cog exam 1

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Cognitive Revolution still measures mental events through behaviors started studying the mind through what approach

"information-processing-approach"

Examples of situations in which perception can't be explained only in terms of the information on the recep- tors include 3-5

(3) the effect of physiological feedback signals; (4) size constancy; and (5) perceiving odors following different intensities of sniffing.

WERTHEIMER & KOHLER

(generalizability problem. Better in lab than real world. Isomorphisim occurs too. PROXIMITY - close together time and space group them as being alike SIMILARITY (lightness, orientation, size) CLOSURE GOOD CONTINUATION FIGURE/GROUND ORIENTATION PROBLEMS : GENERALIZABILITY & ISOMORPHISM!

ilized the subtractive model -- posner

(google... Posner website—Subtractive method exp. Your in mri monitor blood look at nothing then pic doc. Subtract 1 print from another. Here brain the 2nd part shows how brain look @ dog. Research ranges from perception, attention and neuroscien

The work of Donders

(simple vs. choice reaction time) and Ebbinghaus (the forgetting curve for nonsense syl-lables) are examples of early experimental research on the mind.

Chomsky

- Three models for the description of language = we can produce sentences never heard shows we must have internalized rules and grammar not just refinorcment bc never heard it. Skinner thought just linera learning not. Chomsky showed how not linear and not constrained. **

Helmholts - 1860

- assumptions/infer some of our perceptions are result of assumptions we make about enviorment we infer a lot and as a result the way we think we think and the way we really think are quite different

• Choice reaction time

- decide type of response based upon stimulus - Did forced choices like hit button 1 if see blue or button 2 if see red

Binding problem

- how do you figure out what is bound to what. Like nothing in world says you hand is still you hand even if in front of blackboard. Lowe non-accidental properities - took maxwell can then threw razors in the can. So razors look different and all different ways when looking from the top. Whole bunch object diffferent lines and orientations he could get the computer to bind individual lies to indivudal razors- monumental task with power coms had in the 80's. To understand some lines belong to a particular razor and not another even when all same lines is monumental task.

OW DO OBJECTS DIFFER?

- proximity and simillarity occurs together which guides percpetion - no hard and fast rule. Can't really use in structured factor. Like first similarity then proximity = not true so it's not predicitive.

• Simple reaction time

- respond to stimuli - Just 1 if see light

Examples of situations in which perception can't be explained only in terms of the information on the recep- tors include 1 & 2

1) recognizing different arrangements of geons; (2) recognizing a "blob" shape in different con- texts;

Artificial Intelligence

1965 marv vekensky (Father of AI) - computer see the world. Eyes and camera like the same. Both can output. Difference - understanding and differinating background stuff and shapes and meanings like chairs all diff shapes, sizes, functions. Computer can't do it. or is it Newell and Simon created logic theorist this program could create proofs of math theorms. It solved problems John Mc Carthy - math professory talked about it at conference first time used term AI

Visual search experiments - Neisser (1964) -

1st book written cognitive psychology search for a target amongst distracters search time increases with increased similarity Harder to find object if all objects look siillar to it.

ebbinhuas forgetting occurs most within--

2 days (ebinghause)

Gais 2006

students learn 24 english germ vocab words sleep group studies words and sleeps 3 hours awake studies words stay up 10 hours both tested 24-36 hours after students in the sleep group forgot less material does something special happen while asleep or just preventin interferring stimuli mess with you? also later did it again and found that hypothatlum activated more in sleeping group and not as much in group who didn't get to sleep. so immediate sleep helps stregten the memory trace in hypothalum

Wundt (1897)

Approach: Structuralism -experience is determined by combining elements of experience called sensations - almost like recipe combine for cake FIRST psychology Lab in lwepizig germany MethodAnalytic introspection: participants trained to describe experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli - could gain some insight (hemholtz did introspection) considered to subjective Reaction times

Newell and Simon

Artificial IQ problem solving with coms and proving math theorms created logic theorist this program could create proofs of math theorms. It solved problems

Garcia - bright noisy water

Behaviorist thought anything could be paired with anything. Not true. External events seem to pair better with external events and internal events better with internal. When they paired a loud noise and radiation rats acted if water made them sick. When they paired shocking with light bulb they'd continue to drink wanter.

Cherry

Cherry Cocktail party effect (goes with information processing approach) did study listen to story in one ear and another story in another ear. Trying to ignore second story. If you hear your name it'll break though. came from information processing idea

Chomsky (1959) - language

Children say things never heard children show conceptual understanding for things even when not rewarded (he goed to the store) father of modern linguistics kids don't learn language through imitation/refinorcemtn thin lnauage inborn biological program) think we have a lnaguage aquisition device but can't show it anywhere

Pattern Perception - Template Matching

Compare stimuli to exact template stored in memory Not likely

memory consolidation from phisological persepctive

Flexer found inject mice with chemical ihbit synethics proteins inhibit consolidation

Skinner (50's)

Operant conditioning behavior dictated by experience/outcome. I wear sweater bc you say you like it wanted to know relationship between stimuli and response shape bhevior by rewards/punishment. Rewarded behavior repeated. Punished behavior less ilkely to occur Language thought children learned through operant conditioning. Imitating what they hear and being rewarded/punished

Posner Student of Fitt's (who was former military)

Time to point can be estimated by distance and size of object ( distance and size of object accounts for speed. Accounting for data very well). (good model - accounts for the data, simple (fit's accounts for like 90% of data - by adding more varriables and accounting for more data better? If your around 95% with less variables were happy) Video games good bad - react for visual targets improves performance. Very influential model, even for CS, AI (fitt's . say want to get in game design consider game not so hard can't click on obj to attack but not to challenging.

Principes of Psychology 1890

William James Principes of Psychology 1890 f - taught Harvards first psychology course didn't use experiments just introspections but covered quite a bredath of stuff

Feature approach to object perception -Letter-analysis stage

a letter unit is activated when all the features present in it are available Multiple letter units may be activated, but the strongest will respond the most - like A and V could be activated but - get A the most. Features provide greater flexibility then strict template matching, but would still far very short of humans abilities Better than template matching in terms of space storage

Robert Teghtsoonian

and coworkers (1978) asked participants in a labo- ratory situation to rate the odor intensity of different odorants (chemical solutions with odors) and found that their participants gave almost identical ratings for weak sniffs and for strong sniffs so even though you get more odor molecules you still smell it the same

Tolman - rats and maps

behaviorist but used cognitive stuff two trained rats in maze. behaviorist thought rats just learned to turn right for food put them in different area they found the food. Thought rats have concpeutal map

Stroop Effect J.R. STROOP 35

designed to study serial verbal reactions. Reaction time measured on two occasionas and compared concluded that difference in reaction time due to peoples inability to ignore words shows incongruent info is harder to process (and take longer) than congruent with practice reaction times quicker but still occurs word names interefere with naming ink color

