Cognitive process Test #2
Patient S. Was reported to have
- 6 different types of Synesthesia - Which was partially what they accredited his incredible memory too - Remember long lists of items by taking a mental stroll down a familiar street and imagining the items in various locations along the street. - Later, to remember the items, he took a stroll down memory lane and reported all the items in correct order
Vigilance
- A person's ability to attend to a field of stimulation for a prolonged period searching to detect the appearance of a particular stimulus of interest. - This requires sustained attention. - Is needed when a stimulus occurs rarely but needs immediate attention when it does occur - Is able to be applied to a narrower radius accurately
Alzheimer's
- A progressive disorder of older adults that includes dementia and progressive memory loss - 1% of people between 70-75 years of age. - Increases to 6% between ages 80-85. - Exception early-onset Alzheimer's disease: 50's or even as young as 20
Central Executive
- Allocates attention within the working memory system. - Divide Attention - Switching Attention - Flexible - It controls other systems by determining how resources will be allocated - Decides what is important - Control process from attention
Hypermnesia
- An increment improvement in recall (over multiple recall attempts. The process of retrieving memories previously thought to be forgotten - Involves trying many diverse retrieval cues, such as Psychodynamic therapy - Risks with trying to retrieve old or inaccessible memories no way to verify they are accurate
Factors that influence our ability to pay attention
- Anxiety - Arousal - Task Difficulty - Skills
Divided Attention
- Anytime you engage in two or more tasks at the same time - People can get better at dividing their attention with practice
Dysfunction of Attentional Processes
- Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - Change Blindness - Inattentional Blindness - Spatial Neglect
Episodic Buffer
- Back-up Store - Integrates information from all other areas to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information. - Links to long-term memory and semantic meaning - Sequencing
Presence of noise
- Background distractions that can mask or confuse the detection of the signal - Noise is AlWAYS present
Two models:
- Believes there is one pool of attentional resources that can be divided freely - Believes there are multiple sources of attention; one for each modality
Two stages that impact of DA alterations during development
- Birth-3 years of age involves intentse neurogenesis, synaptic overproduction, axon branching, differentiation, and migration. - 7-15 years of age involves pruning and elimination to refine neural networks and enhances cognitive processes
Visuospatial Sketchpad
- Briefly maintains and manipulates spatial and visual information - How things look and where they are - Interface between visual and spatial information accessed either by senses or long term memory - Limited capacity Ex: How many windows are in the front of your house? (pictured apartment, picturing all the windows)
Types of Slips that can occur
- Capture Errors - Omissions - Perseverations - Description errors - Data-driven errors - Associative-activation errors - Loss-of-activation errors
Mnemonic Devices techniques
- Categorical clustering - Interactive images - Pegword system - Method of loci - Acronyms - Acrostics - Keyword system
Conscious Attention
- Causal role in cognition - Plays a role in how we think
Eyewitness Testimony: Children
- Children are more susceptible to memory distortions - The younger children the more susceptible they are to suggestion, particularly pre-school aged children - Children aim to please adults if an adult is expecting an answer they child will be prone to give it. Less likely to say I don't know - Children are more susceptible to misattribution errors - Effect of uniformed officers
Treatments for Alzheimer's Disease
- Cholinesterase inhibitors (Donepezil) - NMDA receptor antagonists (Memantine)
Is semantic encoding more important that acoustic for short-term memory? Baddeley experiment
- Compared semantically similar words (big, long, large, wide) to semantically dissimilar words (old, late, hot, strong) - No significant difference in recall between these two lists
Retention Delay Tasks
- Cue - Blank screen - Stimulus (image of colored squares in different spots) - Retention - Test ( is blue square in the same spot) - Most simple way to test working memory
Signal detection
- Detecting the appearance of a signal - We decide if it exist or if it doesn't
Three Steps in Orienting:
- Disengagement - Shifting of Attention - Re-engaging of Attention
Things that help us attend only to the message of interest are
- Distinctive sensory characteristics od the targets speech - Sound intensity - Location of the sound source
Selective Attention
- Early Filter Model - Late Filter Model
Symptoms for Inattentive subtype
- Easily distracted by irrelevant sights and sounds - Fail to pay attention to details - Susceptible to making careless mistakes in their work - Fail to read instructions completely or carefully - Susceptible to forgetting or losing things they need for tasks - Jump from one incomplete task to another
Three operations of memory
- Encoding - Storage - Retrieval
2 kinds of explicit memory (automatic process)
- Episodic - Semantic
Forced-choice tasks
- Even if they don't know they are asked to guess anyways - D.B. 80% correct when guessing
Hippocampus key in ___________________. Involved in encoding, ______________________________________________________________________
- Explicit memory - Integrating, consolidating, transferring and retrieval
Two kinds of searches:
- Feature search - Conjunction search
what are the 2 theories
- Feature-integration - Similarity theory
Symptoms for hyper-active subtype
- Fidgets with or taps hands or squirms in seat. - Often leaves seat in situations when remaining seated is - Often runs about or climbs in situations where it is inappropriate - Often unable to play or engage in leisure activities quietly; - Often "on the go" acting as if "driven by a motor" - Often talks excessively; - Often blurts out answers before questions have been completed - Often has difficulty awaiting turn - Often interrupts or intrudes on others
Executive Attention
- Filters out unimportant/irrelevant information. - Responsible for monitoring, planning and flexibly switching attention between tasks - Responsible for generating novel responses & overriding dominant responses in favor of performing subdominant responses. Eg Cake - Regulates our thoughts, emotions and behaviours.
