CNS - Consultation Q&A

Name the structures that unites brachium colliculi superioris et brachium colliculi inferioris

- Brachium colliculi superioris unites colliculus superior with corpus geniculatum laterale - Brachium colliculi inferioris unites colliculus inferior with corpus geniculatum mediale

Symptoms of the overgrowth canalis centralis?

- Central canal stenosis - Central canal stenosis occurs due to a build-up of bony overgrowth (osteophytes), thickening of ligaments (ligamentum flavum hypertrophy), or herniated and bulging discs which narrow the spinal canal and puts pressure on the nerve roots. Arthritis is the most common cause of this type of spinal stenosis. - Some people with spinal stenosis may not have symptoms. Others may experience pain, tingling, numbness and muscle weakness. Symptoms can worsen over time.

Fibrae associations. Definition, function, examples

- Connect different region of the cortex in one hemisphere - Short fibres:• Fibrae arcuatae cerebri - Between gyri in one lobe - Long fibres - between gyri in different lobes • Fasciculus longitudinalis superior - lobus frontalis -> lobus parietalis et occipitalis • Fasciculus longitudinalis inferior - lobus temporalis -> lobus occipitalis • Fasciculus uncinatus - lobus frontalis -> lobus temporalis • Cingulum - peripheral part of the olfactory brain -> uncus

What is formatio reticularis?

- Def: The scattered neurons of the tegmentum and their network of communicating processes are know as the reticular formation Location: lie in the midpart of the tegmentum and extends from the medulla to the rostral midbrain Functions: 1. Regulate respiration, blood pressure, heartbeat - Inspiratory neurons lie in the midpart of the medulla - Expiratory - more dorsally and laterally - Pons contain superimposed centers for inhibition and facilitation of the respiration (locus coeruleus) - The glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves are involved in regulation of the heart rate and BP 2. Influence on the motor system • In the medial area of the medulla lies an inhibitory center, stimulation of which lowers muscle tone, extinguishes reflexes and prevents any response from the motor cortex • In pons, mesencephalon - exacerbation center, that enhances the activity of the motor system

Where localizes the subcortical olfactory center? Where localizes the subcortical visual and auditory centers?

- In Tuberculum anterius thalami is the subcortical olfactory center located - In pulvinar thalami is subcortical visual center located - In corpus geniculatum laterale is subcortical auditory center located

What cell type/-s can be found in ggl.sensorium n.spinalis?

- Neurons: pseudounipolar - Glial cells: satellite cells, Schwann cells

Do all spinal nerves have the same number of branches?

- No - C1 spinal nerve has no sensory representation on the body surface since its dorsal root ganglion is absent

Why segments localize at different level of the spine?

- Originally the spinal cord and vertebral canal are the same length, so that each spinal nerve emerged from the foramen lying at its own level - However, during the development the vertebral column grows much faster in length that the spinal cord, so that the lower end of the cord, in comparison with the surrounding vertebrae comes to lie higher and higher - In the newborn the lower end of the spinal cord lies at the level of the L3 - In adult it lies at the level L1-2 - The spinal nerves can no longer emerge at the same vertebral level of origin from the cord, but instead their roots run downward for a certain distance in the vertebral canal before reaching their point of exit - The more caudal the origin of a root from the spinal cord the longer is its course in the vertebral canal

Limbic system, functions.

- Phylogenetically older parts of the cerebral hemispheres, together with their adjacent regions and their connections to subcortical centers, have been collectively termed - limbic system - It is not a discrete, anatomically circumscribed system of pathways, but a combinations of functionally and closely associated nuclei and cortical areas - The system is also called - emotional or visceral brain • Parts: • Lobus limbicus + corpora mammillaria - Nc. anteriores et mediales thalami - corpus amygdaloideum - Habenular ganglion - Nc.ventrales tegmenti At the periphery • striae olfactoria • Bulbus olfactorius • Trigonum, Tractus olfactorius Functions It supports a variety of functions: - Regulates emotions and motivation (anger, fear, hunger/thirst) -> accompany emotional movements/behavoir - Organizes the complex model of behave -> instincts: eating, reproductive, self-defence - Is responsible for memory and learning, attention and consciousness - Regulates he biologic rhythm - time perception - Emotional life is largely housed in the limbic system, and it critically aids the formation of memories - The limbic system operates by influencing the endocrine system and the autonomic nervous system - Olfactory system

What is the main difference between myelinated and non myelinated axons?

