Cognitive psych chapter 9,11, 12

When compared to the statement "A canary is an animal," the reaction time for "A cat is an animal" will be

faster

People are often selective in how they search memory for evidence. As a result, they usually search memory

for evidence that might confirm their current beliefs.

judgment

people often seek to draw conclusions from evidence they encounter, often evidence provided by life experiences.

You are asked to "Name all of the professions that you can think of." According to Rosch's evidence, you are most likely to respond

teacher, lawyer, doctor, firefighter

The representation of a category's structure is determined by

the individuals personal experience.

typicality effect

ability to judge highly prototypical objects more rapidly

With regard to the "man who" arguments described by Nisbett and Ross (1980),

they reflect our willingness to take a small sample of data as seriously as a larger sample.

If you were asked to imagine the color of a lime, which brain region would most likely be activated? Area V4, which is involved in color perception Area MT, which is involved in motion perception The inferior parietal lobule, which is involved in object-based actions such as correctly using a toothbrush The anterior cingulate cortex, which is involved in detecting errors

Area V4, which is involved in color perception Mental imagery uses picture-like representations that tend to activate the same brain regions as visual perception.

You are making a grocery list and thinking about healthy foods to buy. The Collins and Quillian model would have a category with a "is nutritious" feature connected to those foods. How would a spreading activation model organize the nutition level of foods?

Foods would have different connection strengths to the "is nutritious" node and exhibit a graded membership structure. The spreading activation model accommodates typicality effects and has graded membership.

Mona has been blind since birth. Which of the following is most likely true about her visual abilities?

Her performance on imagery tasks is similar to the performance of sighted individuals.

Which of the following is TRUE of covariation?

Illusory covariations sometimes generate prejudice toward groups of people.

Which statement is true about the IAT?

It measures implicit bias by analyzing differences in response times

Which of the following is NOT a proposition?

Julie bubblegum

Maxine has sustained brain damage to her left temporal lobe, which influences her ability to categorize efficiently. Which of the following is most likely to describe the problems that Maxine will face?

She will lose the ability to discriminate some categories but others will remain unaffected.

A lemon that has been painted red, white, and blue and then run over by a car is still likely to be categorized as a lemon. Which of the following is NOT an accurate description of why this might be?

Superficial things like color do not play a role in categorization.

During flu season, people are more likely to ask, "Do you have any Kleenex?" than "Do you have tissues?" This is best explained by the typicality effect.

True Kleenex are the most frequently seen brand of tissues, making it the most typical category member.

Research on congenitally blind people demonstrates that:

Visual information is not always represented by pictures, but can be represented with tactile memory

________ imagery is associated with how things look, while ________ imagery is associated with an abstract form or arrangement.

Visual; spatial

An implicit bias is defined as

a bias that exists without awareness of it

spreading activation model

a connectionist theory proposing that people organize general knowledge based on their individual experiences

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

The technique of transcranial magnetic stimulation employs strong magnetic pulses at a particular site on the scalp. When it is used on the scalp near Area V1, the effect is

a temporary disruption of vision and visual imagery.

The relationship between the physical distances between two locations and visual representations of the same can be described as ___________.

all of these answers (analogous, linear, a positive correlation)

In a 1997 experiment, participants first were asked whether the Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi died before or after a certain age, and then were asked to guess the precise age at which Gandhi died. People who were first asked whether or not Gandhi died at age 9 gave an estimate (50 years) much lower on average than those who were first asked whether or not he died at age 140 (67 years). This experiment is a perfect example of which of the following?

anchoring The initial question anchored participants' subsequent judgments of Gandhi's precise age at his death.

What does it mean to have an implicit bias?

attitudes, beliefs, and stereotypes from your culture have been internalized and are accessed more quickly than non stereotypical associations

A research study asked participants to estimate death rates for different causes. Participants estimated that about four times more people die by homicide than from asthma, but the truth is the reverse - approximately four times more people die from asthma than by homicide. Which heuristic might cause this very incorrect estimation?

availability heuristic: homicides are reported in the news, so they are easier to recall than asthma deaths, which are rarely reported in the news. News reports (and crime shows) make homicide deaths easier to recall and this availability is taken as indicating their frequency.

If you are asked to imagine a three-dimensional cube, like a Necker cube, that is ambiguous with respect to depth, your mental image will be

based on one configuration or the other

Basic-level categories have all of the following traits EXCEPT

basic-level descriptions are more difficult to remember than more general descriptions.

availability heuristic

basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind (form of attribute substitution)

Which of the following would take the longest to respond "yes" to (have the longest response time) according to the Collins and Quillian model? Cheddar is a type of food. Cheddar is a type of cheese. Cheddar is a type of dairy. Correct!

cheddar is a type of food

Bobby wants to be a "good participant," so he tries to perform in a way that will impress the experimenter. Bobby is sensitive to the

demand characteristics.

