Cognitive process Test #2

Patient S. Was reported to have

- 6 different types of Synesthesia - Which was partially what they accredited his incredible memory too - Remember long lists of items by taking a mental stroll down a familiar street and imagining the items in various locations along the street. - Later, to remember the items, he took a stroll down memory lane and reported all the items in correct order

Vigilance

- A person's ability to attend to a field of stimulation for a prolonged period searching to detect the appearance of a particular stimulus of interest. - This requires sustained attention. - Is needed when a stimulus occurs rarely but needs immediate attention when it does occur - Is able to be applied to a narrower radius accurately

Alzheimer's

- A progressive disorder of older adults that includes dementia and progressive memory loss - 1% of people between 70-75 years of age. - Increases to 6% between ages 80-85. - Exception early-onset Alzheimer's disease: 50's or even as young as 20

Central Executive

- Allocates attention within the working memory system. - Divide Attention - Switching Attention - Flexible - It controls other systems by determining how resources will be allocated - Decides what is important - Control process from attention

Hypermnesia

- An increment improvement in recall (over multiple recall attempts. The process of retrieving memories previously thought to be forgotten - Involves trying many diverse retrieval cues, such as Psychodynamic therapy - Risks with trying to retrieve old or inaccessible memories no way to verify they are accurate

Factors that influence our ability to pay attention

- Anxiety - Arousal - Task Difficulty - Skills

Divided Attention

- Anytime you engage in two or more tasks at the same time - People can get better at dividing their attention with practice

Dysfunction of Attentional Processes

- Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - Change Blindness - Inattentional Blindness - Spatial Neglect

Episodic Buffer

- Back-up Store - Integrates information from all other areas to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information. - Links to long-term memory and semantic meaning - Sequencing

Presence of noise

- Background distractions that can mask or confuse the detection of the signal - Noise is AlWAYS present

Two models:

- Believes there is one pool of attentional resources that can be divided freely - Believes there are multiple sources of attention; one for each modality

Two stages that impact of DA alterations during development

- Birth-3 years of age involves intentse neurogenesis, synaptic overproduction, axon branching, differentiation, and migration. - 7-15 years of age involves pruning and elimination to refine neural networks and enhances cognitive processes

Visuospatial Sketchpad

- Briefly maintains and manipulates spatial and visual information - How things look and where they are - Interface between visual and spatial information accessed either by senses or long term memory - Limited capacity Ex: How many windows are in the front of your house? (pictured apartment, picturing all the windows)

Types of Slips that can occur

- Capture Errors - Omissions - Perseverations - Description errors - Data-driven errors - Associative-activation errors - Loss-of-activation errors

Mnemonic Devices techniques

- Categorical clustering - Interactive images - Pegword system - Method of loci - Acronyms - Acrostics - Keyword system

Conscious Attention

- Causal role in cognition - Plays a role in how we think

Eyewitness Testimony: Children

- Children are more susceptible to memory distortions - The younger children the more susceptible they are to suggestion, particularly pre-school aged children - Children aim to please adults if an adult is expecting an answer they child will be prone to give it. Less likely to say I don't know - Children are more susceptible to misattribution errors - Effect of uniformed officers

Treatments for Alzheimer's Disease

- Cholinesterase inhibitors (Donepezil) - NMDA receptor antagonists (Memantine)

Is semantic encoding more important that acoustic for short-term memory? Baddeley experiment

- Compared semantically similar words (big, long, large, wide) to semantically dissimilar words (old, late, hot, strong) - No significant difference in recall between these two lists

Retention Delay Tasks

- Cue - Blank screen - Stimulus (image of colored squares in different spots) - Retention - Test ( is blue square in the same spot) - Most simple way to test working memory

Signal detection

- Detecting the appearance of a signal - We decide if it exist or if it doesn't

Three Steps in Orienting:

- Disengagement - Shifting of Attention - Re-engaging of Attention

Things that help us attend only to the message of interest are

- Distinctive sensory characteristics od the targets speech - Sound intensity - Location of the sound source

Selective Attention

- Early Filter Model - Late Filter Model

Symptoms for Inattentive subtype

- Easily distracted by irrelevant sights and sounds - Fail to pay attention to details - Susceptible to making careless mistakes in their work - Fail to read instructions completely or carefully - Susceptible to forgetting or losing things they need for tasks - Jump from one incomplete task to another

Three operations of memory

- Encoding - Storage - Retrieval

2 kinds of explicit memory (automatic process)

- Episodic - Semantic

Forced-choice tasks

- Even if they don't know they are asked to guess anyways - D.B. 80% correct when guessing

Hippocampus key in ___________________. Involved in encoding, ______________________________________________________________________

- Explicit memory - Integrating, consolidating, transferring and retrieval

Two kinds of searches:

- Feature search - Conjunction search

what are the 2 theories

- Feature-integration - Similarity theory

Symptoms for hyper-active subtype

- Fidgets with or taps hands or squirms in seat. - Often leaves seat in situations when remaining seated is - Often runs about or climbs in situations where it is inappropriate - Often unable to play or engage in leisure activities quietly; - Often "on the go" acting as if "driven by a motor" - Often talks excessively; - Often blurts out answers before questions have been completed - Often has difficulty awaiting turn - Often interrupts or intrudes on others

Executive Attention

- Filters out unimportant/irrelevant information. - Responsible for monitoring, planning and flexibly switching attention between tasks - Responsible for generating novel responses & overriding dominant responses in favor of performing subdominant responses. Eg Cake - Regulates our thoughts, emotions and behaviours.