Pavlov (1890_

dog salivate Classical Conditioning take netural event (unconditioned stimuli) and pair with conditioned stimuli (produces unconditioned response). Eventually the unconditioned stimuli will elicit a conditioned response. Take bell (US) pair to food (CS). Ring bell after paired elecit (CR) salivation. Salvation to food = UR

Donald Broad bent

first to develop flow charts for mental processsess shows information processing in sequence flow diagram: Filter model of attention. many messages enter the filter that selects the message to attend to for further processing by the dector then to storage/memory

Muller and Pilzecker

immidate group = learn one list and then immedatiely a second list. Delay group. Learn one list wait 6 min lern 2nd list. delay remember 48% immediate 28. Showing hte second list immidately interupted forming of stable memory/memory consolidation

MEmory Consolidatin from behavioral persepctive

memory for recent stuff is frageile (like get hit and forget what doing prior) didn't have time to consolidate memory muller and pilzecker - show list back to back not as likely to recall. show list wait and another list remember more gias -- sleeping right after learning better memory why? Not sure mambye consolidating then mabye not having interference stimuli

Breland

operant conditionin of racoon showed need for biological predispostion simillar to misbheavior of animals

Neissser (67)

publishes Cognitive Psychology textbook. Coins the term cog psychology empahsizes info processing approach

Watson

thought introspection/mind difficult bc varied from person to person and difficulty to verify invisible inner mental process eliminated mind as topic of study. Waste of time. just look at observable behaviors Little Albert classical conditioning founder of behaviorism Paper "Psychology as the bheaviorist views it" intrspection is worthless observable behavior (not consciouness) is the way to go

Misbehavior of Organisims (61)

thought they were just being bad tried to condition pig to put coin in slot. Didnt work. Built in instricts (rooting) prevailed

Posner - conceputal recognition

took combos of letters AA Aa BB Bb Ab AB bA ba. found that it took like 60 milseconds for your brain to like AA to Aa. Basically when first presented with AA or BB you respond they are the same quickly. When you see Aa you don't respond as quickly initally bc they look different but after hardly anytime you've got it and Aa is the same as AA or aa in your mind

Biederman (1987)

view invariant- can be recognized almost regardless of the angle it is viewed from Discriminability- geons can be differentiated from one another Perceptual organization- organizing the elements of the environment into objects---BINDING PROBLEM.. how do you figure out what binds to what. --shadow tell you info how to tell a computer shadow isn't you but yours helps tell you where you are relevant to object. Complex task Attention* ( shows again bottom up model ) is not required in the model

Occlusion heuristic

when a large object is partially covered by a smaller one, we see the larger one as continuing behind the occluder Light-from-above heuristic- assume lighting sources are from above - like einsteins face.

Miller

writes paper 7 + - 2 and presents it

Savings or savings method ebbinhaus

= [(initial repetitions) - (relearning repetitions)] / (initial repetitions) * 100

Mental Chronometry

= measure the time course of mental events through subtractive methods. Like whats the difference between hard task and easy task in reaction time. This reflects mental events. Too much variability and can't account for process exactly o One of the most widely used experimental methods

Prototype matching - Pattern Perception

== we think it's really more prototype matching and exemplar models! Compare stimuli to abstract general representation stored in memory. Penguin bad prototype

Recognitionbycomponents (RBC) theory

A featurebased approach to object perception that proposes that the recognition of objects is based on threedimensional features called geons. See also Geon.

Gestalt psychologists

A group of psychologists who proposed the laws of perceptual organization.

Experiencedependent plasticity

A mechanism that causes neurons to develop so they respond best to the type of stimulation that they experience.

Object discrimination problem

A problem in which the task is to remember an object based on its shape and choose it when presented with another object after a delay. Associated with research on the what processing stream.

Brain ablation

A procedure in which a specific area is removed from an animals brain. It is usually done to determine the function of this area by assessing the effect on the animals behavior.

Classical conditioning

A procedure in which pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response causes the neutral stimulus to elicit that response.

Algorithm

A procedure that is guaranteed to solve a problem.

Analytic introspection

A procedure used by early psychologists in which trained participants described their experiences and thought processes elicited by stimuli presented under controlled conditions.

Heuristic

A rule of thumb that provides a bestguess solution to a problem.

Cognitive revolution

A shift in psychology, beginning in the 1950s, from the behaviorist approach to an approach in which the main thrust was to explain behavior in terms of the mind. One of the outcomes of the cognitive revolution was the introduction of the informationprocessing approach to studying the mind.

Informationprocessing approach The approach to psychology, developed beginning in the 1950s, in which the mind is described as processing information through a sequence of stages.

Dissociation

A situation in cases of brain damage, in which the damage causes a problem in one function while not affecting other functions. See also Double dissociation; Single dissociation.

Double dissociation

A situation in which a single dissociation can be demonstrated in one person, and the opposite type of single dissociation can be demonstrated in another person (i.e., Person 1: function A is present; function B is damaged; Person 2: function A is damaged; function B is present).

Single dissociation

A situation that occurs in cases of brain damage, in which the damage causes a problem in one function while not affecting other functions. A single dissociation occurs when one function is present and another is absent. See also Double dissociation.

Bruner

A study of thinking - broke behaviorist taboo. Concept attainment. ==cool killed behaviorist bc sutdyied how people came up with categories which is different than behaviorist which thinks just ocnditioning. Here they have a strategy and you could watch them. =theory of mind=. *

brain dmg alice

Alice, who has suf- fered damage to her temporal lobe. She is shown an object, then asked to name the object and indicate where it is on the table by pointing to it. When given this task, Alice can't name the object, but she can reach to where it is located on the table ( ● Figure 3.36a). Alice demonstrates a single dissociation—one function is absent (naming objects) and another is present (locating objects). From a single dissociation such as this, in which one function is lost while another function remains, we can conclude that the two functions (in this example, naming and locating objects) involve dif erent mechanisms, although they may not operate totally independently of one another. We can illustrate a double dissociation by f nding another person who has one function pres- ent and another absent, but in a way opposite to Alice. For example, Bert, who has parietal lobe damage, can identify objects but can't tell exactly where they are located (Figure 3.36b). The key to understanding the cases of Alice and Bert is that they are both given the same two tasks, but Alice can do one task (reaching) and not the other (naming) while the opposite result occurs for Bert. The cases of Alice and Bert, taken together, represent a double dissociation. Establishing a double dissociation enables us to conclude that two functions are served by dif erent mechanisms and that these mechanisms operate independently of one another.

Structuralism

An approach to psychology that explained perception as the adding up of small elementary units called sensations.