Recall test had two conditions
- Free recall - Cued recall
Long-term memory produces __________________ and _______________changes
- Functional - Structural
Short-term store
- Holds information for about 30 seconds unless rehearsed - Capacity is approx. 7 items +/- 2 - The 7 items can be simple or complex
Backward visual masking
- If you present a letter after a target letter in the exact same space and location it will erase the first letter. - If within 100 milliseconds images will super impose E.g. F + L = E
Chronic methylphenidate use has bee shown to result in
- Impaired object and spatial memory - Increases in anxiety - Anhedonia - Behavioural despair - Deficits in sexual behavior
Can Eyewitness Testimony be improved?
- Improving questioning processes to reduce potential leading questions. - Line-ups should present on person at a time. - All people should be as close to description given as possible. - Informing witness the perpetrator may not be in the line-up at all. - Inform Jury's about the issues inherent to eyewitness testimony (controversial)
What was the study that Simons and Levin carried out
- In which participants started to have a conversation with a stranger. This stranger was then replaced by a different stranger during a brief interruption (e.g., a large object coming between them). - Many participants simply did not realize that their conversational partner had changed
Locus coeruleus
- In your pons - Helps activate reticular formation - Involves in arousal which is a part of being alert
2 types of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Inattentive subtype - hyper-active subtype
Two main components to decision making:
- Information acquisition - Criterion or Response bias
The Levels-of-Processing Model Criticism
- Involves a circular definition - Does not account for the success of uses of memory strategies such as rhyming
Expressive knowledge
- Involves making requests, giving information, and labeling things. - Is difficult because the need to recall the word or words they want to communicate and be able too. E.g.. Toddler, test.
Search
- Involves using our attentional resources to actively and often times skillfully seek out a target. Search is a scan of the environment for particular features - Can result in false alarms and search is made more difficult by distracters
False memories
- Is a fabricated or distorted recollection of an event - We are susceptible to errors and subtle suggestions can trigger them - People with exceptional memories are susceptible to false memories as well - People can feel completely confident that their memory is accurate, but this confidence is no guarantee that a particular memory is correct
Change blindness
- Is a failure of visual awareness - Is the failure to notice an obvious change
Music
- Is also an effective retrieval cue - Make up a song with the to-be-remembered information to a simple well known tune
Spatial Neglect
- Is an attentional dysfunction in which patients ignore the half of their visual field that is contralateral to the hemisphere that has a lesion - If asked to copy pictures will only copy half the picture - Attentional dysfunction in which patients fail to attend or ignore the left half of their visual field
Memory storage
- Is dependent on the type of knowledge to be remembered. - Explicit (declarative) or Implicit (non-declarative)
Relearning
- Is measured in memory studies and involves the number of trials it takes to remember something previously known - Savings occurs in children, adults and animals. E.g. Spanish.
Autobiographical memory
- Is memory of a person's history - Creates who we are - People remember their construction and/or reconstruction of what occurred rather than exact facts - Studies show to be generally good for central themes with mistakes predominately occurring in the details
Repressed memories
- Is the idea that if a traumatic event occurs as a child the trauma of the event can lead it to be repressed or inaccessible. - No evidence supporting their existence
Alerting
- Is the process of achieving and maintaining a state of high sensitivity to incoming stimuli - Involves a change in the internal state in preparation for perceiving a stimulus that are high priority in their environment
Amnesia
- Is the severe loss of memory - Shows normal priming but poor recognition memory -They didn't remember having seen the word list, but completed the word fragments at the same rate as people without it
Proactive
- Is when information learned in the past interferes the learning of new information. Interfering material occurs before learning to-be-remembered information - Things learned last only subjective
Retroactive
- Is when new information hinders the recall of older material. Interference is caused by activity after we have learned something but before recall - Things learned first only subjective
Encoding for Long-term Storage
- Learn 41 words - 5 mins later - recognition test. - Recognition test included distractors (words that were not on the lists but were plausible) 9 distractors were semantically related to words on the list, 9 were not related - False alarm errors were significantly more frequent for the semantically related words
Semantics
- Learning the meaning of the information - Connecting the new incoming information to information already stored
Retrograde Amnesia
- Lose memory for events that occur before the trauma that caused the memory loss - Earliest memories first
The Levels-of-Processing Model (LOP)
- Memory is a continuous dimension in terms of depth of encoding - Different ways to process information lead to different strengths of memories - How things are processed is key to storage depth
Alzheimer symptoms
- Memory loss - Problems doing familiar task - Problems with language - Trouble knowing the time, date, or place - Poor or decreased judgement - Problems with abstract thinking - Misplace things often
Alcohol and transfer of information from Short term memory to Long term memory
- Memory loss amnesia are common side effects of binge drinking - When people black out they are conscious but unable to create LTM - Not that you forgot, you just didn't know because it didn't make it to LTM
Concussions are a common cause of
- Mild retrograde amnesia Ex: Russell & Nathan study a 22 year old who had severe cause of retrograde amnesia. Thought it was 1922 (was 1933) believed he was a school boy. Memory returned after 10 weeks, latest memories first.
