Cognitive Psychology Exam 3
Person who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, has become acknowledged as being extremely skilled or knowledgeable in that field.
experts
Priming occurs when presentation of one stimulus
facilitates the response to another stimulus that usually follows closely in time
Language learned through reinforcement
B.F. Skinner (1957) Verbal Behavior
Which of the following is the best example of a garden path sentence?
Before the police stopped, the Toyota disappeared into the night.
Which of the following provides the best example of functional fixedness?
Using a juice glass as a container for orange juice
When we use a solution from a similar problem to guide us in solving another problem, we are using this process
analogical problem solving or (analogical transfer)
Transferring experience in solving one problem to the solution of another, similar problem.
analogical transfer
Dr. Chan is doing a follow-up study to the mutilated checkerboard problem experiment. In this new study, participants solve the following shoe problem before tackling the checkerboard problem. By doing this, Dr. Chan is studying the effect of _________________ on problem solving.
analogies
Learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network
connection weights
One of the key properties of the ___________ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network.
connectionist
The process of back propagation is most closely associated with
connectionist networks.
A negotiating strategy in which a person gets what he or she wants if something else happens.
contingency strategy
Semantic somatotopy
correspondence between words related to specific body parts and the location of brain activation
A technique developed by Finke to train people to think creatively.
creative cognition
In the multiple-factor approach, the fact that people exhibit physical attributes, actions, and emotions is known as ________.
crowding
It may be difficult for young Matthew, who is only 4 years of age, to understand the difference between the iPad that his mother uses, the Kindle that his brother uses, and the Galaxy tablet that his sister uses. After all, all of them are tablets, have touch screens, are electronic technology, and run "apps" that include games and educational programs. These similarities remind us of the concept of ___________, which refers to the fact that animals tend to share many different properties.
crowding
A brain network that is involved in directing attention as a person is carrying out tasks.
executive control network (ECN)
If you say that "a Labrador retriever is my idea of a typical dog," you would be using the ___________ approach to categorization.
exemplar
Research suggests that the ___________ approach to categorization works best for small categories (e.g., U.S. presidents).
exemplar
Finke (1990) used a task where people built objects from three random shapes and found evidence of these - ideas that precede the creation of a finished creative product
preinventive forms
Within the realm of conversational speech, knowledge refers to the
previously understood information that we bring into the conversation.
A situation in which there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal state and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle.
problem
The initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem.
problem space
A problem or story that is analogous to the target problem and which therefore provides information that can lead to a solution to the target problem
source problem
This is the perception of individual; words in spoken language, even though there are often no pauses in between words.
speech segmentation
Collins and Quillian explained the results of priming experiments by introducing the concept of ___________ into their network model.
spreading activation
Sentences with this type of construction (where the same subject is the main clause and the embedded clause) are typically easier to read
subject-relative construction
Based on the information your textbook provided about different category types, jumping from ___________ categories results in the largest gain in information.
superordinate level to basic level
if you read "jim likes a girl he works with. He asked the girl he works with out on a date." Your assumption that "He" is Jim is this kind of inference
Anaphoric inference
Consider the sentence, "Because he always jogs a mile seems like a short distance to him." The principle of late closure states that this sentence would first be parsed into which of the following phrases?
"Because he always jogs a mile"
Pollack and Pickett's experiment on understanding speech found that when participants were presented with individual words taken out of conversations (single words presented alone with no context), they could identify
50 percent of the words spoken by their own voices.
Amber lives in a housing development between two parallel streets that both connect to a freeway. She usually takes the street to the south when heading southbound on the freeway to work, but that street is closed for repairs for three months. Amber takes the street to the north during that time. After the street to the south is re-opened, she continues to take the street to the north, even though it is a slightly longer route. Continuing to take the street to the north represents
A mental set
Input units
Activated by stimulation from the environment
What were the results of Metcalf & Wiebes (1987) study which examined solving insight problems versus algebra problems?
Algebra problems are gradual in warmth, insight, people did not feel close to solving until very close
The prototype approach
An average representation of the "typical" member of a category Strong positive relationship between prototypicality and family resemblance
A technique in which people compare two problems that illustrate a principle. This technique is designed to help people discover similar structural features of cases or problems.