Recall test had two conditions

- Free recall - Cued recall

Long-term memory produces __________________ and _______________changes

- Functional - Structural

Short-term store

- Holds information for about 30 seconds unless rehearsed - Capacity is approx. 7 items +/- 2 - The 7 items can be simple or complex

Backward visual masking

- If you present a letter after a target letter in the exact same space and location it will erase the first letter. - If within 100 milliseconds images will super impose E.g. F + L = E

Chronic methylphenidate use has bee shown to result in

- Impaired object and spatial memory - Increases in anxiety - Anhedonia - Behavioural despair - Deficits in sexual behavior

Can Eyewitness Testimony be improved?

- Improving questioning processes to reduce potential leading questions. - Line-ups should present on person at a time. - All people should be as close to description given as possible. - Informing witness the perpetrator may not be in the line-up at all. - Inform Jury's about the issues inherent to eyewitness testimony (controversial)

What was the study that Simons and Levin carried out

- In which participants started to have a conversation with a stranger. This stranger was then replaced by a different stranger during a brief interruption (e.g., a large object coming between them). - Many participants simply did not realize that their conversational partner had changed

Locus coeruleus

- In your pons - Helps activate reticular formation - Involves in arousal which is a part of being alert

2 types of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

- Inattentive subtype - hyper-active subtype

Two main components to decision making:

- Information acquisition - Criterion or Response bias

The Levels-of-Processing Model Criticism

- Involves a circular definition - Does not account for the success of uses of memory strategies such as rhyming

Expressive knowledge

- Involves making requests, giving information, and labeling things. - Is difficult because the need to recall the word or words they want to communicate and be able too. E.g.. Toddler, test.

Search

- Involves using our attentional resources to actively and often times skillfully seek out a target. Search is a scan of the environment for particular features - Can result in false alarms and search is made more difficult by distracters

False memories

- Is a fabricated or distorted recollection of an event - We are susceptible to errors and subtle suggestions can trigger them - People with exceptional memories are susceptible to false memories as well - People can feel completely confident that their memory is accurate, but this confidence is no guarantee that a particular memory is correct

Change blindness

- Is a failure of visual awareness - Is the failure to notice an obvious change

Music

- Is also an effective retrieval cue - Make up a song with the to-be-remembered information to a simple well known tune

Spatial Neglect

- Is an attentional dysfunction in which patients ignore the half of their visual field that is contralateral to the hemisphere that has a lesion - If asked to copy pictures will only copy half the picture - Attentional dysfunction in which patients fail to attend or ignore the left half of their visual field

Memory storage

- Is dependent on the type of knowledge to be remembered. - Explicit (declarative) or Implicit (non-declarative)

Relearning

- Is measured in memory studies and involves the number of trials it takes to remember something previously known - Savings occurs in children, adults and animals. E.g. Spanish.

Autobiographical memory

- Is memory of a person's history - Creates who we are - People remember their construction and/or reconstruction of what occurred rather than exact facts - Studies show to be generally good for central themes with mistakes predominately occurring in the details

Repressed memories

- Is the idea that if a traumatic event occurs as a child the trauma of the event can lead it to be repressed or inaccessible. - No evidence supporting their existence

Alerting

- Is the process of achieving and maintaining a state of high sensitivity to incoming stimuli - Involves a change in the internal state in preparation for perceiving a stimulus that are high priority in their environment

Amnesia

- Is the severe loss of memory - Shows normal priming but poor recognition memory -They didn't remember having seen the word list, but completed the word fragments at the same rate as people without it

Proactive

- Is when information learned in the past interferes the learning of new information. Interfering material occurs before learning to-be-remembered information - Things learned last only subjective

Retroactive

- Is when new information hinders the recall of older material. Interference is caused by activity after we have learned something but before recall - Things learned first only subjective

Encoding for Long-term Storage

- Learn 41 words - 5 mins later - recognition test. - Recognition test included distractors (words that were not on the lists but were plausible) 9 distractors were semantically related to words on the list, 9 were not related - False alarm errors were significantly more frequent for the semantically related words

Semantics

- Learning the meaning of the information - Connecting the new incoming information to information already stored

Retrograde Amnesia

- Lose memory for events that occur before the trauma that caused the memory loss - Earliest memories first

The Levels-of-Processing Model (LOP)

- Memory is a continuous dimension in terms of depth of encoding - Different ways to process information lead to different strengths of memories - How things are processed is key to storage depth

Alzheimer symptoms

- Memory loss - Problems doing familiar task - Problems with language - Trouble knowing the time, date, or place - Poor or decreased judgement - Problems with abstract thinking - Misplace things often

Alcohol and transfer of information from Short term memory to Long term memory

- Memory loss amnesia are common side effects of binge drinking - When people black out they are conscious but unable to create LTM - Not that you forgot, you just didn't know because it didn't make it to LTM

Concussions are a common cause of

- Mild retrograde amnesia Ex: Russell & Nathan study a 22 year old who had severe cause of retrograde amnesia. Thought it was 1922 (was 1933) believed he was a school boy. Memory returned after 10 weeks, latest memories first.