- Speed of transduction • Myelinates axons - fast • Non-myelinated - slow

What is metamere? Definition

- The body of a vertebrate, with the exception of the head, was originally subdivided into a number of segments or metameres - In man remnants of this subdivision may be seen in the vertebrae, ribs, intercostal muscles - Metamerisms only concerns mesodermal tissues (myotomes and sclerotomes) and not ectodermal derivates - Thus, there are no spinal cord segments, but only levels at which individual spinal nerve roots enter and leave as individual spinal roots - However, as spinal nerve fibers joint to form spinal nerves as they exit through the intervertebral foramen, there is an apparent segmentation - The sensory fibers of the spinal nerves supply segmental areas of the skin, which are called dermatomes, but this, too, is a second segmentation - It is only a expression of radicular innervation

Where can we make a punctation of CerebroSpinal fluid (CSF)? Level

- The lumbar region is an ideal place to access the subarachnoidal space because the spinal cord terminates at the level of the L1 - 2 - A lumbar puncture could be made up in midline between the spinous processes of L3-4 (this level corresponds to the line connecting the highest points of crista iliaca) - The lumbar puncture is carried out to obtain a sample of cerebrospinal fluid for examination - In addition passage of the needle into the subarachnoidal space is used to inject antibiotics or anesthetics

Development of pseudounipolar neuron type

- The spinal ganglion cells are originally bipolar - During development, however, 2 processes joint to form a single trunk which forks like a T

Which nerve emegre from angulus pontocerebellaris?

- VII - n. Facialis + XIII n. intermedius - VIII - n. vestibulocochlearis

What tracts ascend together with lemniscus medialis?

1. Fibrae spinothalamicae • tr.spnothalamicus anterior[1] + • tr.spinothalamicuslateralis[2] 2. Lemniscus trigeminalis

How do we call the 1st floor of the mesencephalon?

3 floors: A. 1st Tectum mesencephali • (the roof; forms lamina tecti, continues to the aqueductus mesencephali) 2nd Tegmentum mesencephali • (the cap) 3rd Basis pedunculi cerebri • Under the substantia nigra

What is homunculus? Definition, functions

A cortical homunculus is a distorted representation of the human body, based on a neurological "map" of the areas and proportions of the human brain dedicated to processing motor functions, or sensory functions, for different parts of the body

Along which surface of the pedunculi cerebri travels n. oculomotorius?

Along sulcus n.oculomotorii (medial surface)

Where is incisura tentoria located? What part of the truncus encephali goes there?

Arched process in horizontal plane • It covers rhombencephalon and supports the occipital lobes of the brain • Posteriorly: attached to sulcus sinus transversi of the occipital bone and forms sinus transversus • Anteriorly: extends to margo superior partis petrosae and forms sinus petrosus superior • Inside - incisura tentorii, through it mesencephalon goes

What is located along upper and lower margin of Falx cerebri?

Arched process, in saggital plane , descends vertically in fissura longitudinalis cerebri Upper margin: convex, attached to sulcus sinus sagittalis superioris • crista galli <-> protuberantia occipitalis interna • contains sinus sagittalis superior Lower margin: free, concave, above corpus callosum • contains sinus sagittalis inferior

What forms the lower part of ventriculus quartus?

Base: fossa rhomboidea (medulla oblongata et pons)

Where localizes foramen interventriculare?