Analogical encoding
Which of the following statements does NOT apply to the results of research on differences between how experts and novices solve problems?
Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field.
In Kaplan and Simon's experiment, they presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. Participants in the _________________ group had the fastest response time.
Bread and butter
Which set of stimuli would be the best selection for having people perform a lexical decision task?
Common words "pizza, history" and non words "pibble, girk"
Which property below is NOT one of the characteristics that makes human language unique?
Communication
The Exemplar Approach
Concept is represented by multiple examples (rather than a single prototype)
Semantic networks
Concepts are arranged in networks that represent the way concepts are organized in the mind
This approach to parsing proposes that semantics, syntax, and other factors operate simultaneously to determine parsing
Constraint-based approach to parsing
The Connectionist Approach
Creating computer models for representing cognitive processes, parallel distributing process
Definitional approach to categorization
Determine category membership based on whether object meets the definition of the category
Sensory-Functional Hypothesis
Different brain areas may be specialized to process information about different categories
Prototype or exemplar
Exemplars may work best for small categories • Prototypes may work best for larger categories
Holly was in her mother-in-law's kitchen preparing lunch for the family. When she was ready to dish up the soup, she searched all the cupboards and drawers for a ladle but couldn't find one. She decided to wait until her mother-in-law returned to ask her where the ladle was, leaving the soup in the stove pot. Her mother-in-law later explained that the ladle had been broken, so she told Holly to use a coffee mug to "spoon" the soup into bowls. Holly's ability to solve the "dish up the soup" problem was hindered by which of the following obstacles?
Functional fixedness
This term refers to the property of a connectionist network in which disruption of performance occurs only gradually as parts of the system of damaged
Graceful degradation
A researcher records a brainstorming session in an industrial research and development department rather than in an artificial laboratory setting. Later, she analyzes the recorded discussions, identifying certain problem-solving techniques. This research is an example of_________________ research.
In vivo problem solving
Evidence that language is a social process that must be learned comes from the fact that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where there are no people who speak or use sign language, they
Invent a sign language themselves
Which of the following is not true about divergent thinking?
It has a single correct answer
The Embodied Approach
Knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when we interact with the object.
System of communication using sounds or symbols
Language
Yoda, a central character of the Star Wars movies created by George Lucas, has a distinctive way of speaking. His statement, "Afraid you will be," violates which property of the English language?
Language has a structure that is governed by rules.
the meaning of words, one or more meaning
Lexical semantics
all words a person understands
Lexicon
Children produce sentences they have never heard and that have never been reinforced
Noam Chomsky (1957) Syntactic Structures
Gick and Holyoak consider which of the following to be the most difficult step to achieve in the process of analogical problem solving?
Noticing that there is an analogous relationship between problems because most participants need prompting before they notice a connection
Lexical decision task
Participants read stimuli and are asked to say as quickly as possible whether the item is a word or not.
Which of the following is the core concept underlying the Gestalt perspective on problems?
Representation
The change in representation of circle problem from being about the length of a hypotenuse of a triangle to being about the diagonal of a rectangle is an example of what?
Restructuring
The analogy that makes the solution to the mutilated checkerboard problem obvious is the _________________ problem.
Russian marriage
In a study, participants listened to the following tape recording: Rumor had it that, for years, the government building had been plagued with problems. The man was not surprised when he found several spiders, roaches, and other bugs in the corner of the room. As participants heard the word "bugs," they completed a lexical decision task to a test stimulus flashed on a screen. To which of the following words would you expect participants to take the longest to respond to?
SKY
meanings of the language
Semantics
Which of the following statements is NOT accurate?
Semantics and lexicons are equal in scope.
according to Collins & Quillian's (1969) model of semantic networks, priming results from the process that occurs between nodes and links
Spreading activation
Research points to these two networks working together during creative process
The DMN & ECN
The connectionist network has learned the correct pattern for a concept when
The error signals are reduced to nearly none and the correct properties are assigned
Brain imaging studies reveal that semantics and syntax are associated with which two lobes of the cerebral cortex?
The frontal and temporal lobes
Which of the following is a nonverbal component of communication?