Parallel Distributed Processing Model
- Model of memory in which knowledge is represented as connections among thousands of interacting processing units, distributed in a vast network, and all operating in parallel - New experiences are not only stored but also change one's overall knowledge base - Minds similar to computer
Conscious Attention served 3 purposes:
- Monitors the environment - Links past memories with present sensations resulting in a continuity of experience - Control and plan future actions
Why does it matter to improve memory
- Multiple rehearsal (study sessions) may result in multiple strategies for encoding to occur = elaborate schema. - Diverse contexts strengthens encoding and assists in consolidation. - Sleep effects memory consolidation as well
________________ for memory formation. Neurons with the hippocampus are_____________.
- Neural basis - Plastic
Can listening to to-be-remembered items during sleep improve memory?
- North Western University: participants learn a task, the tones learned in the task are played during sleep - Participant's learning improved
How does Automatization occur?
- One theory is that: practice of various steps becomes more efficient. Individual steps become integrated components that become one single operation. Eg. Driving - Alternate theory Instance theory: automatization occurs because of the accumulation of knowledge about specific responses to specific stimuli. Eg Math.
How does sleep consolidate memory
- Our brain is making pathways stronger be rehearsing - Reactivates learning pathways - Makes memories stronger
Savant Syndrome
- Outstanding memory - Person with mental disability who are capable of performing remarkable facts in specific areas at a remarkably high levels - Rare - Linked to autism: 10% people with autism have it - 50% people with it have autistic spectrum disorder
Rehearsal techniques can be _____________ or _________________
- Overt (aloud) - Covert (silent)
Psychotherapy
- Parenting intervention - Schedules, importance's of consequence - Tools to succeed
Visuo-cache (store)
- Passive storage component that is subject to decay and interference by new visual information - Degrade quickly
Explicit
- People engage in conscious recollection. Recall and recognition tasks both use explicit memory. - Memory for facts and events - Changes over our lifetimes: infants and older adults tend to have poorer explicit memory
Automatic Processes
- Performed without conscious control and demand little or no effort - Consumes negligible attentional resources
Mnemonist
- Person with extraordinary memory ability, usually based on learning special techniques for memory enhancement - Worked towards better memory
In progressive order:
- Physical - Phonological - Semantic - Self-reference effect
States two processes govern attention
- Preattentive Processes - Attentive, controlled processes
Three primary subtypes of ADHD:
- Predominately Hyperactive-Impulsive: Executive Function - Predominately Inattentive: Alerting and orientating - Combined Type: All three
Whole-report procedure
- Presented for 50 milliseconds: a glance - If asked to report everything they saw would report approx. 4 items
Partial-report procedure
- Presented stimulus for 50 milliseconds. - Recall only 1 line of information - Tones indicate which line: high medium low - If immediate: 9 out of 12 items
Cholinesterase inhibitors (Donepezil)
- Prevent the breakdown of acetylcholine, a NT important for learning and memory. Supporting communication among nerve cells. - Delay or slow worsening of symptoms. - Effectiveness varies from person to person. - Are generally well tolerated. If side effects occur, they commonly include nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite and increased frequency of bowel movements.
Non-declarative (Implicit) Memory Storage
- Priming and habituation are highly volatile and decay quickly - However, procedural and conditioned responses are more readily maintained
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Treatments Used
- Psychotherapy - Combination medication and psychotherapy
Types of Tasks used for measuring memory
- Recall - Recognition
Orienting can be:
- Reflexive - Voluntary
NMDA receptor antagonists (Memantine)
- Regulates the activity of glutamate, involved in information processing, storage and retrieval. - Improves mental function and ability to perform daily activities for some people. - Can cause side effects, including headache, constipation, confusion and dizziness
Long-term potentiation
- Repeated stimulation of a neural pathway increases the likelihood of it firing in the future - Creates new memory traces /neural pathways
Controlled Processes
- Require conscious control and intentional effort - Consume a large portion of attentional resources - These are serially process that take a relatively long time to execute compare to automatic processes - Usually novel, unpracticed or complicated tasks - High levels of cognitive processing
Physiological Evidence from the Prefrontal Cortex:
- Selective attention - Executive dysfunction - Hyperactivity - Impulsivity - ADHD hypo-activation of the prefrontal cortex
_______________________ appears to be stored_________________________ E.G. sight = occipital lobe
- Sensory information - In the cortex
As a memory is recalled, all the neurons in the memory trace are activated in ____________________. The strength and number of connections between each neuron increases________________________ of recall.