An example of top-down processing is that knowledge of a language makes it possible to perceive individual words in a conversation even though the sound signal for speech is often continuous.

Source of perceptual intelligence

Built in specialized circuits Face perception Specialization through evolution Natural selection neurons that provide most import information are likely to endure and be passed on Yes there is still a level of plasticity interaction with enviorment

Semantic regularities

Characteristics associated with the functions carried out in different types of scenes. For example, food preparation, cooking, and perhaps eating occur in a kitchen.

Regularities in the environment

Characteristics of the environment that occur frequently. For example, blue is associated with open sky, landscapes are often green and smooth, and verticals and horizontals are often associated with buildings.

Logic theorist

Computer program devised by Alan Newell and Herbert Simon that was able to solve logic problems.

Perception

Conscious experience that results from stimulation of the senses.

Specialization through experience

Experience-dependent plasticity neurons develop based upon their exposure to stimuli

pattern dection feature analysis models

Feature analysis models- detects fea tures evaluates strong or weak evidence for the presence of a feature

flow diagram - apart of cog revolution

Flow diagrams for digital coms psycholgost interested in how computers use inforamation in linear process. have input process, then memory unit, then arthmetic unit, then output of the mind Cherry's experiment (pay attention to the attended message) ignore the unattended message then broadben made flow diagram / filter model

Ebbinghaus (85) - memory

Found savings/forgetting curve function of rentention interval found we forget most within 2 days He'd learn a list of trigrams and see how long it took him to learn until perfection, and then when put away how long took to relearn One of the first modern researchers to study memory by assessigng a behavior (inital reps, response right) Savings or savings method = [(initial repetitions) - (relearning repetitions)] / (initial repetitions) * 100 used trigrams (3 words/ letters) THAT ARE MEANINGLESS (so prior knowledge doesn't interfere) used a memory drum to lern

Gauthier and coworkers (

Gauthier and coworkers (1999) determined whether this response to faces might be due to experience-dependent plasticity by measuring the level of activity in the FFA in response to faces and to objects called Greebles ( ● Figure 3.30). Greebles are families of computer-generated "beings" that all have the same basic conf guration but differ in the shapes of their parts (just like faces). The bars and the brain scans in ● Figure 3.31a show that for "Greeble novices" (people who have had little experience in perceiving Greebles), the faces cause more activity than the Greebles in the FFA. This is also evident in the brain cross section, in which the white areas indicate higher activity. Gauthier then gave her participants extensive training over a 4-day period in "Greeble recognition." These training sessions, which required that each conf gura- tion of Greeble be labeled with a specif c name, turned the participants into "Greeble experts." The bars and brain pictures in Figure 3.31b show that after the training, the FFA responded almost as well to Greebles as to faces. Apparently, the FFA contains neurons that respond not just to faces, but to other complex objects as well. The par- ticular objects to which the neurons respond best are established by experience with the objects. In fact, Gauthier has also shown that neurons in the FFA of people who are experts in recognizing cars and birds respond well not only to human faces, but to cars (for the car experts) and to birds (for the bird experts) (Gauthier et al., 2000). These demonstrations of experience-dependent plasticity in kittens and humans show that the brain's functioning can be "tuned" to operate best within a specif c envi- ronment. Thus, continued exposure to things that occur regularly in the environment can cause neurons to become adapted to respond best to these regularities. Looked at in this way, it is not unreasonable to say that neurons can ref ect knowledge about properties of the environment.

ebbinghuas used

He'd learn a list of trigrams and see how long it took him to learn until perfection, and then when put away how long took to relearn used trigrams (3 words/ letters) THAT ARE MEANINGLESS (so prior knowledge doesn't interfere) used a memory drum to lern

Unconscious inference, theory of

Helmholtzs idea that some of our perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions that we make about the environment.

Which of the following statements is most consistent with recognition-by-components theory?

Humans can identify an object if sufficient information is available to enable us to identify an object's basic features.

Leslie Ungerleider and Mortimer Mishkin (1982)

In a classic experiment, Leslie Ungerleider and Mortimer Mishkin (1982) studied how removing part of a monkey's brain affected its ability to identify an object and to determine the object's location. This experiment used a tech- nique called brain ablation—removing part of the brain. METHOD Brain Ablation The goal of a brain ablation experiment is to determine the function of a particular area of the brain. This is accomplished by f rst determining an animal's capacity by testing it behaviorally. Most ablation experiments studying perception have used monkeys because of the similarity of its visual system to that of humans and because monkeys can be trained to determine percep- tual capacities such as acuity, color vision, depth perception, and object perception. Once the animal's perception has been measured, a particular area of the brain is ablated (removed or destroyed), either by surgery or by injecting a chemical in the area to be removed. Ideally, one particular area is removed and the rest of the brain remains intact. After ablation, the monkey is tested to determine which perceptual capacities remain and which have been af ected by the ablation.Ungerleider and Mishkin presented monkeys with two tasks: (1) an object dis- crimination problem and (2) a landmark discrimination problem. In the object dis- crimination problem, a monkey was shown one object, such as a rectangular solid, and was then presented with a two-choice task like the one shown in ● Figure 3.34a, which included the "target" object (the rectangular solid) and another stimulus, such as the triangular solid. If the monkey pushed aside the target object, it received the food reward that was hidden in a well under the object. The landmark discrimination problem is shown in ● Figure 3.34b. Here, the monkey's task is to remove the food well cover that is closer to the tall cylinder. In the ablation part of the experiment, part of the temporal lobe was removed in some monkeys. Behavioral testing showed that the object discrimination problem was very diff cult for monkeys with their temporal lobes removed. This result indicates that the pathway that reaches the temporal lobes is responsible for determining an object's identity. Ungerleider and Mishkin therefore called the path- way leading from the striate cortex to the temporal lobe the what pathway ( ● Figure 3.35). Other monkeys, which had their parietal lobes removed, had diff culty solving the landmark discrimination problem. This result indicates that the pathway that leads to the parietal lobe is respon- sible for determining an object's location. Ungerleider and Mishkin therefore called the pathway leading from the striate cortex to the parietal lobe the where pathway. Applying this idea of what and where pathways to our exam- ple of a person picking up a cup of coffee, the what pathway would be involved in the initial perception of the cup and the where pathway in determining its location—important infor- mation if we are going to carry out the action of reaching for the cup. In the next section we consider another physiological approach to studying perception and action, describing how the study of the behavior of a person with brain damage provides further insights into what is happening in the brain as a person reaches for an object.

Model

In cognitive psychology, a representation of the workings of the mind; often presented as interconnected boxes that each represent the operation of specific mental functions.