Between tuberculum anterius thalami

Capsula interna, name the tracts in correct order

Capsula interna - descending and ascending tracts in the hemispheres • Parts: • Crus anterius • Betweennucleuscaudatusand nucleus lentiformis • Fibrae frontopontinae ↓ • Genu • Between both crura Fibrae corticonucleares ↓ • Crus posterius • Between thalamus and nucleus lentiformis • Fibrae corticospinales ↓ • Fibrae parietopontinae ↓ • Fibrae thalamoparietales ↑ • Fibrae occipito-, temporopontinae ↓ • Radiatio acustica • Radiatio optica

Comissura cerebri anterior, location, function

Commissura cerebri anterior • Ventriculus tertius anterior wall, behind lamina terminalis • In the hemispheres divide into 2 bundles: • Anterior - connects peripheral parts of the olfactory brain (trigonum olfactorium) • Posterior - connects lobus temporalis inferior surfaces

Spinal Cord syndromes and symptoms

Complete transection: • Complete paralysis below the lesion • Above S -> loss of urination and defecation control • Above L -> both lower limbs become paralyzed: paraplegia • Above C -> both upper limbs become paralyzed: tetraplegia • Complete sensory loss • Hypoesthesia - reduced sense of touch or sensation, or a partial loss of sensitivity to sensory stimuli. In everyday speech this is generally referred to as numbness

What is nucleus? Definition, localization, functions

Composition of the grey matter with the same function - Sensory - Motor - Autonomous

Fornix. Definition, function. What types of fibers form fornix?

Connects corpora mamillaria (6) with hippocampus (12) et uncus (8) • Parts: • Columnae (5) - ventriculus tertius anterior wall • Corpus (2) - below corpus callosum • Crura (3) - goes inside ventriculus lateralis cornu inferiusa -> fimbria hippocampi (7) • Between crura fornicis - commissura fornicis (15)

Parts of corpus callosum, fibers

Corpus callosum Parts: • Rostrum - downwards -> lamina terminalis • Genu • Truncus • Splenium corporis callosi Division of the corpus callosum do not produce any change in personality or intelligence and patients are completely unnoticeable in everyday life Fibrae corporis callosi in hemispheres - radiatio corporis callosi • In front around fissura longitudinalis cerebri - forceps minor s. frontalis • In the back around fissura longitudinalis cerebri - forceps major s. occipitalis • Between fibres goes fibrae associationes et projectiones Normal • Touch sensation in the left hand is registered in the right hemisphere and opposite • Visual stimuli which hit both left halves of the retina are conducted to the right hemisphere Splitted • Right-handed people with transsected corpus callosum are only able to read with the left halves of the retina • They are unable to name objects which they can only perceive with the right halves of the retina • However, they can indicate the use of the of these objects by hand movements

Where terminates lemniscus lateralis?

Corpus geniculatum mediale

Cuneus. Location, function, damage

Cuneus (green) • Location: Between sulcus parietooccipitalis and sulcus calcarinus - Function: here projects fibers from both retina upper parts - Damage: disturbance in colour vision

Fibrae comissurales. Definition, function. Examples

Fibrae commissurales Connects symmetrical regions of both hemispheres Fibrae corporis callosi (1) Commissura cerebri anterior (2) Commissura hippocampi

Which tract crosses with decussatio pyramidum?

Fibrae corticospinales ( the part of common pyramidal tract) at the level of the medulla oblongata make the crossing - decussatio pyramidum, that descends to the motor nucleio of the spinal cord as the tr.corticospinalis lateralis[8] along the funiculus lateralis

Why filum terminale attaches to the Co 2 (coccyx) vertebrae?

For the accessory fixation of the spinal cord

Where go the venous blood After it reaches confluens sinuum?

From confluens sinuum venous blood goes via 2 ways: • Sinus transversus and sinus sigmoideus • Sinus occipitalis

What is hippocampus? Functions, damage

Functions - Receives optic, acoustic, tactile, visceral and olfactory impulses - An integrative organ, which influences the endocrine, visceral, emotional state through the hypothalamus, cingulate gyrus Damage • Bilateral removal of it in man leads to a loss of memory • While memory persist, new information is retained for only a few seconds, a state that may persist for years

Which gland localizes between the colliculi superiores?

Glandula pinealis s.epiphysis

Could you name diseases, that damage myelin sheath?

Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) - rare neurological disorder in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks part of its peripheral nervous system - GBS can range from a very mild case with brief weakness to nearly devastating paralysis, leaving the person unable to breathe independently. Fortunately, most people eventually recover from even the most severe cases of GBS. After recovery, some people will continue to have some degree of weakness - Most cases usually start a few days or weeks following a respiratory or gastrointestinal viral infection

Gyri occipitales. Location, function, damage

Gyri occipitales • Location: Between Sulci occipitales - Function: Visual memory center - Damage: cortical blindness - i see you, but i don't recognize you (relatives, things)

Gyrus angularis. Location, function, damage

Gyrus angularis (violet) Location: Sulcus temporalis superior posterior end Function: Reading center Damage: alexia, agraphia

Gyrus frontalis inferior. Location, function, damage

Gyrus frontalis inferior • Location: Below sulcus frontalis inferior • Function: Left hemisphere - motor speech center (Broca's area); singing center • Damage: • motor aphasia - inability to speak • Dysarthria

Gyrus frontalis medius. Location, function, damage

Gyrus frontalis medius • Location: Between sulcus frontalis superior et inferior (Facies superolateralis hemispherii // Lobus frontalis) • Function: • Writing center • Drawing center • Eye movement coordintaion center • Damage: gaze palsy («the eyes stare» at the damaged gyrus)

Gyrus occipitotemporalis medialis. Location, function, damage

Gyrus occipitotemporalis medialis (violet) • Between sulcus calcarinus and sulcus collateralis • Cortical visual center (partly also cuneus)

Gyrus postcentralis, location, function, damage

Gyrus postcentralis Location: Between sulcus centralis and sulcus postcentralis Function: Pain, temperature, tactile and proprioception center - somatosensory cortex Damage: • monotype sensory loss (opposite site of the body) • Dissociated sensory loss (hyperpathia, allodynia, neuropathic pain)

Gyrus precentralis. Location, function, damage

Gyrus precentralis • Location: Between sulcus centralis and sulcus precentralis (Facies superolateralis hemispherii / Lobus frontalis) Function: Voluntary movement center - motor cortex Damage: central monoparesis at the opposite body site

Gyrus supramarginalis, location, function, damage

Gyrus supramarginalis (green) Location: Sulcus lateralis posterior end Function: Praxis center Damage: apraxia - difficulty with motor planning to perform tasks or movements

Gyrus temporalis medius. Location, function, damage

Gyrus temporalis medius • Location: Between sulcus temporalis superior et inferior • Function: Balance center • Damage: cortical vertigo - dizziness of a cortical origin

Gyrus temporalis superior. Location, function, damage

Gyrus temporalis superior • Location: Between sulcus lateralis and sulcus temporalis superior • Function: Primary auditory center • Left hemisphere - posterior part sensory speech center (Wernicke's area) • Damage: sensory aphasia

Why nc.ruber is red in color?

High iron content

Lobulus parietalis superior. Location, function, damage

Lobulus parietalis superior • Location: Above sulcus intraparietalis - Function: Stereognosis center - Damage: astereognosis - inability to identify an object by touch without other sensory input • Primary - can discribe, can't tell • Secondary - can't even discribe

What structures belong to the lobus limbicus?

Lobus limbicus • Gyrus cinguli - the boss • Between sulcus corporis callosi and sulcus cinguli • -> isthmus gyri cinguli • -> gyrus parahippocampalis • Between sulcus hippocampi and sulcus collateralis • -> uncus - cortical olfactory and taste center • Gyrus dentatus • In the depths of sulcus hippocampi

Where localizes the trigonum habenulare? Function.

Localization: under the thalamus • Fixation of the epiphysis

Which nuclei are shared for IX, X, XI nerves?

M. Nucleus ambiguus (common with IX, X and XI nerves) [26]

Which nc. locaises in locus coeruleus?

M. Nucleus motorius n. Trigemini [16]

Which nc. localises in colliculus facialis?

M. Nucleus n. Abducentis [20]

Could you name diseases, that damage myelin sheath?