Theory of mind
A problem involving moving discs from one set of pegs to another. It has been used to illustrate the process involved in means-end analysis.
Tower of Hanoi problem
we often have to overcome this, a preconceived notion of how to solve a problem
a mental set
___________is a "typical" member of a category.
a prototype
A task for determining how prototypical an object is would be
a task where participants rate the extent to which each member represents the category title.
A task used to assess creativity, in which the person's task is to think unusual uses for an object. Also called the unusual uses task.
alternate uses task
People find it difficult to apply analogies in laboratory settings, but routinely use them in real-world settings.
analogical paradox
The use of analogies as an aid to solving problems. Typically, a solution to one problem, the source problem, is presented that is analogous to the solution to another problem, the target problem.
analogical problem solving
Making a comparison in order to show a similarity between two different things.
analogy
The radiation problem was used in your text to illustrate the role of _________________ in problem solving.
analogy
Which term best describes the task of factoring the equation 9x2 + 5x - 7 = 4x2 - 2x + 8?
analytical
Problem that is solved by a process of systematic analysis, often using techniques based on past experience.
analytically based problems
Boxing champion George Foreman recently described his family vacations with the statement, "At our ranch in Marshall, Texas, there are lots of ponds and I take the kids out and we fish. And then of course, we grill them." That a reader understands "them" appropriately (George grills fish, not his kids!) is the result of a(n) ____________________ inference.
anaphoric
Consider the following sentences: "Captain Ahab wanted to kill the whale. He cursed at it." These two sentences taken together provide an example of a(n)
anaphoric inference.
According to Rosch, the ___________ level of categories reflects people's everyday experience.
basic
According to Rosch (1970s), we have these three different levels of categories in our hierarchical organization of conceptual knowledge
basic, global, and specific
The typical purpose of subgoals is to
bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state.
Which of the choices best represents cognitive economy in the following sentence? The property _______is stored at the _______node.
can fly; bird
Which of the following terms is most closely associated with semantic networks?
cognitive economy
In written English, which punctuation mark has the most parsing power?
comma
which property below is NOT one of the characteristics that makes human language unique?
communication
Two different definitions of ___________ offered by your book include (a) "the mental representation of a class or individual," and (b) "categories of objects, events, and abstract ideas."
concepts
In a connectionist (or PDP) model these determine how signals sent from one unit either increase or decrease the activity of the next unit
connection weights
Psycholinguistics
discover psychological process by which humans acquire and process language
The four proposals addressing the representation of concepts in the brain all agree that the information is ________.
distributed
Ali works for Citrus Squeeze, a company that makes orange juice. Sales of their calcium-enhanced OJ have been poor, and the product was cancelled. His factory still had three cases of cartons, and Ali was told he could take them if he wanted them. With the cartons, Ali made several birdfeeders for his backyard and also planted tree seedlings in some of them; he used the remaining ones to build a "fort" for his four-year-old son. Ali's use of the cartons represents
divergent thinking
Creativity involves this kind of thinking - where multiple solutions are generated
divergent thinking
Thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential solutions
divergent thinking
Which term best reflects the process of reading and understanding sentences in a story?
dynamic
An electrical response recorded from the scalp using disc electrodes.
electroencephalogram (EEG)
This approach to categorization states that our knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when we interact with an object
embodied approach
Conceptual knowledge
enables us to recognize objects and events and to make inferences about their properties
this is the process of synchronization between conversational patterns, creating common ground between them
entrainment
Tanenhaus and coworkers' eye movement study presented participants with different pictures for interpreting the sentence, "Put the apple on the towel in the box." Their results showed the importance of ____________________ in how we understand sentences in real-life situations.
environmental context
Back propagation
error signal transmitted back through the circuit
The principle illustrated when most people are able to recognize a variety of examples of chairs even though no one category member may have all of the characteristic properties of "chairs" (e.g., most chairs have four legs but not all do) is Group of answer choices
family resemblence
Mirror neurons
fire when we do a task or we observe another doing that same task
An effect that occurs when the ideas a person has about an object's function inhibit the person's ability to use the object for a different function.
functional fixedness
The idea that the rules governing the grouping of words in a sentence is the primary determinant of the way a sentence is parsed is part of the ____________________ approach to parsing.