, Giacomo Rizzolatti and coworkers (2006; also see di Pellegrino et al., 1992; Gallese et al., 1996)

In the early 1990s, Giacomo Rizzolatti and coworkers (2006; also see di Pellegrino et al., 1992; Gallese et al., 1996) were inves- tigating how neurons in the monkey's premotor cortex f red as the monkey performed actions such as picking up a toy or a piece of food. Their goal was to determine how neurons f red as the monkey carried out specif c actions, but they observed something they didn't expect. They found neurons in the monkey's premotor cortex that f red not only when the monkey picked up a piece of food, but also when the monkey observed the experimenter picking up a piece of food. This initial observation, followed by many additional experiments, led to the discov- ery of mirror neurons—neurons that respond both when a monkey observes someone else (usually the experimenter) grasping an object, such as food on a tray ( ● Figure 3.40a), and when the monkey itself grasps the food (Figure 3.40b) (Rizzolatti et al., 1996). These neurons are called mirror neurons because the neuron's response to watching the experimenter grasp an object is similar to the response that would occur if the monkey were performing the action. Just looking at the food causes no response, and watch- ing the experimenter grasp the food with a pair of pliers instead of his hands, as in Figure 3.40c, causes only a small response (Gallese et al., 1996; Rizzolatti et al., 2000). Most mirror neurons are specialized to respond to only one type of action, such as grasping or placing an object somewhere. Although you might think that perhaps the monkey was responding to the anticipation of receiving food, the type of object made little difference. The neurons responded just as well when the monkey observed the experimenter pick up an object that was not food.

Word superiority effect

Individuals can recognize letters presented in a word more quickly and accurately than when presented in a random letter strings and as good as letters by themselves Faciliation with the letters.. letters facillate you in recognizing the letters and word itself. --process all letters as quick as indvidual letter—in terms of global principles shows us -2 sources of info we process ( top down and bottom up) so with the letters its top down - concepts preexisting knowledge of word helps you idneitfy letters faster. Strong evidence for top down processing. Object superiority effect- same thing with lines and objects

name 3 things contribute to decline of behaviorism

Industrial age - measure thought process. Getting weird results by only studying behavior (thing factory line behavior changed when observed). So Attention became the catch all to explain weird stuff Language debates Skinner (language imiated and rewarded) Chomsky (language aquistion)

Which of the following is a criticism of analytic introspection

It produces variable results from person to person.

Good continuation, law of

Law of perceptual organization stating that points that, when connected, result in straight or smoothly curving lines are seen as belonging together. In addition, lines tend to be seen as following the smoothest path.

Good figure, law of

Law of perceptual organization that states that every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible. Also called the law of good figure and the law of simplicity.

Pragnanz, law of

Simplicity, law of

Similarity, law of

Law of perceptual organization that states that similar things appear to be grouped together.

Familiarity, law of

Law of perceptual organization that states that things are more likely to form groups if the groups appear familiar or meaningful.

Noam Chomsky =

Linguist - revolutionalized lingustic 3x

The phenomenon of XXXX was used to illustrate how answering one question can lead to many additional questions, and how cognitive psychologists study the mind by using both behavioral and physiologi- cal approaches. Using these two approaches together results in a more complete understanding of how the mind operates than using either one alone.

MEMORY CONSOLIDATION

Cognitive map

Mental conception of a spatial layout.

Cognition:

Mental process involved with perception, attention, memory, problem solving, reasoning and decision making

Savings method

Method used to measure retention in Ebbinghauss memory experiments. He read lists of nonsense syllables and determined how many repetitions it took to repeat the lists with no errors. He then repeated this procedure after various intervals following initial learning and compared the number of repetitions needed to achieve no errors.

xxxxxxxxx are neurons that respond both toxxxxxxxxxxut an action and toxxxxxxxx carry out the same action. xxxxxxxxx may help people understand other people's actions; other functions have also been proposed.

Mirror neurons are neurons that respond both to carry- ing out an action and to observing someone else carry out the same action. Mirror neurons may help people understand other people's actions; other functions have also been proposed.

memory consolidation

Models of the mind often mke complicated system easier to understand helps provide starting point by giving questions to ask

Evidence for feature detectors

Neural feature detectors have been found

Where pathway

Neural pathway, extending from the occipital lobe to the parietal lobe, that is associated with neural processing that occurs when people locate objects in space. Roughly corresponds to the action pathway.

Action pathway

Neural pathway, extending from the occipital lobe to the parietal lobe, that is associated with neural processing that occurs when people take action. Corresponds to the where pathway.

What pathway

Neural pathway, extending from the occipital lobe to the temporal lobe, that is associated with perceiving or recognizing objects. Corresponds to the perception pathway.

Perception pathway

Neural pathway, extending from the occipital lobe to the temporal lobe, that is associated with perceiving or recognizing objects. Corresponds to the what pathway.

Feedback signal

Neural signal that travels back from higher centers to influence incoming signals.

Audiovisual mirror neuron

Neuron in the monkey premotor cortex that responds when a monkey performs a hand action and also when it hears the sound associated with this action (for example, the action associated with breaking a peanut, and the associated sound). Also see Mirror neuron.

Mirror neuron

Neuron in the premotor cortex, originally discovered in the monkey, that responds both when a monkey observes someone else (usually the experimenter) carrying out an action and when the monkey itself carries out the action. There is also evidence for mirror neurons in humans.

Blakemore and Graham Cooper (1970) f

Normally the kitten's brain contains neurons that respond to all orientations, ranging from horizontal to slanted to vertical, but Colin Blakemore and Graham Cooper (1970) found that rearing a kitten in an environment consisting only of verticals ( ● Figure 3.29a) reshaped the kitten's visual cortex so it even- tually contained neurons that responded mainly to verticals (Figure 3.29b). Similarly, kit- tens reared in an environment consisting only of horizontals ended up with a visual cortex that contained neurons that responded mainly to horizontals. Thus, the kitten's brain had been shaped to respond best to the environment to which the kitten had been exposed. Experience-dependent plasticity has also been demonstrated in humans, using the

perceptual organization

Old" view - structuralism Perception involves adding up sensations

One of the basic operating principles of the brain is that it contains some neurons that respond best to things that occur regularly in the environment.

Feature approach to object perception -- Parallel distrupted processing model

Parallel distrupted processing model Parallel done at same time or with each other Distrubuted share work Processing - goal process letter for word Multiple people set up for party at same time. Someone cleaning someone inviting Serieal model - do one thing at a time. A then B then C. like party. Clean house. Then buy stuff. Then set up. Then invite How "word" analyized feature decteros that like lines of certain orientation like thats what letters are. Each send excitatory and inhibitory info. These feature levelse or input goes to letter level then world level. Example of parallel based on feature approach. Don't need lots of storage for this bc based on features...basically whatever it is on each level that has the most activation wins out a model of letter recognition Feature-analysis stage Feature (detection) units are activated by specific properties Horizontal or slanted line Visual system determines which letter unit is activated most strongly

Likelihood principle

Part of Helmholtzs theory of unconscious inference that states that we perceive the object that is most likely to have caused the pattern of stimuli we have received.

