressure include demonstrations and boycotts.

What attempts have been made to regulate lobbyists? Have these been successful?

Laws do not limit free speech but have been successful in providing transparency. The Federal Legislation Act of 1946 was upheld in the Supreme Court case U.S. v. Hariss. The law did not really limit lobbying but did require more disclosure. However the power of the law was limited because it only required lobbyists who directly went in front of congress to register their clients and report quarterly on their activities. The Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995 had these provisions -A lobbyist is defined as anyone who spends at least 20 percent of his or her time lobbying members of Congress, their staffs, or executive branch officials -lobbyists must register with the clerk of the House and the secretary of the Senate within forty five days of being hired or of making their first contacts. The registration requirement applied to organizations that spend more than $20000 or to individuals who are paid more than $5000 semiannually for lobbying work. These figures have since been raised to $24500 and $6000 respectively. -semiannual reports must disclose the general nature of the lobbying effort, the name of the client, specific issues and bill numbers, the estimated cost of the campaign, and a list of the branches of government contacted. The names of the individuals contacted need not be reported. -representatives of U.S. owned subsidiaries of foreign owned firms and lawyers who represent foreign entities also are required to register -the requirements exempt grassroots lobbying efforts (Grassroots lobbying (also indirect lobbying) is lobbying with the intention of reaching the legislature and making a difference in the decision-making process. Grassroots lobbying is an approach that separates itself from direct lobbying through the act of asking the general public to contact legislators and government officials concerning the issue at hand, as opposed to conveying the message to the legislators directly) and those tax exempt organizations such as religious groups

Learning Outcome 2

Major types of interest groups include business, agricultural, labor, public employee, professional, and environmental groups. Other important groups may be considered public-interest, single-interest, ideological, and identity groups. In addition, foreign governments and corporations lobby our government.

What other interest groups exist?

Other types of interest groups include Single-interest groups and groups that represent a demographic such as an age or ethnicity. Single interest groups are narrowly focused groups that have straightforward goals on issues. Such groups include the National Right to Life Committee which focuses on abortion, the National Rifle Association, and the American Israel Public Affairs Committee (pro Israel group). Groups that represent a certain group include AARP (used to be the American Association for Retired Persons) which represents interests for retired senior citizens. A number of interest groups focus on just one issue. Single-interest groups, being nar-rowly focused, may be able to call attention to their causes because they have simple, straightforward goals and because their members tend to care intensely about the issues. Thus, such groups can easily motivate their members to contact legislators or to organize demonstrations in support of their policy goals.The abortion debate has created groups opposed to abortion (such as the National Right to Life Committee) and groups in favor of abortion rights (such as NARAL Pro-Choice America). Further examples of single-issue groups are the National Rifle Associa-tion of America, the National Right to Work Committee (an antiunion group), and the American Israel Public Affairs Committee (a pro-Israel group).

latent interests

Public-policy interests that are not recognized or addressed by a group at a particular time.

Latent Interests

Public-policy interests that are not recognized or addressed by a group at a particular time. One puzzle that has fascinated political scientists is why some people join interest groups, while many others do not. Everyone has some interest that could benefit from govern-ment action. For many individuals, however, those concerns remain unorganized interests, or latent interests.According to political theorist Mancur Olson,2 it simply may not be rational for indi-viduals to join most groups. In his classic work on this topic, Olson introduced the idea of the "collective good." This concept refers to any public benefit that, if available to any member of the community, cannot be denied to any other member, whether or not he or she participated in the effort to gain the good.Although collective benefits are usually thought of as coming from such goods as clean air and national defense, benefits are also bestowed by the government on subsets of the public. Price subsidies to dairy farmers and loans to college students are examples Olson used economic theory to propose that it is not rational for interested individuals to join groups that work for group benefits.