garden path
Sentences that begin by appearing to mean one thing, but then end up meaning something else
garden path sentences
In problem solving, the condition that occurs when a problem has been solved.
goal state
Phoenix Decorating Company is responsible for designing and building many of the floral floats seen in the Tournament of Roses Parade every New Year's Day. Phoenix's designers start preparing the floats for the next year's parade soon after the first of the year. For each corporate sponsor, Phoenix gets their best advertising team members, and they sit in a room for several hours throwing out every idea they can come up with, no matter how good or bad it is. After a substantial list has been created, they then go through every idea and rate its merits or deficits, until they come up with the best idea to pitch to the corporate sponsor. This process demonstrates
group brainstorming
When people in a problem-solving group are encouraged to express whatever ideas come to mind, without censorship.
group brainstorming
Which of the following represents a basic level item?
guitar
In New Guinea, tribes that had been isolated for centuries were found that they
had a large number of sophisticated language systems.
Which of the following is not part of a complete definition of a problem?
has one correct answer
Language consists of smaller components, like words, that can be combined to form larger ones, like phrases, to create sentences, which themselves can be components of a larger story. This demonstrates the ____________________ property of language. Group of answer choices
hierarchical
Components that can be combined to form larger units
hierarchical system
Noah Chomsky proposed that
humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language
Kaufman and Gregoire's (2015) name for the default mode network (DMN
imagination network
This type of research is used to examine how people solve problems in the real world
in vivo problem solving
The phenomenon of getting ideas after taking a "time-out" from working on a problem
incubation
taking a break from working on a problem, only to be stuck with new ideas about that problem is called this
incubation
Most of the coherence in text is created by
inference
In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the _________________ state involves having three discs stacked on the left peg, with the middle and right pegs empty.
initial
In problem solving, the conditions at the beginning of a problem.
initial state
Sudden realization of a problem's solution.
insight
In the two-string problem, tying the pliers to one of the strings best represents a(n) _________________ state.
intermediate
In problem solving, the various conditions that exist along the pathways between the initial and goal states.
intermediate state
Evidence that language is a social process that must be learned comes from the fact that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where there are no people who speak or use sign language, they
invent a sign language themselves.
Imagine that a young child is just learning about the category "dog." Thus far, she has experienced only two dogs, one a poodle and the other a German shepherd. On her third encounter with a dog, she will be LEAST likely to correctly categorize the animal as a dog if that animal
is a breed of dog that is hairless and teacup-sized.
If human speech is represented as a string of taffy on a candy-making assembly line, then what function does speech segmentation serve at the candy factory?
it cuts the taffy into pieces
According to the typicality effect
items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group.
The analogical paradox refers to problem-solving differences between
laboratory and real-world settings.
Which of the following lies at the foundation of a connectionist network?
learning
refers to the meaning of words
lexical semantics
Ron is an avid reader. he has a large vocabulary because everytime he comes across a word he doesn't know, he looks it up in the dictionary. Ron encounters "wanderlust" in a novel and finds out the word means...
lexicon
Finke's creating an object studies show that people were more likely to come up with creative uses for preinventive objects if they
made the objects themselves.
A word with multiple meanings, one of which is much more commonly used than others, is said to have this
meaning dominance
Newell & Simon (1972) used problems like the Tower of Hanoi to show that involve a number of states. This was the term they used to refer to a way of problem solving where the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states
means-end analysis
A number of different practices for controlling the mind
meditation
Concept
mental representation used for a variety of cognitive functions
How learning occurs
network responds to stimulus, provided with correct response, modifies responding to match correct response
Gick and Holyoak proposed that analogical problem solving involves the following three steps:
notice, mapping, and applying
Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a(n)
novel object
Kounios et al. (2006) showed differences in brain activity during insight and non-insight problem solving by way of EEGs - showing increased activation in this area for non-insight problems
occipital lobe
In problem solving, permissible moves that can be made toward a problem's solution.
operation
Actions that take the problem from one state to another are known as
operators
Which of the following is a connectionist model proposing that concepts are represented by activity that is spread across a network?
parallel distributed processing theory
According to the situation model of text processing,
people create a mental representation of what the text is about in terms of people, objects, locations, and events.