Perceiving and taking action are linked. Movement of an observer relative to an object provides information about the object. Also, there is a constant coordination between perceiving an object (such as a cup) and taking action toward the object (such as picking up the cup).

Perception starts with bottom-up processing, which involves receptors. Signals from these receptors cause neurons in the cortex to respond to specific types of stimuli.

psychologists have introduced the idea that perception is inf uenced by our knowledge of regularities in the environment—

Physical regularities are regularly occurring physical properties of the environment. For example, there are more vertical and horizontal orientations in the environment than oblique (angled) orientations. This occurs in human-made environments (for example, buildings contain lots of horizontals and verticals) and also in natural environments (trees and plants are more likely to be vertical or horizontal than slanted) (Coppola et al., 1998). It is therefore no coincidence that people can perceive horizontals and verticals more easily than other orientations, an effect called the oblique effect The assumption that light is coming from above has been called the light-from-above heuristic (Kleffner & Ramachandran, 1992). Apparently, people make the light-from-above assumption because most light in our environment comes from above. Semantic regularities are the characteristics associated with the functions carried out in different types of scenes Most people who have grown up in modern society have little trouble visualizing an off ce or the clothing section of a department store. What is important about this ability, for our purposes, is that part of this visualization involves details within these scenes. Most people see an off ce as having a desk with a computer on it, bookshelves, and a chair. The department store scene contains racks of clothes, a changing room, and perhaps a cash register. What did you see when you visualized the microscope or the lion? Many people report seeing not just a single object, but an object within a setting

Gais et al.'s research on the impact of sleep on memory consolidation illustrates which type of approach to the study of the operations of the mind?

Physiological

treistman and pop out

Pop-out effect targets with unique features have a flat reaction time Search time flat - doesn't t osome extent how many distractors with it. Like blue mohawk Non-pop-out targets show a linear reaction time - super cool with linear you can make straight forward predictions Search time increases with # of distracters

Landmark discrimination problem

Problem in which the task is to remember an objects location and to choose that location after a delay. Associated with research on the where processing stream.

Memory consolidation

Process by which experiences or information that has entered the memory system becomes strengthened so it is resistant to interference caused by trauma or other events. / Process by which experiences or information that has entered the memory system becomes strengthened so it is resistant to interference caused by trauma or other events.

Topdown processing

Processing that involves a persons knowledge or expectations. This type of processing has also been called knowledgebased processing.

Bottomup processing

Processing that starts with information received by the receptors. This type of processing can also be called databased processing.

Choice reaction time

Reacting to one of two or more stimuli. For example, in Donders experiment (see Chapter 1), participants had to make one response to one stimulus and a different response to another stimulus.

Simple reaction time

Reacting to the presence or absence of a single stimulus (as opposed to having to choose between a number of stimuli before making a response). See also Choice reaction time.

Interactive Activation Model-Parallel Distributed Processing

Recognition occurs through facilitation and inhibition of units on the across and within levels of analysis Evidence for- word superiority effect Typical experiment present letter K and D byself and "word" or "work" or wolik. Is K present? Where recognize/process K fastest? You actually recognize work quicker. Measure reaction time. As quick and maybe slightly quicker with K then work but benefit doesn't happen with non-word. Reaction time experiment. Why? Must be processiong the letters in parallel - meaning all at once not letter by letter. Facillation between the letters bc meaningful package each idnvidua letter aids recognition other letters. Top down feedback from word level. Phenomology does play role in lexical acess but WSE still occurs independent of phenmonology. Really activation of cells through net gain of inhibitory and excitatory representations. You'll have talking among cells across and up . F - see | yay but not /

Recognition-by-components theory, which provides a behavioral example of bottom-up processing, proposes that recognizing objects is based on building blocks called geons.

Regularities in the environment are characteristics of the environment that occur frequently. We take both physical regularities and semantic regularities into account when perceiving.

Physical regularities

Regularly occurring physical properties of the environment. For example, there are more vertical and horizontal orientations in the environment than oblique (angled) orientations.

Research involving brain ablation in monkeys and neuro- psychological studies of the behavior of people with brain damage have revealed two processing pathways in the cortex: a pathway from the occipital lobe to the tempo- ral lobe responsible for perceiving objects, and a pathway from the occipital lobe to the parietal lobe responsible for controlling actions toward objects. These pathways work together to coordinate perception and action.

Perceptual organization, laws of

Rules proposed by the Gestalt psychologists to explain how small elements of a scene or a display become perceptually grouped to form larger units. These laws are described as heuristics in this book.

Beginning in the 1930s and 40s, XXXXs work

SKINNER on operant conditioning assured that behaviorism would be the dominant force in psychology through the 1950s.

Treisman(1986)

Search time is effected by both type and number of distracters Couple variables at play search time, ability to detect target not based just on target simllarity but # of dstractors as well. Easier to find peron if 5 people instead of 500

Law of familiarity

See inverted entries (e.g., Familiarity, law of).

Law of perceptual organization

See inverted entries (e.g., Perceptual Organization, law of).

Law of similarity

See inverted entries (e.g., Similarity, law of).

Law of simplicity

See inverted entries (e.g., Simplicity, law of).

error triesman

She did not account for texture/ spatial density Bad terminology Like how many elements presented in given area influences. Like 1 object far left 5 objects far right can see.

context effect

Similar to word superiority effect - indvidual letters help you identify particular letter. The rest of the scene helps you idenitfy a partiuclar elemnt. There is an object superiority effect. See _ see it in a cube recognize it quicker. Put floating couch - harder time recognize it out of context - why not pop out? Maybe bc same base elemtns? . Top down effects First one yes fire hydrant. 2nd scene out of order takes longer.

In the text's "animal lurking behind a tree / two oddly shaped tree stumps" example, which Gestalt law did NOT contribute to the incorrect perception?

Simplicity

Which of the following events is most closely associated with the decline of behaviorism as an approach to psychology?

Skinner's publication of the book, Verbal Behavior

Which of the following is an example of an effect of top-down processing?

Speech segmentation.

Student of Fitt's (who was former military)

Student of Fitt's (who was former military) Time to point can be estimated by distance and size of object ( distance and size of object accounts for speed. Accounting for data very well). (good model - accounts for the data, simple (fit's accounts for like 90% of data - by adding more varriables and accounting for more data better? If your around 95% with less variables were happy) Video games good bad - react for visual targets improves performance. Very influential model, even for CS, AI (fitt's . say want to get in game design consider game not so hard can't click on obj to attack but not to challenging.