- Sequence - The ease and speed
Three main types of recall used in memory experiments
- Serial Recall - Free recall - Cued recall (paired-associates recall)
_____________________________ storage only tends to increase ____________________________ (function change).
- Short-term memory - Neurotransmitter production
4 Main Functions of Attention
- Signal detection & Vigilance - Search - Selective Attention - Divided Attention
Automatization Errors
- Slips - Mistakes
What are the 2 deepest stages of sleep
- Slow-wave sleep (SWS) - Rapid eye movement (REM)
Change blindness can effect everyday lives
- Social Interactions - Driving - Eyewitness Testimony - Air Traffic Control
Factors that can make blackouts more likely
- Speed in which blood alcohol level rises (shots, chugging, funnel) - If the person has eaten or not - Dehydration - More alcohol gets into to the blood stream in women
4 stages of sleep
- Stage 1 - Stage 2 - Slow-wave sleep (SWS) - Rapid eye movement (REM)
A Connectionist Perspective
- States that our brain can handle many operations and process at the same time. - This is different than previous models that were sequential
How to get explicit memory into long term memory
- Study which used pharmaceutical intervention found to little or too much cortisol resulted in memory impairment - When Cortisol levels were returned to normal memory was no longer disrupted
Measuring Working Memory
- Tests can be paired with a Secondary task in order to examine the Central Executive - Random Number Generator Tasks
Infantile Amnesia
- The difficulty or inability that adults have in remembering detailed or episodic memories from early childhood, generally prior to age 3 or 4 - Failure to associate new information meaningfully with other knowledge - Stable
Consolidation prevents
- The effects of interference and delay, and enable you to retrieve information back to consciousness - This can result in the memory becoming vulnerable again
Parallel Processing
- The simultaneous handling of multiple operations - Items are retrieved all together not one at a time
Schacter 7 sins of memory
- Transience - Absent-mindedness - Blocking - Misattribution - Suggestibility - Bias - Persistence
Two reasons we do not notice
- Unconscious filtering out of information to prepare to do a task - Limited short-term capacity: only can hold 5 pieces of information for 30 seconds. If something is not attended to it will not form a memory
Permastore
- Very long-term storage- foreign language and mathematics - Street names near childhood homes 40 years later
SDT theory suggest that people's performance deteriorates when
- Vigilance is required - Increased rates of misses. - Training can help but fatigue can only be helped by a break.
Patient S.'s memory ability
- Virtually no limits - Perfectly recall list of up to 70 items - Forwards and backwards - For 16 years
Encoding for Short-Term Storage
- Visual presentation of letters asked to write down each list of 6 letters in the order given. - Errors made were interestingly based on acoustic similarity. Eg. Confuse F for S, B for V etc
Logie (1995) suggested 2 subdivision
- Visuo-cache (store) - Inner scribe
Priming
- When how we respond to a stimulus is effected by a past stimulus - A prime can be positive or negative Ex: a person who sees the word "yellow" will be slightly faster to recognize the word "banana.
Parallel Processes
- When multiple automatic processes occur at once or in quick secession - Relatively fast - Familiar, practiced tasks - Low levels of cognitive processing
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
- When you try to remember information stored in your memory but can not be readily retrieved - Is a universal phenomenon - Anterior cingulate-prefrontal cortex is active during this phenomenon
Two strategies to elaborate encoding
- Within-item elaboration - Between-item elaboration
Covert
- Without movement of the eyes. An observer to 'looks out of the corner of his eye', independent of eye movements -You see something in peripheral - Outside your control
Recall
- You produce a word or fact from memory - Requires expressive knowledge Eg. Fill-in-the-blank, short answer and essay questions
Recognition
- You select or identify an item as being one you have been exposed to previously - Uses receptive knowledge = responsive to a stimulus Eg. Multiple choice and true-false questions
Participants in the cued recall remembered ________________. Cueing the recall resulted in the stored information being _______________________
- more words - more accessible
Working Memory
-Is considered an active memory -Recently activated facts move into and out of brief temporary memory storage - Will take from long term memory Ex: Read a question on test (STM) answer comes from long term
Attention
-Is the process by which we select and process a limited amount of information. -A subjective awareness of various things such as visual objects, events, thoughts, and emotions. -The preferential processing of one source of information over another.
3 sub-functions of attention
1. Alerting 2. Orienting 3. Executive Attention
Two Models of Memory
1. Atkinson & Shiffrin's Multistore Model 2. Levels-of-Processing Model
Two main types of rehearsal
1. Elaborative rehearsal 2. Maintenance rehearsal
2 types of Blackouts
1. Fragmentary blackouts 2. En bloc blackouts
What are the 4 possible outcomes make up the signal-detection matrix
1. Hits 2. Misses 3. False Alarms 4. Correct Rejection
Two Problems with Short-term to Long-term Memory
1. Interference 2. Decay
2 types of improving memory
1. Massed Practice 2. Spacing Effect
4 types of retrieval processing
1. Parallel Processing 2. Serial Processing 3. Exhaustive Serial Processing 4. Self-terminating Processing
Originally James proposed two structures of memory
1. Primary 2. Secondary
Two tasks that use implicit memory are
1. Priming 2. Procedural
Synapse strength can increase in 3 ways:
1. Release extra neurotransmitter (function change) 2. Increase number of receptor sites (structure change) 3. Growth of new synapses (structure change)
There are two kinds of interference
1. Retroactive 2. Proactive
3 types of amnesia
1. Retrograde amnesia 2. Anterograde amnesia 3. Infantile amnesia
Then Atkinson & Shiffrin proposed 3 structures of memory
1. Sensory store 2. Short-term Store 3. Long-term store
Baddeley's 5 elements of Working Memory
1. Visuospatial Sketchpad 2. Phonological Loop 3. Central Executive 4. Subsidiary Slave Systems 5. Episodic Buffer
Phonological Loop subdivided into the
1: Phonological store: (inner ear) 2. Articulatory process (inner voice)
ADHD is __________ more common in _______________________________
4 times males than in females
Sensory store holds approximately
9 items and decays rapidly (under 1 second)
Flashbulb memories
A memory of an event so powerful that the person remembers the event vividly Ex: JFK assassination or the destruction of the World Trade Center
Fragmentary blackouts
A partial blocking of memory Ex: A friend ask if you remember dancing on table, you don't at first, then you do remember
When perceived costs are higher than the possible benefits
A person is more likely to respond no to ambiguous stimuli
When perceived costs are less than the possible benefits
A person is more likely to respond yes to ambiguous stimuli
Synesthesia
A stimulus in one sensory modality involuntarily elicits a sensation/experience in another modality
Iconic store
A visual sensory register that holds information for a very short period of time E.g. Sparkler
Retrieval
Accessing or pulling out the information that is in storage
What appears to be the most important for short-term memory
Acoustic encoding
Inner scribe
Active rehearsal component that stores spatial codes and prevents both visual and spatial codes from decaying.