Multiple sclerosis • Autoimmune • any neurological symptom or sign determined by the locations of the lesions within the Central nervous system: • loss of sensitivity or changes in sensation: tingling, pins and needles or numbness • muscle weakness or spasms • very pronounced reflexes • difficulties with coordination and balance (ataxia) • problems with speech or swallowing • visual problems (nystagmus, optic neuritis or double vision) • feeling tired• acute or chronic pain • bladder and bowel difficulties (such as neurogenic bladder)

What is pachymeninx? What covering belong to it?

Pachymeninx (as distinguished from leptomeninx, the combined pia mater and arachnoid); a tough, fibrous membrane forming the outer covering of the central nervous system, consisting of periosteal and meningeal dura layer and an inner part, the dural border cell layer, continuous with the arachnoid barrier cell layer. - dural mater

Substantia alba pontis Corpus trapezoideum (8)

Part of the auditory pathway

What is lemniscus medialis? Formation, function

Part of the concious proprioceptive pathway • Formation: the inner fibers of the nc.gracilis et cuneatus form crossing (decussatio lemnisci medialis) and forms the lemniscus medialis [5] ot the medial ribbon/ loop

What is cauda equina?

Roots of the Lumbar, sacral and coccygeal segments

Which nuclei are shared for IX, X, XIII?

S. Nucleus tractus solitarii (common with IX, X and XIII nerves) [23]

What is confluens sinuum? What sinuses form it?

Sinus rectus • lies between falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli, posterior part opens into confluens sinuum The confluens sinuum is the dilate junction of tributary sinuses: • sinus sagittalis superior • sinus rectus • Sinus transversus • Sinus occipitalis

Sinus durae matris

Sinus transversus • lies along tentorium cerebelli posterior margin in sulcus sinus transversi, continues into sinus sigmoideus Sinus sigmoideus • lies along sulcus sinus sigmoidei • it runs forward to the superior jugular bulb to continue into v. jugularis interna

Which processes of dura mater lie on saggital plane?

Small triangular process in saggital plane • Anteriorly: between hemispherii cerebelli attached to the lower surface of tentorium cerebelli • Posteriorly: protuberantia occipitalis interna -> crista occipitalis interna -> foramen magnum • The posterior margin of it contains sinus occipitalis - the smallest

Which lobes separates the sulcus centralis?

Sulcus centralis (red) - on facies superolateralis • Separates lobus frontalis from lobus parietalis

Which lobes separates sulcus lateralis?

Sulcus lateralis (green) - on facies superolateralis • Separates lobus frontalis et parietalis from lobus temporalis • In the depths-insula

How do we call lateral groove of the pedunculi cerebri?

Sulcus lateralis mesencephali

Which lobes separates sulcus parietooccipitalis?

Sulcus parietooccipitalis (blue) - on facies medialis • Separates lobus occipitalis from lobus parietalis

What is a sinus? Definition, functions

The dural venous sinuses (also called dural sinuses, cerebral sinuses, or cranial sinuses) are venous channels found between the endosteal and meningeal layers of dura mater in the brain. They receive blood from the cerebral veins, receive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the subarachnoid space via arachnoid granulations, and mainly empty into the internal jugular vein.

What forms upper part of the roof of the ventriculus quartus?

The roof - tegmen ventriculi quarti, with the highest point (top) - fastigium ventriculi quarti

What is fastigium ventricui quarti?

The top of the tent-shaped roof of the 4th ventricle

What is Leptomeninx? What coverings belong to it?

The two delicate layers of the meninges, the arachnoid mater and pia mater (vs. the tough pachymeninx or dura mater), considered together; by this concept, the arachnoid and pia are two parts of a single layer, much like the parietal and visceral layers of a membrane or bursa; although separated by the subarachnoid space they are connected via the arachnoid trabeculae and become continuous where the nerves and filum terminale exit the subarachnoid space (the cerebrospinal fluid-filled space bounded by the leptomeninges). Which layers: - arachnoidea mater - pia mater

Which tracts goes along pedunculis cerebellares medii? Direction - inside cerebellum

Tractus pontocerebellaris • Part of the movement coordination pathway • Starts from nuclei pontis