Behavioral approach

Studying the mind by measuring a persons behavior and explaining this behavior in behavioral terms.

Physiological approach

Studying the mind by measuring physiological and behavioral responses, and explaining behavior in physiological terms.

Mind

System that creates and controls mental functions such as perception, attention, memory, emotions, language, deciding, thinking, and reasoning, and that creates mental representations of the world.

Artificial intelligence

The ability of a computer to perform tasks usually associated with human intelligence.

Informationprocessing approach

The approach to psychology, developed beginning in the 1950s, in which the mind is described as processing information through a sequence of stages.

Behaviorism

The approach to psychology, founded by John B. Watson, which states that observable behavior provides the only valid data for psychology. A consequence of this idea is that consciousness and unobservable mental processes are not considered worthy of study by psychologists.

Lightfromabove heuristic

The assumption that light is coming from above. This heuristic can influence how we perceive three dimensional objects that are illuminated.

Geon

The basic feature unit of the recognitionbycomponents approach to object perception. Geons are basic threedimensional volumes.

Cognitive psychology

The branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of the mental processes involved in perception, attention, memory, language, problem solving, reasoning, and decision making. In short, cognitive psychology is concerned with the scientific study of the mind and mental processes.

Experience-dependent plasticity is one of the mecha- nisms responsible for creating neurons that are tuned to respond to specific things in the environment. -- WHAT 2 EXPERIMENTS SUPPORT THIS IDEA

The exper- iments in which kittens were reared in vertical or hori- zontal environments and in which people's brain activity was measured as they learned about Greebles support this idea.

Oblique effect

The finding that vertical and horizontal orientations can be perceived more easily that other (slanted) orientations.

v The idea that perception depends on knowledge was pro- posed by Helmholtz's theory of unconscious inference.

The idea that perception depends on knowledge was pro- posed by Helmholtz's theory of unconscious inference.

Natural selection, theory of

The idea, originating with Darwin, that genetically based characteristics that enhance an animals ability to survive, and therefore reproduce, will be passed on to future generations

Cognition

The mental processes involved in perception, attention, memory, language, problem solving, reasoning, and making decisions.

Componential recovery, principle of

The principle associated with recognitionbycomponents theory that states that if we can recover (see) an objects geons, we can identify the object.

Perceptual organization

The process of organizing elements of the environment into separate objects.

Speech segmentation

The process of perceiving individual words within the continuous flow of the speech signal.

Neuropsychology

The study of the behavioral effects of brain damage in humans.

Size constancy

The tendency to perceive objects as remaining the same size even when they move to different distances. This leads to the conclusion that perception of an objects size does not depend solely on the size of its image on the receptors.

The theory of unconscious inference includes the:

Reaction time

The time it takes for a person to react to a stimulus. This is usually determined by measuring the time between presentation of a stimulus and the persons response to the stimulus. Examples of responses are pushing a button, saying a word, moving the eyes, and the appearance of a particular brain wave.

They differ in - how do objects differ

They facilitate initial visual processing. What elements impt. Not really maybe to differinate lemon from lime. Erv Biderman took line drawings objc colored or black and white. No time difference in recognization. Contrary to that if you put the wrong color it does mess you up a little. COLOR MOVEMENT SHAPE DEPTH

Who developed the concept of the cognitive map?

Tolman

Feature integration theory treisman preattentive illusory conejction

Treisman(1986) - basically if unique feature pops out. Otherwise stimuli without unique features but share features with other things around it- the features become conjoined it's an illusion. Nothing unique to help identify == camoflouge look super simillar or opposite look super different and you'll be noticed more. Preattentive stage doesn't require any attention or effort by the perceiver Bc pops out Illusory conjuctions combing features from separate stimulus together, provides evidence that the features are initially separate

Feature integration theory treisman focused attention stage

Treisman(1986) Have preattentive stage and focused - autopiot just pops out Focused attention stage combines the features together involves attention/effort by the perceiver

Operant conditioning & who

Type of conditioning championed by B. F. Skinner, which focuses on how behavior is strengthened by presentation of positive reinforcers, such as food or social approval, or withdrawal of negative reinforcers, such as a shock or social rejection.

In the first decades of the 20th century, XXXX founded behaviorism, partly in reaction to structuralism and the method of analytic introspection.

WATSON His procedures were based on classical conditioning. Behaviorisms central tenet was that psychology was properly studied by mea- suring observable behavior, and that invisible mental pro- cesses were not valid topics for the study of psychology

Behaviorism The approach to psychology, founded by XXXXXX which states that

Watson observable behavior provides the only valid data for psychology. A consequence of this idea is that consciousness and unobservable mental processes are not considered worthy of study by psychologists.

Intelligence of object perception

Why computers can't see The Stimulus on the receptors is ambiguous -like a rectangle could be a square a piece of paper a table. Need lots of top down processing to figure it out. Inverse projection problem- many different objects can present the same image to the retina - Biderman all knowledge needed In visual enviorment is there not correct. Geon. Should be able to differinate componet parts. How differinate cow and horse. Largely same geons. Binding problem - how do you figure out what is bound to what. Like nothing in world says you hand is still you hand even if in front of blackboard. Lowe non-accidental properities - took maxwell can then threw razors in the can. So razors look different and all different ways when looking from the top. Whole bunch object diffferent lines and orientations he could get the computer to bind individual lies to indivudal razors- monumental task with power coms had in the 80's. To understand some lines belong to a particular razor and not another even when all same lines is monumental task. Hidden parts - not everything is exposed to you always. Like him walking in front of table you still know his legs are there. How do you do that? Reasons for changes in lighting' - ball and shadow task like shadows are seen as part of you but not. Like we get lots of info. Bounce or not. & brain corrects for differences in light automatically. Like characol is brighter in a room then white paper but our brain corrects for it and says white paper. Pretty cool checkerboard colors with shadow. You see light color squares as all light squares but really the ones in the shade are dark as darkest but color correct as goo. No computer we have can really recognize/navigate like that's a table and I know table is used to eat. It'd just know heres an object can't go further.

A mental conception of the layout of a physical space is known as:

a cognitive map.

In the 1950s,

a number of events occurred that led to what has been called the cognitive revolutiona decline in the influence of behaviorism and the reemergence of the study of the mind. These events included the follow- ing: (a) Chomskys critique of Skinners book Verbal Behavior; (b) the introduction of the digital computer and the idea that the mind processes information in stages, like computers; (c) Cherrys attention experiments and Broadbents introduction of flow diagrams to depict the processes involved in attention; and (d) interdisci- plinary conferences at Dartmouth and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Model In cognitive psychology,

a representation of the workings of the mind; often presented as interconnected boxes that each represent the operation of specific mental functions.