One in three cases of Alzheimer's disease worldwide is preventable. Main Risk factors are:
Age Diabetes Mid-life hypertension Mid-life obesity Physical inactivity Depression Smoking Low educational attainment
What part of the brain is involved in vigilance
Amygdala and the thalamus
Retention interval
As the amount of time that occurs between the initial learning stage and the memory recall stage
SDT involves
Attention, Perception & Memory
Perceive features of objects
Automatic does not need conscious attention. Explains why feature searches are easy.
Preattentive Processes
Automatic processes, notice physical sensory characteristics but do not discern meaning
Meta-memory
Awareness of the ways in which memory works
what does Slow-wave sleep (SWS) and Rapid eye movement (REM) do
Both have been implicated in memory consolidation
The middle items that you study are subjected to
Both retroactive and proactive interference
Absent mindedness
Brush your teeth when you already have. Forget why you entered a room
Temporary stress
Can heighten experience and emotional involvement can lead to faster consolidation of memories
Misattribution
Can not remember where information came from, or remember something that did not occur
Chronic stress
Can result in neuronal damage and sleep deficits
Forcing functions
Changing the environment to help remind us. Physical constraints that force us to at least think about the to-be-remembered information E.g. Book bag in front of door
Who studied the cocktail party effect and what how did he study it
Colin Cherry, studied it through shadowing
Between-item elaboration
Concentrates on connecting the to-be remembered items. So if asked to remember cat and Ball Ex: My cat loves catching balls
Within-item elaboration
Concentrates on each item as distinctive. So if asked to remember Cat and Ball Ex: My cat Karl I tripped over a ball this morning
Elaboration
Connecting new knowledge to concepts you already know. Prior knowledge act as anchor points. The more anchor points you can connect to, the more meaningful the new information becomes, and the more easily you will remember it
REM
Consolidation of implicit (procedural) memory
Effect of age on prospective memory
Contrary ecological and laboratory findings
Phonological Loop
Controls auditory information
Interactive Images
Create Interactive Images that link isolated words in a list Eg. scissors cut sock and apple falls out
Pegword system
Cued Ex: For example, to remember the seven deadly sins—lust, pride, greed, anger, sloth, envy, and gluttony—the number one could be associated with a bun, two with a shoe, three with a tree, four with a door, five with a hive, six with sticks, and seven with heaven. Then lust would be remembered by imagining a man drooling over a cinnamon bun, pride would be remembered by picturing a man polishing his expensive shoes, greed would be remembered by envisioning the word hanging from a tree in place of fruit, and so on.
Alzheimer's Disease leads to atrophy which is
Decrease in size of the brain, predominately in the hippocampus, frontal and temporal brain regions
Increase alertness and increase in RT speeds
Decreases in accuracy
Plaques
Dense protein deposits grow in the brain
Double Dissociation of function
Different neuropathology show opposite patterns of deficits. E.g.: Lesions in left parietal lobe show deficit in short-term memory but not long-term. Lesions in the medial temporal lobe show deficit in long-term not short-term
Tulving
Distinguished between 2 kinds of Explicit Memory
The Spacing Effect
Distributed practice (practice sessions spaced over time) improves the consolidation of information into long-term memory. Ideally over months
Automatization can enhance safety and skills such as
Diving, firefighting
Phonological
Does the word rhyme with Mat? Ex: CAT
NT involved in the executive attention is
Dopamine
Central executive connects too
Doroslateral profrontal cortex
Selective attention
Dorsal cingulate cortex
Executive dysfunction
Dorsolateral PFC
Elaborative rehearsal
Elaborating on the item as it is rehearsed. This moves information from short-term to long-term memory (cramming)
Revised theory
Emphasis shifted to the way people process the encoding of an item and the way it is retrieved
Slips
Errors in automatic processes
Mistakes
Errors in controlled processes
Implicit priming
Even when not told to explicitly remember a prime it effects the target task; even when presented below consciousness levels EX: Lion Zebra Panda Leopard Elephant Word fragment Completion: C_E_TA_ E_E_ _A_ N__ _E _ R A
Episodic memory
Events Ex: Remember breakfast yesterday
Perseverations
Ex: After starting a car you become distracted you may turn the car on again
Description errors
Ex: When putting away groceries , you may end up putting the ice cream in the cupboard and a can of soup in the freezer
Omissions
Ex: When you go to another room to retrieve something, a distraction (phone call) interrupts you and return to the first room without retrieving the item
Data-driven errors
Ex: While intending to dial a familiar phone number, if you hear someone call out another series of numbers, you dial some of those numbers instead
Capture Errors
Ex: undressing from work clothes, then putting on pj's and climbing into bed, only to realize you intended to remove your work clothes to go out to dinner
Amnesia most often involves damage to __________________ as oppose to
Explicit memory Implicit memory
Reminders
External memory aids E.g. taking notes, writing shopping lists, asking others to remind you, alarms etc
In what ways do we study memory distortions and how can they effect life?