Parallel Distributed Processing Model

- Model of memory in which knowledge is represented as connections among thousands of interacting processing units, distributed in a vast network, and all operating in parallel - New experiences are not only stored but also change one's overall knowledge base - Minds similar to computer

Conscious Attention served 3 purposes:

- Monitors the environment - Links past memories with present sensations resulting in a continuity of experience - Control and plan future actions

Why does it matter to improve memory

- Multiple rehearsal (study sessions) may result in multiple strategies for encoding to occur = elaborate schema. - Diverse contexts strengthens encoding and assists in consolidation. - Sleep effects memory consolidation as well

________________ for memory formation. Neurons with the hippocampus are_____________.

- Neural basis - Plastic

Can listening to to-be-remembered items during sleep improve memory?

- North Western University: participants learn a task, the tones learned in the task are played during sleep - Participant's learning improved

How does Automatization occur?

- One theory is that: practice of various steps becomes more efficient. Individual steps become integrated components that become one single operation. Eg. Driving - Alternate theory Instance theory: automatization occurs because of the accumulation of knowledge about specific responses to specific stimuli. Eg Math.

How does sleep consolidate memory

- Our brain is making pathways stronger be rehearsing - Reactivates learning pathways - Makes memories stronger

Savant Syndrome

- Outstanding memory - Person with mental disability who are capable of performing remarkable facts in specific areas at a remarkably high levels - Rare - Linked to autism: 10% people with autism have it - 50% people with it have autistic spectrum disorder

Rehearsal techniques can be _____________ or _________________

- Overt (aloud) - Covert (silent)

Psychotherapy

- Parenting intervention - Schedules, importance's of consequence - Tools to succeed

Visuo-cache (store)

- Passive storage component that is subject to decay and interference by new visual information - Degrade quickly

Explicit

- People engage in conscious recollection. Recall and recognition tasks both use explicit memory. - Memory for facts and events - Changes over our lifetimes: infants and older adults tend to have poorer explicit memory

Automatic Processes

- Performed without conscious control and demand little or no effort - Consumes negligible attentional resources

Mnemonist

- Person with extraordinary memory ability, usually based on learning special techniques for memory enhancement - Worked towards better memory

In progressive order:

- Physical - Phonological - Semantic - Self-reference effect

States two processes govern attention

- Preattentive Processes - Attentive, controlled processes

Three primary subtypes of ADHD:

- Predominately Hyperactive-Impulsive: Executive Function - Predominately Inattentive: Alerting and orientating - Combined Type: All three

Whole-report procedure

- Presented for 50 milliseconds: a glance - If asked to report everything they saw would report approx. 4 items

Partial-report procedure

- Presented stimulus for 50 milliseconds. - Recall only 1 line of information - Tones indicate which line: high medium low - If immediate: 9 out of 12 items

Cholinesterase inhibitors (Donepezil)

- Prevent the breakdown of acetylcholine, a NT important for learning and memory. Supporting communication among nerve cells. - Delay or slow worsening of symptoms. - Effectiveness varies from person to person. - Are generally well tolerated. If side effects occur, they commonly include nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite and increased frequency of bowel movements.

Non-declarative (Implicit) Memory Storage

- Priming and habituation are highly volatile and decay quickly - However, procedural and conditioned responses are more readily maintained

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Treatments Used

- Psychotherapy - Combination medication and psychotherapy

Types of Tasks used for measuring memory

- Recall - Recognition

Orienting can be:

- Reflexive - Voluntary

NMDA receptor antagonists (Memantine)

- Regulates the activity of glutamate, involved in information processing, storage and retrieval. - Improves mental function and ability to perform daily activities for some people. - Can cause side effects, including headache, constipation, confusion and dizziness

Long-term potentiation

- Repeated stimulation of a neural pathway increases the likelihood of it firing in the future - Creates new memory traces /neural pathways

Controlled Processes

- Require conscious control and intentional effort - Consume a large portion of attentional resources - These are serially process that take a relatively long time to execute compare to automatic processes - Usually novel, unpracticed or complicated tasks - High levels of cognitive processing

Physiological Evidence from the Prefrontal Cortex:

- Selective attention - Executive dysfunction - Hyperactivity - Impulsivity - ADHD hypo-activation of the prefrontal cortex

_______________________ appears to be stored_________________________ E.G. sight = occipital lobe

- Sensory information - In the cortex

As a memory is recalled, all the neurons in the memory trace are activated in ____________________. The strength and number of connections between each neuron increases________________________ of recall.