MESENCEPHALON, SUBSTANTIA ALBA Name the tracts that goes through basis pedunculi cerebri in correct order

Tractus pyramidalis • Fibrae corticopontinae • fibrae fronto-pontinae [FP] • fibrae parieto-pontinae [PTO] • fibrae temporo-pontinae [PTO] • fibrae occipito-pontinae [PTO] • fibrae cortico-nucleares [CN] • fibrae cortico-spinales [CS]

Which tracts goes along pedunculi cerebellares superiores? Direction

Tractus spinocerebellaris anterior (inside) • Unconscious proprioception pathway • Tractus cerebellorubralis (outside) - Part of the common conscious and unconscious movement and balance coordination pathway - Nucleus dentatusa -> pedunculi -> nucleus ruber mesencephali

What is function of infundibulum?

Transports hormones from tuber cinereum (vasopresin, oxytocin) along the axons of the neurosecretory cells

Where starts n.spinalis?

Truncus n. spinalis leaves through foramen intervertebrale

Uncus. Location, function, damage

Uncus • Gyrus cinguli • Between sulcus corporis callosi and sulcus cinguli • -> isthmus gyri cinguli • -> gyrus parahippocampalis • Between sulcus hippocampi and sulcus collateralis • -> uncus - cortical olfactory and taste center • Gyrus dentatus • In the depths of sulcus hippocampi

Do neurons regenerate?

Yes

What is a segment? Definition

a division of the spinal cord containing a bilateral pair of the nerve roots

Which structure is bordered by lateral surface of the thalamus?

borders with capsula interna

Which process of dura mater consist of sinus occipitalis?

posterior margin

Name the smallest sinus

sinus occipitalis

Which structure is bordered by medial surface of the thalamus?

ventriculus III - lateral wall

Name the borders of trigonum lemnisci. what localizes in depth of it? Function.

• Borders: • Sulcus lateralis mesencephali • Brachium colliculi superioris • Pedunculi cerebellares superiores • In depth: lemniscus lateralis: part of the auditory pathway

Substantia alba - Fasciculus gracilis et cuneatus

• Conscious proprioception, partly tactile sensation (ascending)

What is the neurosecretory cell? Function

• Def: Neurons that produces hormones, transports them along the axons and release into the blood stream • Groups of neurosecretory cells • Nucleus supraopticus • Nucleus paraventricularis • Regulates adenohypophyseal work • Produces neurohypophyseal hormones

What structures border pyramis?

• Fissura mediana anterior • Sulcus anterolateralis dex. et sin.

What is lemniscus trigeminalis? Formation, function

• Formation: fibers of Nucleus sensorius n. Trigemini, Nucleus spinalis n. Trigemini, Nucleus mesencephalicus n. Trigemini croses to form lemniscus trigeminalis • Function: Conscious pain, temperature, tactile and proprioception pathway from the 5th cranial nerve

What is lemniscus lateralis? Formation, function

• Formation: fibers of the nc. corporis trapezoidei [7,9] crosses and form lemniscus lateralis [10] • Function: part of the auditory pathway

Which nerve exits above fossa rhomboidea? Name, number, function

• IV - n. trochlearis • Motor function • The only nerve that exits on the dorsal surface of the brain

Which cranial nerve(-s) emerge from sulcus posterolateralis? Number, name, Functions.

• IX - n. Glossopharyngeus • Functio: mixed • X - n. Vagus • Functio: mixed • XI - n. accessorius • Function: motor[M]

Nucleus caudatus. Parts, location, function. damage

• In sagital plane, laterally from thalamus • Caput nuclei caudati • Frontal lobe • Ventriculus lateralis cornu anterius lateral wall • Corpus nuclei caudati • Parietal lobe • Ventriculus lateralis pars centralis inferior wall • Cauda nuclei caudati • Reaches temporal lobe - Ventriculus laterlis cornu inferius superior wall - Terminates at corpus amygdaloideum

Where corpus trapezoideum is located? Functions

• Location: between pars basilaris pontis and tegmentum pontis • Function: part of the auditory pathway

Which group(-s) of nuclei of the thalamus belong to the limbic system?