Eyewitness Testimony
Semantic memory
Facts Ex: Who did you see at school yesterday
Theories explaining selective attention are either
Filter theories or bottleneck theories
Temporal Order Tasks
Focus Memory items Cue Test item + 5 3 7 2 *** 3 7 Which came Last?
Temporally Ordered Working Memory Load Tasks
Focus Memory items Cue Test item + 5 3 7 2 *** 4 Was 4 in the memory items?
N-Back Tasks: Find and Repeat n-back
Focus Test item Test item *** 5 3 7 2 Back 8 1 Back N = as any number Remember a larger sequence
Acrostic
Form a sentence to help you remember the new words Eg. Music: Every Good Boy Does Fine
How can we learn about how we organize information?
Free recall test
Loss-of-activation errors
Going to another room to do something and getting there only to ask ourselves, "what am I doing here" Perhaps eve worse is the nagging feeling "I know I should be doing something, but I can't remember what" Something on the environment triggers our recollection
Most common form of synesthesia
Grapheme-color synesthesia
Amygdala
Has a role in emotionally charged memories. Increased emotion = increased memory. Sex difference
Iconic memory
Has also been shown to be erasable
The mirror tracing task
Has been used to study the effects of sleep on memory and has lead to information that lead to the discovery of implicit memory. H.M.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: DSM-V
Has changed this to "several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms are present in two or more settings." Thus, symptoms must only be evident in more than one context but don't have to impair an individual's functioning in multiple contexts.
Patients with hippocampal damage
Have issues with storing new information or retrieving old memories
Serial Recall
Have to remember in exact order
Patients with perisylvian cortex damage
Have trouble with short-term memories
Long-term memory
Holds information we need for daily functioning e.g. peoples names, where things are, schedules ect.
Phonological store: (inner ear)
Holds words heard for approx. 2 seconds
Articulatory process (inner voice)
Holds words heard/seen and silently repeated (looped): subvocal rehearsal
The sensory store is also referred to as
Iconic store
Positive set
If participants were presented with a short list of 1-6 digits
Release from proactive interference
If the lists switches from number to words or letters, or if the information is semantically different a resurgence of learning is seen. Previously learned information no longer interferes with encoding the new information
Word Length Effect
Immediate serial recall is a direct function of the length of items being retained An example: sum, pay, wit, bar, hop Is much more likely to be recalled correctly than helicopter, university, television, alligator, opportunity This reflects the slower rehearsal of longer words that allows greater forgetting
Practice effects
Improvement in memory seen from rehearsal
Grapheme-color synesthesia
In which people perceive individual letters of the alphabet and number to be a color
Dopamine reuptake inhibitor
Increased availability of Da
Chunking of information
Increases our capacity Ex: 101001000100001000100
How to possibly diagnosis ADHD
Individuals younger than 17 must display at least 6 of 9 inattentive and/or hyperactive impulsive symptoms. This is the same number as was required in DSM-IV.
Preconscious Processing
Information is available to us even when that information is currently outside of our conscious awareness
Decay theory
Information is forgotten due to a gradual disappearance of the memory trace
ADHD hypo-activation of the prefrontal cortex
Insufficient DA
The quality of the signal
Intensity and frequency
Keyword System
Interactive image that links sound and meaning of a foreign word with the sound and meaning of a familiar word E.G. French word butter=beurre sounds like bear. Visualize a bear eating butter.
Sperling's experiment
Interested in measuring the capacity of sensory memory
SWS
Involved in the consolidation of explicit (declarative) memory
Object Perception
Involves connecting two or more features with some sort of mental glue and requires our conscious attention
Overt shift in attention
Involves head and/or eye movements toward the target
Implicit memory
Involves the basil ganglia and the cerebellum.
Signal-Detection Theory (SDT)
Is a mathematical, theoretical system of how people pick out important stimuli that is embedded in large amounts of irrelevant, distracting stimuli
Eyewitness testimony
Is a strong predictor of whether or not a jury will convict
SDT assumes perception
Is controlled by evidence (stimuli) and decision-making processes
The alert state
Is critical for optimal performance in tasks involving higher cognitive functions
Sub-vocalization
Is not occurring due to insufficient language abilities
Accessibility
Is our ability to gain access to the available information
Availability
Is the presence of the information in long-term memory
Articulatory Suppression
Is the process of inhibiting memory performance by speaking while being presented with an item to remember Ex: clock Marshmallow Lamp Sunglasses Computer Chocolate
Orienting
Is the process of selecting information from sensory input processing them more efficiently and prioritizing their processing
Reconsolidation
Is the same process as consolidation but on previously consolidated information. Occurs with information recently encoded
Serial-position effect
Is the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst.