Bradley has visual neglect. He is asked to imagine he is looking at the front of his home and to describe everything that he can see. His response will be

detailed for the right half of the scene.

damage to orbitofrontal cortex

indifference, inappropriate social behavior, lack of restraint and inhibitions, decreased emotionality, decreased planning and forethought

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

Proposition networks assume knowledge is ________; however, it is more likely that knowledge is actually ________.

localized; distributed

A dealer shuffles a standard pack of playing cards, including 26 red cards (diamonds and hearts) and 26 black cards (spades and clubs), and turns the card on top of the deck face up. If the face-up card is red, the gambler wins $11. If the face-up card is black, the gambler loses $9. Utility maximization theory predicts which response?

most people will accept the gamble According to expected value theory, the overall expected value for this gamble is (0.5 × $11) + (0.5 × -$9) = +$1. Therefore, assuming that the majority of people act completely rationally, most people should accept the gamble.

Now consider the same gamble again: If the face-up card is red, the gambler wins $11; if the face-up card is black, the gambler loses $9. Which response best describes actual people's behavior?

most people will reject the gamble Research has shown that most people consider the prospect of a loss to be between 1.5 and 2 times more negative than the prospect of an equivalent gain is positive. This loss aversion predicts that most people will not accept the gamble.

When people are explicitly told that a particular instance is NOT representative of the larger group, they

often continue to reason as if the instance were indeed representative.

"Opt-in" organ donation programs, where adults can choose to enroll in the program, have approximately 15% participation rates; "opt-out" organ donation programs, in which adults are enrolled by default and can choose to decline participation in the program, have approximately 90% participation rates. What best explains this difference?

opt-out framing makes organ donation seem normal, opt-in framing makes it seem like a special act. People don't just weigh the costs and benefits of different options, how those options are framed can influence their decisions.

Which statement about attitudes is true?

people's explicit biases are sometimes different than their implicit biases

The amount of time it takes to mentally rotate a 3-dimensional image in order to figure out whether it is identical to another image depends on...

the degree of rotation between the images

Studies of mental rotation indicate that

the greater the degree of rotation required, the more time is needed to complete the rotation.

If you were describing your cat from memory, according to research on mental imagery, it would take longer to scan from its eyes to its tail than from its eyes to the bell around its neck.

true

Mental rotation activates similar brain regions as performing a physical rotation.

true. Imagery can activate the same brain areas.

Which of the following would take the longest to mentally rotate? two blocks that are identical two blocks that are 30 degrees different two blocks that are 180 degrees different two blocks that are 45 degrees different Correct!

two blocks that are 180 degrees different

A researcher asks a participant to memorize a city map. On the map, the library and the school are 2 inches apart; the school and the hospital are 4 inches apart. The researcher now instructs the participant to form an image of the map and to scan from the library to the school. The researcher then asks the participant to scan from the school to the hospital. It is most likely true that the scanning time from the school to the hospital is ________ the scanning time between the library and the school.

double

People often report that they believe having a disability would be difficult and decrease their quality of life. Which of the following would be the stereotype-consistent category for the word "grief" in an IAT investigating attitudes toward people with disabilities? "abled" or "bad" "disabled" or "bad" "abled" or "good" "disabled" or "good"

"disabled" or "bad"

Collins and Quillian Model

1. knowledge network has a hierarchical structure For example, the figure above shows that because the concept "canary" belongs to the class of "bird", then "canary" also belongs to the higher class of "animal" because "bird" belongs to "animal". 2. the principle of inheritance applies in it. This means that features are only stored once and as high as possible in the hierarchy. In the figure above, for instance, "lay eggs" is not stored at "canary" but at "bird", since all birds lay eggs. Likewise, "breathes" is stored at the level of "animal", since all animals breathe (whether with lungs or through gills).

According to exemplar theory, typicality effects

Are difficult to explain reflect the fact that typical category members are probably frequent in our environment and are therefore frequently represented in memory.

Which patient is most likely to have problems with mental rotation? A patient with visual impairment due to eye diseases such as cataracts or macular degeneration. A patient with prefrontal damage and deficits in planning and reasoning. A patient with occipital-temporal damage and deficits in color perception. A patient with occipital-parietal damage and deficits in visually-guided reaching.