• Medial • Anterior

Nucleus lentiformis. Parts, function, damage

• Mediallya -> laterally • Thalamus et nucleus caudatus • Capsula interna • Nucleus lentiformis • Capsula externa • 3 parts: • Lateral - putamen • 2 medial - globus pallidus • Nucleus caudatus + putamen - striatum - central part of the extrapyramidal system

Do all roots of the spinal cord are the same length?

• NO • Lumbar, sacral and coccygeal nerves have long roots -> horse tail (cauda equina)

Where localizes the nuclei of extrapyramidal system of the diencephalon?

• Nc. Subthalamicus s. Luys • Nc. ruber [4] • Substantia nigra[1]

Function of nc.dentatus et nc.fastigii?

• Nc. dentatus - coordination of the movements of the limbs • Nc. fastigii - provides balance of the body

Function of nc.emboliformus et nc.globosus?

• Nc. emboliformis et Nc. globosus: coordination of the movements of the trunk

Which lobe of the hypophysis is active and why? Which not?

• Neurohypophysis - lobus posterior s.glandula pituitaria • Non-Active lobe, here hormones from tuber cinereum are transported (vasopresin, oxytocin) • Adenohypophysis - lobus anterior 70-80% • Active lobe, produces hormones that affects other glands of inner secretion, regulates growing proceses and metabolism

Do all spinal nerves goes through the foramen intervertebrale?

• No • C1 spinal nerve exits above C1 vertebra

Do all parts of the hypophysis are visible with the naked eye?

• No • Pars intermedia can be visible only under the microscope

Name the structure that localizes in fossa interpeduncularis, function

• Substantia perforate posterior • Here goes small blood vessels

What structures border oliva?

• Sulcus anterolateralis dex. et sin. • Sulcus posterolateralis dex. et sin

What borders tuberculum cuneatum?

• Sulcus intermedius posterior dex. et sin. • Sulcus posterolateralis

What borders tuberculum gracile?

• Sulcus medianus posterior • Sulcus intermedius posterior dex. et sin.

Which tracts goes along pedunculi cerebellares inferiores? Direction - inside cerebellum

• Tractus spinocerebellaris posterior • Unconscious proprioception pathway • Tractus olivocerebellaris • Sense of balance from nucleus olivarius • Tractus vestibulocerebellaris • Unconscious balance pathway from the VIII cranial nerve nucleus vestibularis

Name the nuclei of cranial nerves of the bulbus

• VIII (partly): S. Nuclei vestibulares[25] • IX - M. Nucleus ambiguus [26] (common with X and XI nerves) - S. Nucleus tractus solitarii [23] (common with XIII and X nerves) - P. Nucleus salivatorius inferiorii [27] - X - P. Nucleus dorsalis n. Vagi [28] - XI - M. Nucleus spinalis n. accessorii [29] - XII - M. Nucleus n. hypoglossi [30] - V - S. nc. spinalis n. trigemini [19]

What is the difference between sinus durae matris vs. veins?

• Venous channels, which drain blood from the brain and cranial bones • They lie between the two layers of dura mater encephali • The lumen is triangular or round in shape, the walls are dense and do not close • Do not have valves, thus the blood goes towards the less resistance force

Which cranial nerve(-s) emerge from sulcus anterolateralis? Number, name, functions

• XII - n. Hypoglossus • Function: motor[M] nerve

What borders the 1st and 2nd floors of the mesencephalon?

• aqueductus mesencephali s. cerebri s. Sylvii

What is tractus? Definition, localization, functions

• nerve fibers of the white matter that are arranged into bundles • Concerning their function and direction, there are two groups of tracts: • tractus ascendentes s. Afferentes • Concious / unconscious • tractus descendentes s. efferentes • pyramidal/ extrapyramidal

What is the difference between tr.corticospinalis and tr. corticonuclearis?

• tr. corticospinalis: realize movements through the motor nuclei of the spinal cord and spinal nerves • Tr. corticonuclearis: realize movements through the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves (the IX, X, XI and XII nerve motor nuclei)