Pain catastrophizing
Is the tendency to describe a pain experience in more exaggerated terms than the average person, to ruminate on it more (e.g., "I kept thinking 'this is terrible'"), and/or to feel more helpless about the experience ("I thought it was never going to get better")
Semantic
Is the word a type of plant? Ex: DAFFODIL
Physical
Is the word is Capitals? Ex: TABLE
Memory retrieval
Is typically thought of as reconstructive in nature
Blindsight
Is when there are traces of visual perceptual ability in blind areas
How does blindsight occur?
It occurs in people who are cortically blind
Miss
It's happening, but you don't notice it
Rotary-Pursuit task
Keep stylus on a dot on a rotating disk
Method of Loci
Link to be remembered words with a places in a distinct environment Example: For a walk-through, you might mentally store the introduction of your speech in the mailbox near your front door, symbolizing the beginning of your speech. Continue throughout your imaginary walk, and in each new location, mentally store another element from your speech until you have completed your mental walk and reached the end of your speech
Massed practice
Long sessions is a small amount of time is not an effective strategy for learning
Transience
Memories fade quickl
How does memory transfer short-term to Long-term Memory
Memory consolidation
What is the alternative to repressed memories?
Memory distortions
Procedural
Memory for processes E.g. driving, walking to class
Retrospective memory
Memory for the past
Schemas
Mental frameworks the represent knowledge in a meaningful way
Hyperactivity
Motor cortex
_______________________ has been indicated as important to maintaining alertness
NT norepinephrine
Ambiguous
No clear answer
Capacity of long term memory
No idea appears infinite
Correct rejection
Nothing is happen, person thinks nothing is happening, person is correct on the idea of nothing happening
Attentive, controlled processes
Occur later happen serially and consume time and attentional resources. More detailed information
Self-terminating Processing
Once you have the pertinent information processing ends
Serial Processing
Operations are done one after another. Items are retrieved in succession
Impulsivity
Orbital frontal cortex
Categorical Clustering
Organize a list of items into a set of categories Eg. Groceries, fruit, dairy, grain
The voluntary control of attention regulates ______________________
Orienting and alerting
Tangles
Pairs of filaments that become twisted around each other within the cell body and dendrites of neurons
Retrieval from Long-Term Memor
Participants are acoustically presented with a category then a words that fit within that category
How do we know blindsight exist?
Patient D.B.
Inattentional Blindness
People Fail to see things within their visual field that are there
Bias
People are biased in their recall. Bias may either enhance or impair the recall of memory, or they may alter the content of what we report remembering
Suggestibility
People are susceptible to suggestion
Persistence
People selectively remember events Example: we persist to remember our one mistake but feel no need to remember all the time we did not make a mistake
Dissociation of function
People with brain lesions do not demonstrate a mental function seen in people with healthy brains.
What effects SDT responses?
Peoples responses are a consequence of both their perceptual sensitivity to the stimuli presented and their decision strategy or bias toward saying some thing is there or not when they are in doubt.
Automatization can hinder our effectiveness at times as well
Pilots Destination Stroop Effect
Capacity models of attention
Posit people have a fixed amount of attention that they can choose to allocate towards various tasks
Memory affected by emotional states suggest that
Positive self-esteem results in remembering more positive events while negative self-esteem resulted in more negative events being remembered
What is used to study preconscious processing
Priming
Constructive
Prior experience affects how and what we recall from memory
Amnesia studies
Provide neurological evidence of the idea of short-term and long-term memory being two separate processes
Interference theory
Refers to the forgetting that occurs because the recall of certain words interferes with recall of other words
Instead of inner scribe Johnson believed in
Refresh mechanism (over and over again)
Self-reference effect
Relate the word to yourself better recall
Rehearsal
Repeatedly reciting an item
Maintenance rehearsal
Repeating the items to be remembered. The simply maintains the information in short-term memory. Insufficient for organization and transfer to long-term memory
The serial-position curve
Represents the likelihood of remembering an item based on its serial position(order of presentation) in a list
Reconstructive
Retrieving the original memory trace to rebuild the original experience
Visospatial memory connects too
Right Hemisphere
Medications for ADHD
Ritalin - methylphenidate Metadate - methylphenidate Strattera - atomoxetine
Are all mnemonic strategies equally effective?
Roediger found Interactive imagery, method of loci & pegword systems most effective for learning isolated items in both serial and free recall tasks
Source-Monitoring Error
Same as misattribution we forget were we obtained information
What is primary importance in long-term memory
Semantic encoding
What is not of primary importance for short-term memory
Semantics
Damage to the visual cortex impairs the persons ability to consciously perceive visual information
Sensation without perception
The dentate gyrus of the hippocampus
Shows daily generation of hundreds of new neurons with a short life span - increased learning results in increased new neuronal survival rates
Hit
Something is happening, and you see it
Location of the sound source
Sounds come from the left side, you will turn your head to left
Feature-Integration Theory
States there are 2 stages involved in perceiving objects
Metamemory
Strategies that involve reflecting on our memory processes to improve our memory
Primacy effect
Superior recall of items learned first (beginning of the list)
Recency Effect
Superior recall of things learned most recently (end of a list)
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: DSM-IV
Symptoms were required to cause some impairment in at least 2 settings. Thus, not only did symptoms need to be evident in more than one setting, e.g., both school and home, but they also had to undermine the child's functioning in multiple settings.