- Sequence - The ease and speed

Three main types of recall used in memory experiments

- Serial Recall - Free recall - Cued recall (paired-associates recall)

_____________________________ storage only tends to increase ____________________________ (function change).

- Short-term memory - Neurotransmitter production

4 Main Functions of Attention

- Signal detection & Vigilance - Search - Selective Attention - Divided Attention

Automatization Errors

- Slips - Mistakes

What are the 2 deepest stages of sleep

- Slow-wave sleep (SWS) - Rapid eye movement (REM)

Change blindness can effect everyday lives

- Social Interactions - Driving - Eyewitness Testimony - Air Traffic Control

Factors that can make blackouts more likely

- Speed in which blood alcohol level rises (shots, chugging, funnel) - If the person has eaten or not - Dehydration - More alcohol gets into to the blood stream in women

4 stages of sleep

- Stage 1 - Stage 2 - Slow-wave sleep (SWS) - Rapid eye movement (REM)

A Connectionist Perspective

- States that our brain can handle many operations and process at the same time. - This is different than previous models that were sequential

How to get explicit memory into long term memory

- Study which used pharmaceutical intervention found to little or too much cortisol resulted in memory impairment - When Cortisol levels were returned to normal memory was no longer disrupted

Measuring Working Memory

- Tests can be paired with a Secondary task in order to examine the Central Executive - Random Number Generator Tasks

Infantile Amnesia

- The difficulty or inability that adults have in remembering detailed or episodic memories from early childhood, generally prior to age 3 or 4 - Failure to associate new information meaningfully with other knowledge - Stable

Consolidation prevents

- The effects of interference and delay, and enable you to retrieve information back to consciousness - This can result in the memory becoming vulnerable again

Parallel Processing

- The simultaneous handling of multiple operations - Items are retrieved all together not one at a time

Schacter 7 sins of memory

- Transience - Absent-mindedness - Blocking - Misattribution - Suggestibility - Bias - Persistence

Two reasons we do not notice

- Unconscious filtering out of information to prepare to do a task - Limited short-term capacity: only can hold 5 pieces of information for 30 seconds. If something is not attended to it will not form a memory

Permastore

- Very long-term storage- foreign language and mathematics - Street names near childhood homes 40 years later

SDT theory suggest that people's performance deteriorates when

- Vigilance is required - Increased rates of misses. - Training can help but fatigue can only be helped by a break.

Patient S.'s memory ability

- Virtually no limits - Perfectly recall list of up to 70 items - Forwards and backwards - For 16 years

Encoding for Short-Term Storage

- Visual presentation of letters asked to write down each list of 6 letters in the order given. - Errors made were interestingly based on acoustic similarity. Eg. Confuse F for S, B for V etc

Logie (1995) suggested 2 subdivision

- Visuo-cache (store) - Inner scribe

Priming

- When how we respond to a stimulus is effected by a past stimulus - A prime can be positive or negative Ex: a person who sees the word "yellow" will be slightly faster to recognize the word "banana.

Parallel Processes

- When multiple automatic processes occur at once or in quick secession - Relatively fast - Familiar, practiced tasks - Low levels of cognitive processing

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

- When you try to remember information stored in your memory but can not be readily retrieved - Is a universal phenomenon - Anterior cingulate-prefrontal cortex is active during this phenomenon

Two strategies to elaborate encoding

- Within-item elaboration - Between-item elaboration

Covert

- Without movement of the eyes. An observer to 'looks out of the corner of his eye', independent of eye movements -You see something in peripheral - Outside your control

Recall

- You produce a word or fact from memory - Requires expressive knowledge Eg. Fill-in-the-blank, short answer and essay questions

Recognition

- You select or identify an item as being one you have been exposed to previously - Uses receptive knowledge = responsive to a stimulus Eg. Multiple choice and true-false questions

Participants in the cued recall remembered ________________. Cueing the recall resulted in the stored information being _______________________

- more words - more accessible

Working Memory

-Is considered an active memory -Recently activated facts move into and out of brief temporary memory storage - Will take from long term memory Ex: Read a question on test (STM) answer comes from long term

Attention

-Is the process by which we select and process a limited amount of information. -A subjective awareness of various things such as visual objects, events, thoughts, and emotions. -The preferential processing of one source of information over another.

3 sub-functions of attention

1. Alerting 2. Orienting 3. Executive Attention

Two Models of Memory

1. Atkinson & Shiffrin's Multistore Model 2. Levels-of-Processing Model

Two main types of rehearsal

1. Elaborative rehearsal 2. Maintenance rehearsal

2 types of Blackouts

1. Fragmentary blackouts 2. En bloc blackouts

What are the 4 possible outcomes make up the signal-detection matrix

1. Hits 2. Misses 3. False Alarms 4. Correct Rejection

Two Problems with Short-term to Long-term Memory

1. Interference 2. Decay

2 types of improving memory

1. Massed Practice 2. Spacing Effect

4 types of retrieval processing

1. Parallel Processing 2. Serial Processing 3. Exhaustive Serial Processing 4. Self-terminating Processing

Originally James proposed two structures of memory

1. Primary 2. Secondary

Two tasks that use implicit memory are

1. Priming 2. Procedural

Synapse strength can increase in 3 ways:

1. Release extra neurotransmitter (function change) 2. Increase number of receptor sites (structure change) 3. Growth of new synapses (structure change)

There are two kinds of interference

1. Retroactive 2. Proactive

3 types of amnesia

1. Retrograde amnesia 2. Anterograde amnesia 3. Infantile amnesia

Then Atkinson & Shiffrin proposed 3 structures of memory

1. Sensory store 2. Short-term Store 3. Long-term store

Baddeley's 5 elements of Working Memory

1. Visuospatial Sketchpad 2. Phonological Loop 3. Central Executive 4. Subsidiary Slave Systems 5. Episodic Buffer

Phonological Loop subdivided into the

1: Phonological store: (inner ear) 2. Articulatory process (inner voice)