A patient with occipital-temporal damage and deficits in color perception. Such patients would be more likely to have deficits with mental imagery for object locations, and would therefore struggle to mentally rotate images.

attribute substitution

A phenomenon observed when individuals must make judgements that are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution or perception.

Stereotypes are only formed based on salient features such as gender or ethnicity one considers consciously.

False because neither conscious consideration or salient features are needed to cause stereotype formation.

The text describes one study in which some participants were asked to come up with 6 examples of times when they had been assertive in the past and others were asked to come up with 12 examples. Which of the following best describes the results of this study?

Participants who were asked to come up with fewer examples judged themselves to be more assertive.

frequency estimate

People's assessment of how often an event has occurred in the past, or how common an object is in the world.

Which of the following is true if we consider the phrase, "Prejudice decreases as education increases"?

Prejudice negatively covaries with education

Which of the following claims is true for a depiction of a cat but NOT for a description of a cat?

The cat's head will probably be prominent, but the cat's claws are likely not to be.

graded membership

The idea that some members of a category are "better" members and therefore are more firmly in the category than other members. All concepts (animal, bird, fish, fruit, banana, avocado, etc.) and all features (breathes, lives in water, yellow, grows on trees, edible, etc.) are represented as nodes. Associated nodes (e.g., fish: lives in water; banana: grows on trees) have different strengths of connections between them based on typicality, frequency of occurrence, and so on

the principle of inheritance

The members of a category inherit the properties of the category itself

According to the network proposed by Collins and Quillian, common characteristics that different breeds of dogs share (e.g.: fur, tail, sharp hearing) will appear once and as high up as possible in the network. What is this concept called?

The principle of inheritance. More general concepts and categories are higher in the network, so the feature will apply more broadly.

The Collins and Quillian model proposes that categorical information is organized hierarchically. Which of the following is true about the difference between Collins and Quillian and the spreading activation model?

The relationship between concepts in a spreading activation model can strengthen or weaken depending on typicality and frequency of occurrence. Collins and Quillian's model did not have different strength connections between nodes.

When imagining an object, it is often difficult to reimagine that object as something else. For example, an ambiguous picture could be interpreted as a duck or a rabbit, but when imagining it, people will see only the duck or the rabbit, not both. Hints such as, "Try thinking about the form from the right," can help people to see both aspects of the image. Why would this hint help?

This hint alters the image's reference frame.

Which theory of visual imagery does the mental scanning experiment on ZAPS support and why?

provides a simplified way of studying our ability to process distance using mental scanning of images. visual representation was quasi-pictorial because it did not literally replicate visual phenomena. principle of spatial equivalence for visual images. In other words, just as it would take you longer to visually scan from the nose of a dog to the tip of its tail than from its nose to the collar around its neck, it takes more time to mentally scan longer physical distances. Thus, a visual image is similar to actual visual stimuli in how the distance between points is represented. Kosslyn and colleagues, Ronald Finke (1989)

In a PDP model, learning can happen in all of the following ways EXCEPT random, synchronous firing of nodes leads to a weakening of a connection. weakening of connections between concepts that are activated at different times. error signals are sent backward through the system, to adjust connection weights. strengthening of connections between concepts that are activated simultaneously.

random, synchronous firing of nodes leads to a weakening of a connection.

According to prototype theory, the mental representation for each concept

represents an average or ideal for the category's members.

According to the work of Tversky and Kahneman (1987), people are ________ when dealing with potential losses, but are ________ when dealing with potential gains.

risk seeking; risk averse

Participants are told, "Hospital A has an average of 45 births per day; Hospital B has an average of only 15 births per day." The participants are then asked, "Which hospital is more likely to have a day in which at least 60% of the babies born are female?" In answering the question, participants

seem insensitive to the fact that departures from the average case are more likely with a small sample

A psychologist asks her experimental participants to describe their experiences in using mental imagery. The psychologist is collecting

self-report data.

In some studies, participants have been asked to visualize a particular stimulus (e.g., the letter A). If the same stimulus is then presented at low contrast, visualization

serves to prime perception of the stimulus.

All infants are selfish. All selfish people are manipulative. Therefore, all infants are manipulative. Now evaluate this syllogism.

valid but not sound

Studies of moment-by-moment brain activity indicate that

when participants are visualizing, activity levels are high in brain regions also crucial for visual perception

Mentally zooming in and out of an image requires

working memory for zooming and long-term memory for representation of the image.

All infants are selfish. All selfish people are manipulative. Therefore, all infants are manipulative. Does this syllogism follow the form of Aristotle's perfect syllogism?

yes