What is patient S's memory ability connected too
Synesthesia
Memory consolidation
Taking to-be-remembered information from the fleeting short-term memory to enduring long-term memory
Cingulo-opercular system
Task set maintenance
Mnemonic Devices
Techniques used to help organize and memorize information
Phonological loop connects too
Temporal lobes of the left hemisphere
Stress can impair or improve memory
Temporary stress vs chronic stress
Luria published a book about patient S's memory called
The Mind of a Mnemonist
Anterograde Amnesia
The inability to remember events that occur after a traumatic event
Similarity Theory
The more similar the target and distracters are the more difficult it will be to find the target. How different the distracters are from each other also impacts search success but the number of features have no effect.
Decay
The passing of time results in a memory failure
Memory
The process we use to take in, retain & draw on information from our past experience to use in the present
If something in your visual field changed dramatically right before your eyes, you would notice it immediately?
The reality is that there is simply too much information for your brain to fully process and be aware of every single thing that happens in the world around you
Criticism Output Interference
The time it takes to report interferes with iconic memory
Negative set
Then after a brief pause a digit is presented and the participant has to say whether or not it was part of the positive set or not
Once memories are stored
They are organized
Refinement
To control or reduce output interference participant's only have to report on one letter at a time = 12 items
Consciousness refers
To our awareness of our own mental processes, such as our thoughts, feelings, and sensations
Prospective memory
To-do lists, alarms, verbal reminders, string around finger
Cocktail party effect
Tracking one conversation while distracted by others
Encoding
Transform sensory data into a mental representation
Who is the father of cognitive psychology
Ulric Neisser
Name a theory why pain catastrophizing happens
Unattentional blindness
Acronym
Use the first letter of the words to create a new word EG. KISS, I AM PACK
Progression of Alzheimer
Usually the disease begins with impairment of episodic memory. Semantic memory tends to go as the diseases progresses. Implicit memory is spared until the end
Attention shifts and target tracking appears to involve the
Ventral pathway
Subvocal rehearsal
Verbally labeling pictures
Procedural memory
Walking, riding a bike, swimming, etc
State of consciousness
We are more likely to retrieve information in the same stat we were in when we learned it. Ex: Alcohol, caffeine
Slips occur mainly when
We deviate from a routine automatic processes are interrupted
Conjunction Search
We have to combine two or more features to find the stimulus we are looking for. The number of targets and distracters plays a role in conjunction searches
Feature Search
We look for just one feature that makes our search subject different from others. Decreases the effect of distracters
Spreading Activation
We related words and events to other words and events
Why do we not notice decay?
We see information up to 150 milliseconds after it is terminated
Encoding Specificity
What is recalled is dependent on what is encoded
Free recall
Whatever way you can remember it
Voluntary
When a person searches the visual field for a target
Reflexive
When a sudden target event directs attention to its location. Eg Flash of light.
Interference
When competing information interferes with memory storage
Automatization
When controlled process becomes an automatic process
Associative-activation errors
When expecting someone to arrive at the door , if the phone rings, you may call out "come in"
Self-referencing effect
When people generate their own cues for retrieval they are more powerful then cues given by someone else
Implicit
When we use information from memory but are not consciously aware that we are doing it
En bloc blackouts
When you can't remember an entire chunk of your life from drinking.
How does unattentional blindness effect medicine
When you go into surgery and if you focus on the pain you will come out of surgery in pain, and takes longer for you to go back to work. Compared to someone who doesn't focus on the pain, they can go back to work quicker
Shadowing
When you listen to two different messages through dichotic presentation and must repeat back only the message you were told to attend and ignore the other
False alarm
When you think something is happening when not ex: life guard, you think someone is drowning
Storage
Where you keep encoded information
External effects on retrieval
You are more likely to retrieve information in the same environment were you learned it Ex: Diver experiment.
Exhaustive Serial Processing
You compare all options
Blocking
You know something and you know you know it but can not retrieve it
For short-term memory ___________________ is more important than a ______________________
acoustic code visual code
Information in the hippocampus is maintained before it ________________________________________
has a neocortical representation
Explicit needs the ____________________ Implicit
hippocampus does not appear too
Recognition memory
is usually better than recall memory
Two tasks right after each other results speed of the second tasks is slower
psychological refractory period or attentional blink
The hippocampus is a ___________________________
rapid learning system
Simple tasks that requires speedy responses
responses for one or both takes are slower
Sensory information is sent to the __________________________
retina then to the visual cortex
Preconscious information includes
stored memories and sensations
High level cognition necessary to resolve ________________________
the retrieval failure
Covert and Overt shifts of attention result in neural activation in __________________________________________
the same areas of the brain
Long-term memory does involve
visual and acoustic encoding as well
High intensity stimuli
will result in more Hits
Low intensity stimuli
will result in more misses