One of Chomsky's most persuasive arguments for refuting Skinner's theory of language acquisition was his observation that children
produce sentences they have never heard.
Which approach to categorization involves forming a standard representation based on an average of category members that a person has encountered in the past?
prototype
In this approach to categorization, membership is determined by comparing an object to a typical member, or mental average, of the category
prototype approach to categorization
someone who is concerned with the psychological study of language is in this field
psycholinguistics
A problem posed by Duncker that involves finding a way to destroy a tumor by radiation without damaging other organs in the body. This problem has been widely used to study the role of analogy in problem solving.
radiation problem
output units
receive inputs from hidden units
hidden units
receive inputs from input units
The radiation problem can be solved using
representation and reconstructing
The process of changing a problem's representation. According to the Gestalt psychologists, restructuring is the key mechanism of problem solving.
restructuring
gestaltists call the process of changing representation problem this
restructuring
Intermediate states can be created by
restructuring goal states.
Newell and Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems. Their research program was based on the idea that problem solving is a process that involves
search
A person who has been diagnosed with ________ dementia has difficulty recognizing both living things and artifacts.
semanic
Which of the following is NOT a factor in prosody?
semantics
Which of the following terms best describes the concept of entrainment?
similarity
According to the concept of ________, when we read a sentence like, "Jorge grabbed his coat from his bedroom and his backpack from the living room, walked downstairs, and called his friend Gerry," we create a simulation of Jorge's apartment and keep track of his location as he moves throughout the apartment.
situation models
The word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more
slowly to low frequency words than higher frequency words
The word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more
slowly to low-frequency words than high-frequency words.
Considering the fortress and the radiation problems together, the fortress problem represents the _________________ problem.
source
When two people engage in a conversation, if one person produces a specific grammatical construction in his or her speech and then the other person does the same, this phenomenon is referred to as
synaptic priming
This is when conversational partners end up coordinating their grammatical constructions (saying things in almost identical ways)
syntactic coordination
The concept of language can best be thought of as a ________.
system
Experts _________________ than novices.
take a more effective approach to organizing the solution to a problem
A problem to be solved. In analogical problem solving, solution of this problem can become easier when the problem-solver is exposed to an analogous source problem or story
target problem
Research conducted by Chi and Snyder demonstrated that the Gestalt-style perceptual grouping of items occurs in which region of the brain?
temporal lobe
When the initial words are ambiguous, but the meaning is made clear by the end of the sentence
temporary ambiguity
Illustrative of functional fixedness, people are more likely to solve the candle problem if
the box is empty
Which of the following theories on conceptual representation combines both sensory and motor experiences?
the embodied approach
Lexical ambiguity studies show that people access ambiguous words based on
the meaning dominance of each definition of the word.
Rosch and coworkers conducted an experiment in which participants were shown a category label, like a car or vehicle, and then, after a brief delay, saw a picture. The participants' task was to indicate as rapidly as possible whether the picture was a member of the category. Their results showed
the priming effect was most robust for basic level categories
Categorization
the process by which things are placed into groups called categories
Janet is alone in a room that contains a chair and a shelf with a book resting on top. She attempts to retrieve the book, but the shelf is a foot above her reach. How will Janet retrieve the book? Psychologists would NOT classify this scenario as a problem because
the solution is immediately obvious.
Kaplan and Simon's experiment presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. The main purpose of their experiment was to demonstrate that
the way the problem is represented can influence the ease of problem solving
For the category "fruit," people give a higher typicality rating to "banana" than to "kiwi." Knowing that, we can also reason that
the word "fruit" will lead to a larger priming effect for banana than for kiwi.
Which term best reflects a musical composer who writes a film score in the key of E?
tonic
A negotiating strategy in which one person says to another, "I'll give you A, if you'll give me B."
trade-off strategy
Which of the following would be in a basic level category?
truck
Which problem provides an example of how functional fixedness can hinder solution of a problem?
two-string problem
Rayner & Duffy (1986) showed that people had longer first fixations and gaze durations on words that occurred less often in the English language, providing evidence for this effect
word frequency effect