Interest Groups: Elitist or Pluralist

Remember from Chapter 1 that the elite theory of politics presumes that most Americans are uninterested in politics and are willing to let a small, elite group of citizens make decisions for them. Pluralist theory, in contrast, views politics as a struggle among various interest groups to gain benefits for their mem-bers. The pluralist approach views compromise among various competing interests as the essence of political decision making. In reality, neither theory fully describes American politics. If interest groups led by elite, upper-class individuals are the dominant voices in Congress, then what we see is a conflict among elite groups—which would lend as much support to the elitist theory as to the pluralist approach. The results of lobbying efforts—congressional bills—do not always favor the interests of the most powerful groups, however. In part, this is because not all interest groups have an equal influence on government. Each group has a different combination of resources to use in the policymaking process. While some groups are composed of members who have high social status and significant economic resources, such as the National Association of Manufacturers, other groups derive influence from their large memberships. AARP, for example, has more members than any other interest group. Still other groups, such as environmentalists, have causes that can claim strong public sup-port even from people who have no direct stake in the issue. Groups such as the National Rifle Association are well organized and have highly motivated members. This enables them to channel a stream of letters, e-mails, and tweets toward Congress with a few days' effort. explain why some of the most successful groups are those that focus on very specific issues—such as tobacco farming, funding of abortions, and handgun control—and do not get involved in larger conflicts.Complicating the question of interest group influence is the fact that many groups' lobbyists are former colleagues, friends, or family members of current members of Congress.

How did scandals influence reform in 2007?

Scandals centered around corrupt lobbyist, Jack Abramoff led to reform. He had numerous ties with republicans and democrats and used those connections to get campaign donations, gifts, and various perks. In 2006 he pleaded guilty to three counts because he defrauded American Indian tribes and engaged in the corruption of public officials. The House and Senate tightened ethics rules on gifts and on travel funded by lobbyists. In 2007 Bush signed the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act. Under the law, lobbyists must report quarterly and the registration threshold becomes $10000 in spending per quarter. Organizations must report coalition activities if they contribute more than $5000 to a coalition.

What criteria assist an interest group in achieving success (include characteristics and examples of groups)?

Size and Resources Size and resources obviously make an interest group more powerful and influential. Groups such as AARP claim to represent all seniors whether they are part of the group or not, which means that they claim to represent 20 percent of the population. The American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) represents 10 million members. The American Automobile Association is widespread and is able to claim voters in every congressional district. Leadership Groups with strong leaders are able to be influential . due to the fact that if they are portrayed as being strong they will bring more to their cause. AIPAC is able to unite individuals for their cause due to the perception of them. Other groups such as the NRA elect celebrities ( actor Charlton Heston) to have a leader with charisma and give the organization a more credible image. Cohesiveness This factor concerns the motivation of group members. If a group is united and determined enough and they unite they will have more power. Individuals can unite to form a march or send large amount of letters to their representative. It is large scale unified activity which proves influential.

What incentives exist to motivate people to join interest groups? (explain each)

Solidary incentives- Solidary benefit include companionship, a sense of belonging, and the pleasure of associating with others. The book's example is the National Audubon Society which was originally founded to save the snowy egret from extinction but today it is more of a social club for bird watchers. Material Incentives- Direct benefits so these are sort of self explanatory. Groups that would apply would include AARP. It provides discounts, insurance plans, and travel opportunities for members. Another interest group to provide material incentives would be AAA. Which provide emergency roadside assistance and trip planning. Purposive Incentives- These incentives include the benefit of making an individual feel they are taking action for their beliefs or principles. Think pro life and gun rights groups.

Learning Outcome 5

The 1946 Legislative Reorganization Act was the first attempt to control lobbyists and their activities through registration requirements. The United States Supreme Court narrowly construed the act as applying only to lobbyists who directly seek to influence federal legislation. In 1995, Congress approved new legislation requiring anyone who spends 20 percent of his or her time influencing legislation to register as a lobbyist. Also, any organization spending more than $24,500 semiannually and any individual who is paid more than $6,000 semiannually for his or her work must register. Semiannual reports must include the names of clients, the bills in which they are interested, and the branches of government contacted. The lobbying efforts of grassroots and tax-exempt organizations are exempt from the rules. In 2007, in response to lobbying scandals, Congress tightened rules on giving gifts to legislators and increased reporting requirements for lobbyists to four times a year. Under the 2007 reform legislation, lobbyists now have to report contributions to coalition efforts. Congress

What was the significance of Citizens United versus F.E.C.?