ADHD is __________ more common in _______________________________

4 times males than in females

Sensory store holds approximately

9 items and decays rapidly (under 1 second)

Flashbulb memories

A memory of an event so powerful that the person remembers the event vividly Ex: JFK assassination or the destruction of the World Trade Center

Fragmentary blackouts

A partial blocking of memory Ex: A friend ask if you remember dancing on table, you don't at first, then you do remember

When perceived costs are higher than the possible benefits

A person is more likely to respond no to ambiguous stimuli

When perceived costs are less than the possible benefits

A person is more likely to respond yes to ambiguous stimuli

Synesthesia

A stimulus in one sensory modality involuntarily elicits a sensation/experience in another modality

Iconic store

A visual sensory register that holds information for a very short period of time E.g. Sparkler

Retrieval

Accessing or pulling out the information that is in storage

What appears to be the most important for short-term memory

Acoustic encoding

Inner scribe

Active rehearsal component that stores spatial codes and prevents both visual and spatial codes from decaying.

One in three cases of Alzheimer's disease worldwide is preventable. Main Risk factors are:

Age Diabetes Mid-life hypertension Mid-life obesity Physical inactivity Depression Smoking Low educational attainment

What part of the brain is involved in vigilance

Amygdala and the thalamus

Retention interval

As the amount of time that occurs between the initial learning stage and the memory recall stage

SDT involves

Attention, Perception & Memory

Perceive features of objects

Automatic does not need conscious attention. Explains why feature searches are easy.

Preattentive Processes

Automatic processes, notice physical sensory characteristics but do not discern meaning

Meta-memory

Awareness of the ways in which memory works

what does Slow-wave sleep (SWS) and Rapid eye movement (REM) do

Both have been implicated in memory consolidation

The middle items that you study are subjected to

Both retroactive and proactive interference

Absent mindedness

Brush your teeth when you already have. Forget why you entered a room

Temporary stress

Can heighten experience and emotional involvement can lead to faster consolidation of memories

Misattribution

Can not remember where information came from, or remember something that did not occur

Chronic stress

Can result in neuronal damage and sleep deficits

Forcing functions

Changing the environment to help remind us. Physical constraints that force us to at least think about the to-be-remembered information E.g. Book bag in front of door

Who studied the cocktail party effect and what how did he study it

Colin Cherry, studied it through shadowing

Between-item elaboration

Concentrates on connecting the to-be remembered items. So if asked to remember cat and Ball Ex: My cat loves catching balls

Within-item elaboration

Concentrates on each item as distinctive. So if asked to remember Cat and Ball Ex: My cat Karl I tripped over a ball this morning

Elaboration

Connecting new knowledge to concepts you already know. Prior knowledge act as anchor points. The more anchor points you can connect to, the more meaningful the new information becomes, and the more easily you will remember it

REM

Consolidation of implicit (procedural) memory

Effect of age on prospective memory

Contrary ecological and laboratory findings

Phonological Loop

Controls auditory information

Interactive Images

Create Interactive Images that link isolated words in a list Eg. scissors cut sock and apple falls out

Pegword system

Cued Ex: For example, to remember the seven deadly sins—lust, pride, greed, anger, sloth, envy, and gluttony—the number one could be associated with a bun, two with a shoe, three with a tree, four with a door, five with a hive, six with sticks, and seven with heaven. Then lust would be remembered by imagining a man drooling over a cinnamon bun, pride would be remembered by picturing a man polishing his expensive shoes, greed would be remembered by envisioning the word hanging from a tree in place of fruit, and so on.

Alzheimer's Disease leads to atrophy which is

Decrease in size of the brain, predominately in the hippocampus, frontal and temporal brain regions

Increase alertness and increase in RT speeds

Decreases in accuracy

Plaques

Dense protein deposits grow in the brain

Double Dissociation of function

Different neuropathology show opposite patterns of deficits. E.g.: Lesions in left parietal lobe show deficit in short-term memory but not long-term. Lesions in the medial temporal lobe show deficit in long-term not short-term

Tulving

Distinguished between 2 kinds of Explicit Memory

The Spacing Effect

Distributed practice (practice sessions spaced over time) improves the consolidation of information into long-term memory. Ideally over months

Automatization can enhance safety and skills such as

Diving, firefighting

Phonological

Does the word rhyme with Mat? Ex: CAT

NT involved in the executive attention is

Dopamine

Central executive connects too

Doroslateral profrontal cortex

Selective attention

Dorsal cingulate cortex

Executive dysfunction

Dorsolateral PFC

Elaborative rehearsal

Elaborating on the item as it is rehearsed. This moves information from short-term to long-term memory (cramming)

Revised theory

Emphasis shifted to the way people process the encoding of an item and the way it is retrieved

Slips

Errors in automatic processes

Mistakes

Errors in controlled processes

Implicit priming

Even when not told to explicitly remember a prime it effects the target task; even when presented below consciousness levels EX: Lion Zebra Panda Leopard Elephant Word fragment Completion: C_E_TA_ E_E_ _A_ N__ _E _ R A