Structuralism-

adding up the elementary units called sensations Gestalt psychologists stated that the elements sum up to more then the individual components

gais 2006 found

also later did it again and found that hypothatlum activated more in sleeping group and not as much in group who didn't get to sleep. so immediate sleep helps stregten the memory trace in hypothalum

In Donders' experiment on decision making, when participants were asked to press one button if the light on the left was illuminated and another button if the light on the right was illuminated, they were engaged in a:

choice reaction time task.

The example of Crystal running on the beach and having

coffee later illustrates how perception can change based on new information, that perception is a process, and how perception and action are connected.

Your text describes the occurrence of a "cognitive revolution" during which dramatic changes took place in the way psychology was studied. This so-called "revolution" occurred parallel to (and, in part, because of) the introduction of:

computers.

Gauthier and coworkers' experiment on experience-dependent plasticity showed that after extensive "Greeble recognition" training sessions, FFA neurons had a(n) ________ response to faces and an ________ response to Greebles.

decreased; increased

cognitive revloution and the computer

developed in 40's. IMB made available to public in 54 Simon and Newel create logic theorist (program that solves math theorms) Miller presents paper on 7 + - 2 flow diagrams

Because the operation of the mind cannot be observed

directly, its operation must be inferred from what we can measure, such as behavior or physiological respond-ing. This is one of the basic principles of cognitive psychology.

Milner and Goodale (1995) to study D.F

dissociations was used by Milner and Goodale (1995) to study D.F., a 34-year-old woman who suffered dam- age to her temporal lobe from carbon monoxide poisoning caused by a gas leak in her home. One result of the brain damage was revealed when D.F. was asked to match the orientation of a card held in her hand to dif- ferent orientations of a slot ( ● Figure 3.37a). She was unable to do this, as shown in the left circle in Figure 3.37b. Each line in the circle indicates how D.F. adjusted the card's orientation. Perfect matching performance would be indicated by a vertical line for each trial, but D.F.'s responses are widely scattered. The right circle shows the accurate performance of the normal controls. Because D.F. had trouble orienting a card to match the orientation of the slot, it would seem reasonable that she would also have trouble plac- ing the card through the slot because to do this she would have to turn the card so that it was lined up with the slot. But when D.F. was asked to "mail" the card through the slot ( ● Figure 3.38a), she could do it, as indicated by the results in Figure 3.38b. Even though D.F. could not turn the card to match the slot's orientation, once she started moving the card toward the slot, she began rotating it to match the orientation of the slot. Thus, D.F. performed poorly in the static orientation-matching task but did well as soon as action was involved (Murphy, Racicot, & Goodale, 1996). Milner and Goodale interpreted D.F.'s behavior as showing that there is one mechanism for judging orientation and another for coordi- nating vision and actionThese results for D.F. demonstrate a single dissociation, which indi- cates that judging orientation and coordinating vision and action involve different mechanisms. To show that these two functions are not only served by different mechanisms but are also independent of one another, we have to demonstrate a double dissociation. As we saw in the example of Alice and Bert, this involves f nding a person whose symptoms are the opposite of D.F.'s, and such people do, in fact, exist. These people can judge visual orientation, but they can't accomplish the task that combines vision and action. As we would expect, whereas D.F.'s temporal lobe is damaged, these other people have damage to their parietal lobe. Based on these results, Milner and Goodale suggested that the path- way from the visual cortex to the temporal lobe (which was damaged in D.F.'s brain) be called the perception pathway and the pathway from the visual cortex to the parietal lobe (which was intact in D.F.'s brain) be called the action pathway. The perception pathway corresponds to the what pathway we described in conjunction with the monkey experiments, and the action pathway corresponds to the where pathway. Thus, some researchers refer to what and where pathways and some to perception and action pathways. But whatever the terminology, this research demon- strates that perception and action are processed in two separate pathways in the brain.

first experiment in cognitive psychology & taught us that we can't observe directly but must infer mental processes

donders

Frances Donder 1868 (group is in flashcards not indvidual)

first experiment in cognitive psychology & taught us that we can't observe directly but must infer mental processes • Interest in how long to make decision- Measured through THE DIFFERENCE in REACTION TIME between simple and choice. TAKES 1/10 second to choose what button to push

Preattentive-

first stage of perception according to tresisman Pop out effect-happens to unique feature Curvature, tilt, and color are basic features create pop out

The first laboratory of scientific psychology,

founded by Wundt in 1879, was concerned largely with studying the mind. Structuralism was the dominant theoretical approach of this laboratory, and analytic introspection was one of the major methods used to collect data.

Heuristic

gestalt psychology provide more of a heuristic, sometimes was wrong Aside from top down bottom up is with a heuristic or algorthim (heuristic doens't guarantee rightanswer but more often than not right. Computers work on algorthiims while we like heuristic. Herustici. Go tomacys coupon 30% then an addition 20% off. Few caculate price are like hooray about 1/3 off then 1/5 off. Rough estimate. Guestimate. Good enough. Like when cooking not using meauring spoons etc. algotthim u follow it exactly. You can define it step by step procedure.

Biggest contribution of behaviorist

get psychologist to focus on scientific method and use tried and true science. do aay with subjectivity

Biggest contribution of behaviorist

get psychologist to focus on scientific method and use tried and true science. do aay with subjectivity also likely a reaction to Freud. !800's had freud watson and pavlove JOHN WATSON proposed new approach called behaviorism

hemholts theory of unconsicious inference

goes with likehood principes we preveice objts that are most likely to have caused pattern

how do we make sense

heuristic and algorthims

A difference between a heuristic and an algorithm is

heuristics do not result in a correct solution every time as algorithms do

The Gestalt approach to perception proposed a number of laws of perceptual organization, which were based on xxxxxxxx. These laws provide best-guess predictions of how we will perceive stimuli in the environment. The laws are therefore best described as xxxxxxxxxx

how stimuli usually occur in the environment. These laws provide best-guess predictions of how we will perceive stimuli in the environment. The laws are therefore best described asxxxxx

William James,

in the United States, used observations of his own behavior as the basis of his textbook, Principles of Psychology.

Cognitive science

includes linguistics (what's appropriate and whats not why not big red balloon why red large ballon - study order, computer science, neuroscience, anthropology, artificial intelligence, and philosophy - whole tracks now not just psychology in some areas.. Big blue - 1st computer to beat someone at Chess - Big blue is stupid just goes through algorthism compute moves. No thought or inference.

cognitive science per chapter

Template matching- pattern recognition

match to whole form to a template in memory too much variance in the signa Idea take simple stimuli like A the notion is you have like a stamp in your head and you compare this to the template. Match enough. To much variation in the signal. Like we all have different hand writing. So many fonts usually no trouble recognize A

The main point of the Donders' reaction time experiments was to:

measure the amount of time it takes to make a decision.