The Citizens United ruling, released in January 2010, tossed out the corporate and union ban on making independent expenditures and financing electioneering communications. It gave corporations and unions the green light to spend unlimited sums on ads and other political tools, calling for the election or defeat of individual candidates. In a nutshell, the high court's 5-4 decision said that it is OK for corporations and labor unions to spend as much as they want to convince people to vote for or against a candidate. The decision did not affect contributions. It is still illegal for companies and labor unions to give money directly to candidates for federal office. The court said that because these funds were not being spent in coordination with a campaign, they "do not give rise to corruption or the appearance of corruption."

public interest

The best interests of the overall community; the national good, rather than the narrow interests of a particular group.

free rider problem

The difficulty interest groups face in recruiting members when the benefits they achieve can be gained without joining the group.

Free Rider Problem

The difficulty interest groups face in recruiting members when the benefits they achieve can be gained without joining the group. If so little incentive exists for individuals to join together, why are there thousands of interest groups lobbying in Washington? According to the logic of collective action, if the contribution of an individual will make a difference to the effort, then it is worth it to the individual to join. Thus, smaller groups, which seek benefits for only a small proportion of the population, are more likely to enroll members who will give time and funds to the cause. Larger groups, which represent general public interests (the women's movement or the American Civil Liberties Union, for example), will find it relatively more difficult to per-suade individuals to join. People need an incentive—material or otherwise—to participate

labor movement

The economic and political expression of working-class interests.

Who seems to not be represented by interest groups?

The poor Americans nor U.S. residents who are not citizens and cannot vote are not represented by interest groups. They cannot afford to support interest groups and that have other problems.

What portion(s) of the Constitution allow for the formation of interest groups and lobbying?

The right formation of interest groups is protected by the First Amendment to the Constitution. People are guaranteed the right to "peaceably assemble" as well as the right to "petition the Government for a redress of grievances."

Service Sector

The sector of the economy that provides services- such as health care, banking, and education- in contrast to the sector that produces goods.

service sector

The sector of the economy that provides services—such as health care, banking, and education—in contrast to the sector that produces goods.

Describe the "shotgun" approach, astroturf lobbying and the "rifle technique.

The shotgun approach is when an interest group tries to mobilize large numbers of constituents to write, phone, or send e-mails to their legislators or the president. Astroturf lobbying is a PR tactic used in politics and advertising in which actors are paid to display overt and apparently spontaneous grassroots support for a particular product, policy, or event. The artificially manufactured activity is used to influence opinion. Unlike a regular grassroots campaign from the people they are usually funded by the wealthy who hire people to advocate a cause.

climate control

The use of public relations techniques to create favorable public opinion toward an interest group, industry, or corporation.

Climate Control

The use of public relations techniques to create favorable public opinion toward an interest group, industry, or corporation. With this strategy, public relations efforts are aimed at improving the public image of the industry or group and are not necessarily related to any specific politi-cal issue. Contributions by corporations and groups in support of public television pro-grams, sponsorship of special events, and commercials extolling the virtues of corporate research are some ways of achieving climate control. For example, to improve its image in the wake of litigation against tobacco companies, Philip Morris began advertising its assis-tance to community agencies, including halfway houses for teen offenders and shelters for battered women. By building a reservoir of favorable public opinion, groups believe that their legislative goals will be less likely to encounter opposition from the public.

Some interest groups hire public relations firms to improve the public image of an industry or a group. This is called

climate control

When individuals benefit by the actions of an interest group but do not support that group, they are

free riders

When individuals have definite interests, but choose not to become a member of an interest group that represents these interests, their concerns are called

latent interests

A difficulty in limiting the effect of lobbying is

many legislators are proud of "pork" spending and are happy to tell their constituents all about it.

Direct interest group techniques include:

meeting with officials and making campaign contributions.

Some factors that make an interest group powerful include

membership size, financial resources, and cohesion of its members on key issues

Most lobbying today is undertaken by ____________, who often work in Washington, D.C., law firms.

professionals