Episodic memory

Events Ex: Remember breakfast yesterday

Perseverations

Ex: After starting a car you become distracted you may turn the car on again

Description errors

Ex: When putting away groceries , you may end up putting the ice cream in the cupboard and a can of soup in the freezer

Omissions

Ex: When you go to another room to retrieve something, a distraction (phone call) interrupts you and return to the first room without retrieving the item

Data-driven errors

Ex: While intending to dial a familiar phone number, if you hear someone call out another series of numbers, you dial some of those numbers instead

Capture Errors

Ex: undressing from work clothes, then putting on pj's and climbing into bed, only to realize you intended to remove your work clothes to go out to dinner

Amnesia most often involves damage to __________________ as oppose to

Explicit memory Implicit memory

Reminders

External memory aids E.g. taking notes, writing shopping lists, asking others to remind you, alarms etc

In what ways do we study memory distortions and how can they effect life?

Eyewitness Testimony

Semantic memory

Facts Ex: Who did you see at school yesterday

Theories explaining selective attention are either

Filter theories or bottleneck theories

Temporal Order Tasks

Focus Memory items Cue Test item + 5 3 7 2 *** 3 7 Which came Last?

Temporally Ordered Working Memory Load Tasks

Focus Memory items Cue Test item + 5 3 7 2 *** 4 Was 4 in the memory items?

N-Back Tasks: Find and Repeat n-back

Focus Test item Test item *** 5 3 7 2 Back 8 1 Back N = as any number Remember a larger sequence

Acrostic

Form a sentence to help you remember the new words Eg. Music: Every Good Boy Does Fine

How can we learn about how we organize information?

Free recall test

Loss-of-activation errors

Going to another room to do something and getting there only to ask ourselves, "what am I doing here" Perhaps eve worse is the nagging feeling "I know I should be doing something, but I can't remember what" Something on the environment triggers our recollection

Most common form of synesthesia

Grapheme-color synesthesia

Amygdala

Has a role in emotionally charged memories. Increased emotion = increased memory. Sex difference

Iconic memory

Has also been shown to be erasable

The mirror tracing task

Has been used to study the effects of sleep on memory and has lead to information that lead to the discovery of implicit memory. H.M.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: DSM-V

Has changed this to "several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms are present in two or more settings." Thus, symptoms must only be evident in more than one context but don't have to impair an individual's functioning in multiple contexts.

Patients with hippocampal damage

Have issues with storing new information or retrieving old memories

Serial Recall

Have to remember in exact order

Patients with perisylvian cortex damage

Have trouble with short-term memories

Long-term memory

Holds information we need for daily functioning e.g. peoples names, where things are, schedules ect.

Phonological store: (inner ear)

Holds words heard for approx. 2 seconds

Articulatory process (inner voice)

Holds words heard/seen and silently repeated (looped): subvocal rehearsal

The sensory store is also referred to as

Iconic store

Positive set

If participants were presented with a short list of 1-6 digits

Release from proactive interference

If the lists switches from number to words or letters, or if the information is semantically different a resurgence of learning is seen. Previously learned information no longer interferes with encoding the new information

Word Length Effect

Immediate serial recall is a direct function of the length of items being retained An example: sum, pay, wit, bar, hop Is much more likely to be recalled correctly than helicopter, university, television, alligator, opportunity This reflects the slower rehearsal of longer words that allows greater forgetting

Practice effects

Improvement in memory seen from rehearsal

Grapheme-color synesthesia

In which people perceive individual letters of the alphabet and number to be a color

Dopamine reuptake inhibitor

Increased availability of Da

Chunking of information

Increases our capacity Ex: 101001000100001000100

How to possibly diagnosis ADHD

Individuals younger than 17 must display at least 6 of 9 inattentive and/or hyperactive impulsive symptoms. This is the same number as was required in DSM-IV.

Preconscious Processing

Information is available to us even when that information is currently outside of our conscious awareness

Decay theory

Information is forgotten due to a gradual disappearance of the memory trace

ADHD hypo-activation of the prefrontal cortex

Insufficient DA

The quality of the signal

Intensity and frequency

Keyword System

Interactive image that links sound and meaning of a foreign word with the sound and meaning of a familiar word E.G. French word butter=beurre sounds like bear. Visualize a bear eating butter.

Sperling's experiment

Interested in measuring the capacity of sensory memory

SWS

Involved in the consolidation of explicit (declarative) memory

Object Perception

Involves connecting two or more features with some sort of mental glue and requires our conscious attention

Overt shift in attention

Involves head and/or eye movements toward the target

Implicit memory

Involves the basil ganglia and the cerebellum.

Signal-Detection Theory (SDT)

Is a mathematical, theoretical system of how people pick out important stimuli that is embedded in large amounts of irrelevant, distracting stimuli

Eyewitness testimony

Is a strong predictor of whether or not a jury will convict

SDT assumes perception

Is controlled by evidence (stimuli) and decision-making processes

The alert state

Is critical for optimal performance in tasks involving higher cognitive functions

Sub-vocalization

Is not occurring due to insufficient language abilities

Accessibility

Is our ability to gain access to the available information

Availability

Is the presence of the information in long-term memory

Articulatory Suppression

Is the process of inhibiting memory performance by speaking while being presented with an item to remember Ex: clock Marshmallow Lamp Sunglasses Computer Chocolate

Orienting

Is the process of selecting information from sensory input processing them more efficiently and prioritizing their processing

Reconsolidation

Is the same process as consolidation but on previously consolidated information. Occurs with information recently encoded

Serial-position effect

Is the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst.