Behavioral approach Studying the mind by

measuring a persons behavior and explaining this behavior in behavioral terms.

According to your text, the behavioral approach to the study of the mind involves:

measuring the relation between stimuli and behavior

The process during which information is strengthened and transformed into a strong memory that is resistant to interference is known as

memory consolidation.

The mind creates and controls

mental capacities such as perception, attention, and memory, and creates represen- tations of the world that enable us to function.

Some neurons respond when we watch someone else do something. These are known as

mirror neurons

name 4-6 things contribute to decline of behaviorism

misbehavior of organisim Garcia bright noisy water Tolman - rats (conceputal map not just turning right for food)

Hollingworth (2005) had observers

ndrew Hollingworth (2005) had observers study for 20 seconds a scene, such as the picture of the gym in ● Figure 3.27, that contained a target object, such as the barbell on the mat, or the same scene but without the target object. Observers then saw a picture of the target object alone in the center of the screen followed by a blank screen, and were asked to move a cursor on the blank screen to the place where the target object was in the scene they had just seen (if they had seen the picture of the scene containing the target object) or where they would expect to see the target object in the scene (if they had seen the picture of the scene but without the target object).

1800's thought

not possible to study mind bc the mind can't study itself and some of it's properties just can't be measured

Damage to the temporal lobe makes the ________ more difficult.

object discrimination problem

Breland

operant conditionin of racoon showed need for biological predispostion simillar to misbheavior of animals

Models XXX

play an essential role in cognitive psychol- ogy, by helping organize data from many experiments. Broadbents model of attention is an example of one of the early models in cognitive psychology. It is important to realize that models such as this one are constantly being revised in response to new data, and also that the boxes in these models often do not correspond to areas in the brain.

Behaviorists believe that the presentation of ________ increases the frequency of behavior.

positive reinforcers

Reaction time refers to the time between the ________ of a stimulus and a person's response to it.

presentation

Algorithm

procedure guaranteed to produce the correct result - sometimes need exact answer sometimes don't. In terms of problem solving how can you get algortihm to work on ill defined problem like world peach - can't not well defined etc. heuristic would help.SEALS good pick a basketball good at shooting pick up other peoples signs etc. one of helicopters crashed had to imrpovise and work together Producing AI doesn't work with alorgorthi mbc people don't work like that.

George Miller

r = fiunder psycholingustics & word net (google) - lot of it based on psycholingustics Miller = Magical # 7 + - 2. - channel capacity - We chunk info

Feature detection models- -- pattern dedection

recognition is based upon element or features. Features are present or absent like the 3 lines. Like a little better easier to put in computer. Doesn't have to be template matching. Accounts for more variance.

ebinghaus Found savings/forgetting curve function of

rentention interval found we forget most within 2 days

Fusiform face area (FFA)

rich patch of neurons that respond well to faces and other stimuli that have been studied extensively (cars for car experts)

In Donders' experiment on decision making, when participants were asked to press a button upon presentation of a light, they were engaged in a:

simple reaction time task.

Mind System

that creates and controls mental functions such as perception, attention, memory, emotions, language, deciding, thinking, and reasoning, and that creates mental representations of the world.

ILLUSORY CONJUNCTION -

that we see simillar features that is bound...HER TERMINOLOGY IS WRONG ATTENTION IS MORE A SOLVENT GETS AWAY GLUE- IS IT EFFEORT TRYING TO FIND WHATS UNQIUE. PHYSICALLY ALREADY BOUND TOGETHER. FEATURES ARE ALREADY SHARED. IT'S YOUR ATTNETION THAT SEPRATES THEM OUT. YOUR NOT TRYING TO FLUE FEATURES TOGETHER BUT SEPERATE THEM OUT! EXAM

Cognitive psychology is

the branch of psychology concerned with the scientif c study of the mind. coined 1967 although many studies were done in the 1800's and prior to 67

The "indentations in the sand / bumps in the sand" example from your text illustrates

the light-from-above heuristic.

gestalt laws of orgnaization

these laws are not really laws they are heuristics bc they don't always 1000% work things usually occur in the enviorment law of good continuations : Points that, when connected, result in straight or smoothly curving lines are seen as belonging together, and the lines tend to be seen in such a way The law of pragnanz, also called the law of good f gure or the law of simplicity, states: Every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible This perception illustrates the law of similarity: Similar things appear to be grouped together. law of familiarity, things that form patterns that are familiar or meaningful are likely to be grouped together

Perceiving machines" are used by the U.S. Postal service to "read" the addresses on letters and sort them quickly to their correct destinations. Sometimes, these machines cannot read an address, because the writing on the envelope is not sufficiently clear for the machine to match the writing to an example it has stored in memory. Human postal workers are much more successful at reading unclear addresses, most likely because of:

top-down processing.

semantic knowledge on our ability to perceive was illustrated in an experiment by Stephen Palmer (1975),

using stimuli like the picture in ● Figure 3.28. Palmer f rst presented a context scene such as the one on the left and then brief y f ashed one of the target pictures on the right. When Palmer asked observers to identify the object in the target picture, they correctly identif ed an object like the loaf of bread (which is appropri- ate to the kitchen scene) 80 percent of the time, but correctly identif ed the mailbox or the drum (two objects that don't f t into the scene) only 40 percent of the time. Apparently Palmer's observers were using their knowledge about kitchens to help them perceive the brief y f ashed loaf of bread. The effect of semantic regularities is also illustrated by the "multiple personalities of a blob" illustration in Figure 3.6, because our perception of the blob depends on our knowledge of what is usually found in different types of scenes.

New" vie perceputal organization

w - Gestalt psychologists The mind groups patterns according to laws of perceptual organization - no wont add up.. whole more sum than it's parts. Like eat cookie don't think hmm tasty flour eggs etc. think yummy cookie Play roll but not end all in perceputal organization

Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology con-cerned

with the scientific study of the mind.

Operant conditioning T

ype of conditioning championed by B. F. Skinner, which focuses on how behavior is strengthened by presentation of positive reinforcers, such as food or social approval, or withdrawal of negative reinforcers, such as a shock or social rejection.

how long to make decision

• Interest in how long to make decision- Measured through THE DIFFERENCE in REACTION TIME between simple and choice. TAKES 1/10 second to choose what button to push o Reaction time - time between presentation of stimuli and response. Reaction time is a BEHAVIOR. He wants to study mental process but can't do it directly so you infer. ? Types • Simple reaction time - respond to stimuli - Just 1 if see light • Choice reaction time - decide type of response based upon stimulus - Did forced choices like hit button 1 if see blue or button 2 if see red

cog exam 1

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