Pain catastrophizing

Is the tendency to describe a pain experience in more exaggerated terms than the average person, to ruminate on it more (e.g., "I kept thinking 'this is terrible'"), and/or to feel more helpless about the experience ("I thought it was never going to get better")

Semantic

Is the word a type of plant? Ex: DAFFODIL

Physical

Is the word is Capitals? Ex: TABLE

Memory retrieval

Is typically thought of as reconstructive in nature

Blindsight

Is when there are traces of visual perceptual ability in blind areas

How does blindsight occur?

It occurs in people who are cortically blind

Miss

It's happening, but you don't notice it

Rotary-Pursuit task

Keep stylus on a dot on a rotating disk

Method of Loci

Link to be remembered words with a places in a distinct environment Example: For a walk-through, you might mentally store the introduction of your speech in the mailbox near your front door, symbolizing the beginning of your speech. Continue throughout your imaginary walk, and in each new location, mentally store another element from your speech until you have completed your mental walk and reached the end of your speech

Massed practice

Long sessions is a small amount of time is not an effective strategy for learning

Transience

Memories fade quickl

How does memory transfer short-term to Long-term Memory

Memory consolidation

What is the alternative to repressed memories?

Memory distortions

Procedural

Memory for processes E.g. driving, walking to class

Retrospective memory

Memory for the past

Schemas

Mental frameworks the represent knowledge in a meaningful way

Hyperactivity

Motor cortex

_______________________ has been indicated as important to maintaining alertness

NT norepinephrine

Ambiguous

No clear answer

Capacity of long term memory

No idea appears infinite

Correct rejection

Nothing is happen, person thinks nothing is happening, person is correct on the idea of nothing happening

Attentive, controlled processes

Occur later happen serially and consume time and attentional resources. More detailed information

Self-terminating Processing

Once you have the pertinent information processing ends

Serial Processing

Operations are done one after another. Items are retrieved in succession

Impulsivity

Orbital frontal cortex

Categorical Clustering

Organize a list of items into a set of categories Eg. Groceries, fruit, dairy, grain

The voluntary control of attention regulates ______________________

Orienting and alerting

Tangles

Pairs of filaments that become twisted around each other within the cell body and dendrites of neurons

Retrieval from Long-Term Memor

Participants are acoustically presented with a category then a words that fit within that category

How do we know blindsight exist?

Patient D.B.

Inattentional Blindness

People Fail to see things within their visual field that are there

Bias

People are biased in their recall. Bias may either enhance or impair the recall of memory, or they may alter the content of what we report remembering

Suggestibility

People are susceptible to suggestion

Persistence

People selectively remember events Example: we persist to remember our one mistake but feel no need to remember all the time we did not make a mistake

Dissociation of function

People with brain lesions do not demonstrate a mental function seen in people with healthy brains.

What effects SDT responses?

Peoples responses are a consequence of both their perceptual sensitivity to the stimuli presented and their decision strategy or bias toward saying some thing is there or not when they are in doubt.

Automatization can hinder our effectiveness at times as well

Pilots Destination Stroop Effect

Capacity models of attention

Posit people have a fixed amount of attention that they can choose to allocate towards various tasks

Memory affected by emotional states suggest that

Positive self-esteem results in remembering more positive events while negative self-esteem resulted in more negative events being remembered

What is used to study preconscious processing

Priming

Constructive

Prior experience affects how and what we recall from memory

Amnesia studies

Provide neurological evidence of the idea of short-term and long-term memory being two separate processes

Interference theory

Refers to the forgetting that occurs because the recall of certain words interferes with recall of other words

Instead of inner scribe Johnson believed in

Refresh mechanism (over and over again)

Self-reference effect

Relate the word to yourself better recall

Rehearsal

Repeatedly reciting an item

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating the items to be remembered. The simply maintains the information in short-term memory. Insufficient for organization and transfer to long-term memory

The serial-position curve

Represents the likelihood of remembering an item based on its serial position(order of presentation) in a list

Reconstructive

Retrieving the original memory trace to rebuild the original experience

Visospatial memory connects too

Right Hemisphere

Medications for ADHD

Ritalin - methylphenidate Metadate - methylphenidate Strattera - atomoxetine

Are all mnemonic strategies equally effective?

Roediger found Interactive imagery, method of loci & pegword systems most effective for learning isolated items in both serial and free recall tasks

Source-Monitoring Error

Same as misattribution we forget were we obtained information

What is primary importance in long-term memory

Semantic encoding

What is not of primary importance for short-term memory

Semantics

Damage to the visual cortex impairs the persons ability to consciously perceive visual information

Sensation without perception

The dentate gyrus of the hippocampus

Shows daily generation of hundreds of new neurons with a short life span - increased learning results in increased new neuronal survival rates

Hit

Something is happening, and you see it

Location of the sound source

Sounds come from the left side, you will turn your head to left

Feature-Integration Theory

States there are 2 stages involved in perceiving objects

Metamemory

Strategies that involve reflecting on our memory processes to improve our memory

Primacy effect

Superior recall of items learned first (beginning of the list)

Recency Effect

Superior recall of things learned most recently (end of a list)

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: DSM-IV

Symptoms were required to cause some impairment in at least 2 settings. Thus, not only did symptoms need to be evident in more than one setting, e.g., both school and home, but they also had to undermine the child's functioning in multiple settings.

What is patient S's memory ability connected too

Synesthesia

Memory consolidation

Taking to-be-remembered information from the fleeting short-term memory to enduring long-term memory

Cingulo-opercular system

Task set maintenance

Mnemonic Devices

Techniques used to help organize and memorize information

Phonological loop connects too

Temporal lobes of the left hemisphere

Stress can impair or improve memory

Temporary stress vs chronic stress

Luria published a book about patient S's memory called

The Mind of a Mnemonist

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to remember events that occur after a traumatic event

Similarity Theory

The more similar the target and distracters are the more difficult it will be to find the target. How different the distracters are from each other also impacts search success but the number of features have no effect.

Decay

The passing of time results in a memory failure

Memory

The process we use to take in, retain & draw on information from our past experience to use in the present

If something in your visual field changed dramatically right before your eyes, you would notice it immediately?

The reality is that there is simply too much information for your brain to fully process and be aware of every single thing that happens in the world around you

Criticism Output Interference

The time it takes to report interferes with iconic memory

Negative set

Then after a brief pause a digit is presented and the participant has to say whether or not it was part of the positive set or not

Once memories are stored

They are organized

Refinement

To control or reduce output interference participant's only have to report on one letter at a time = 12 items

Consciousness refers

To our awareness of our own mental processes, such as our thoughts, feelings, and sensations

Prospective memory

To-do lists, alarms, verbal reminders, string around finger

Cocktail party effect

Tracking one conversation while distracted by others

Encoding

Transform sensory data into a mental representation

Who is the father of cognitive psychology

Ulric Neisser

Name a theory why pain catastrophizing happens

Unattentional blindness

Acronym

Use the first letter of the words to create a new word EG. KISS, I AM PACK

Progression of Alzheimer

Usually the disease begins with impairment of episodic memory. Semantic memory tends to go as the diseases progresses. Implicit memory is spared until the end

Attention shifts and target tracking appears to involve the

Ventral pathway

Subvocal rehearsal

Verbally labeling pictures

Procedural memory

Walking, riding a bike, swimming, etc

State of consciousness

We are more likely to retrieve information in the same stat we were in when we learned it. Ex: Alcohol, caffeine

Slips occur mainly when

We deviate from a routine automatic processes are interrupted

Conjunction Search

We have to combine two or more features to find the stimulus we are looking for. The number of targets and distracters plays a role in conjunction searches

Feature Search

We look for just one feature that makes our search subject different from others. Decreases the effect of distracters

Spreading Activation

We related words and events to other words and events

Why do we not notice decay?

We see information up to 150 milliseconds after it is terminated

Encoding Specificity

What is recalled is dependent on what is encoded

Free recall

Whatever way you can remember it

Voluntary

When a person searches the visual field for a target

Reflexive

When a sudden target event directs attention to its location. Eg Flash of light.

Interference

When competing information interferes with memory storage

Automatization

When controlled process becomes an automatic process

Associative-activation errors

When expecting someone to arrive at the door , if the phone rings, you may call out "come in"

Self-referencing effect

When people generate their own cues for retrieval they are more powerful then cues given by someone else

Implicit

When we use information from memory but are not consciously aware that we are doing it

En bloc blackouts

When you can't remember an entire chunk of your life from drinking.

How does unattentional blindness effect medicine

When you go into surgery and if you focus on the pain you will come out of surgery in pain, and takes longer for you to go back to work. Compared to someone who doesn't focus on the pain, they can go back to work quicker

Shadowing

When you listen to two different messages through dichotic presentation and must repeat back only the message you were told to attend and ignore the other

False alarm

When you think something is happening when not ex: life guard, you think someone is drowning

Storage

Where you keep encoded information

External effects on retrieval

You are more likely to retrieve information in the same environment were you learned it Ex: Diver experiment.

Exhaustive Serial Processing

You compare all options

Blocking

You know something and you know you know it but can not retrieve it

For short-term memory ___________________ is more important than a ______________________

acoustic code visual code

Information in the hippocampus is maintained before it ________________________________________

has a neocortical representation

Explicit needs the ____________________ Implicit

hippocampus does not appear too

Recognition memory

is usually better than recall memory

Two tasks right after each other results speed of the second tasks is slower

psychological refractory period or attentional blink

The hippocampus is a ___________________________

rapid learning system

Simple tasks that requires speedy responses

responses for one or both takes are slower

Sensory information is sent to the __________________________

retina then to the visual cortex

Preconscious information includes

stored memories and sensations

High level cognition necessary to resolve ________________________

the retrieval failure

Covert and Overt shifts of attention result in neural activation in __________________________________________

the same areas of the brain

Long-term memory does involve

visual and acoustic encoding as well

High intensity stimuli

will result in more Hits

Low intensity stimuli

will result in more misses