Cognitive psychology MC Exam 3
seeing in the absence of visual stimulus
visual imagery
Peggy is participating in a paired-associate learning experiment. During the study period, she is presented with pairs of words such as boat-hat and car-house. While taking the test, she would be presented with
boat _______ - car ________.
Mantyla's "banana/yellow, bunches, edible" experiment demonstrates that for best memory performance, retrieval cues should be created
by the person whose memory will be tested
The conceptual peg hypothesis would predict enhanced memory for which word pair?
cake mug
Which of the following representation types is associated with abstract concepts?
propositional
The ___________ model includes associations between concepts and the property of spreading activation.
semantic network
The semantic network model predicts that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information about a concept should be determined by
the distance that must be traveled through the network
According to the ______ approach to memory, what people report as memories is based on what actually happened plus additional factors such as other knowledge, experiences, and expectations.
constructive
What is the key difference between synaptic consolidation and systems consolidation?
scale
person's knowledge about some aspect of the environment
schema
According to your text, imagery enhances memory because
imagery can be used to create connections between items to be remembered
a debate about whether imagery is based on spatial mechanisms
imagery debate
Hebb's idea of long-term potentiation, which provides a physiological mechanism for the long-term storage of memories, includes the idea of
increased firing in the neurons
misidentifying the source of a memory
Source monitoring error (source misattributions)
In the experiment conducted by Viskontas and coworkers using picture pairs, a participant's later experience of familiarity with a particular pair was coded as ________.
"know"
reaction time data sets illustrates the typicality effect for the bird category, given the following three trials? (NOTE: Read data sets as RTs for Trial 1: Trial 2: Trial 3) Trial 1: An owl is a bird. Trial 2: A penguin is a bird. Trial 3: A sparrow is a bird.
583: 653: 518
A script is a type of schema that also includes knowledge of
a sequence of actions
helps form direct connections between the various cortical areas
reactivation
Which of the following terms does NOT reflect the concept of flashbulb memories?
accurate
something that accompanies the real mechanism but is not actually part of the mechanism
epiphenomenon
A spatial imagery test measures a person's capacity with imaging which of the following?
layout
linking the type of encoding to retrieval
levels of processing theory
In the semantic network model, a specific category or concept is represented at a
node
Elaborative rehearsal of a word will LEAST likely be accomplished by
repeating it over and over
Which of the following represents a basic level item?
Guitar
Lakeisha and Kim have been studying for two hours for their chemistry exam. Both girls are tired of studying. Lakeisha decides to watch a two-hour movie on DVD, while Kim decides to go to bed. What would you predict about their performance on the chemistry exam?
Kim performs better because of consolidation
spatial correspondence between imagery and perception is supported by ______ and involves a task called _____
Kosslyn; mental scanning
Suppose we asked people to form simultaneous images of two or more animals such as a rabbit alongside an elephant. Then, we ask them basic questions about the animals. For example, we might ask if the rabbit has whiskers. Given our knowledge of imagery research, we would expect the fastest response to this question when the rabbit is imagined alongside
a bumblebee
Mental scanning experiments found
a direct relationship between scanning time and distance on the image
Your book explains that brief episodes of retrograde amnesia (e.g., the traumatic disruption of newly formed memories when a football player takes a hit to the head and can't recall the last play before the hit) reflect
a failure of memory consolidation
In a lexical decision task, participants have to decide whether
a presented stimulus is a word
In Slameka and Graf's (1978) study, some participants read word pairs, while other participants had to fill in the blank letters of the second word in a pair with a word related to the first word. The latter group performed better on a later memory task, illustrating the
generation effect
generating material yourself, rather than passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention
generation effect
the amnesia tends to be most severe for events that happened just before the injury and to become less severe for earlier events
graded amnesia
Shepard and Metzler measured the time it took for participants to decide whether two objects were the same (two different views of the same object) or different (two different objects). These researchers inferred cognitive processes by using
mental chronometry
The scanning task used by Kosslyn involves
mental images
Rosch found that participants respond more rapidly in a same-different task when presented with "good" examples of colors such as "red" and "green" than when they are presented with "poor" examples such as "pink" and "light green." The result of this experiment was interpreted as supporting the ___________ approach to categorization.
prototype
Which approach to categorization involves forming a standard representation based on an average of category members that a person has encountered in the past?
prototype
Experimental evidence suggesting that the standard model of consolidation needs to be revised are data that show that the hippocampus was activated during retrieval of ___________ memories.
recent and remote episodic
when a memory is retrieved, it becomes fragile, like it was when it was originally formed
reconsolidation
enhanced memory for adolescence and young adulthood found in people over 40
reminiscence bump
Your text describes the case of M.G.S. who underwent brain surgery as treatment for severe epilepsy. Testing of M.G.S. pre- and post-surgery revealed that the right visual cortex is involved in the
size of the field of view
The "wedding reception" false memory experiment shows that false memories can be explained as a product of familiarity and
source misattribution
the process of determining the origins of our memories, knowledge, or beliefs
source monitoring
Trinh is a famous chef. Since she does not like to share her secret family recipes, she does not write down her special creations, which makes it difficult to remember their ingredients. To aid her memory, she has created a unique "mental walk" that she takes to recall each recipe. For each one, she has a familiar "route" she can imagine walking through (e.g., from the end of her driveway to her living room) where she places each item in the recipe somewhere along the way (e.g., fish sauce splattered on the front door). By doing so, Trinh is using ___________ to organize her memories.
the method of loci
Collins and Quillian's semantic network model predicts that the reaction time to verify "a canary is a bird" is ___________ the reaction time to verify "an ostrich is a bird."
the same as
The repeated reproduction technique used in memory studies involves
the same participants remembering some information at longer and longer intervals after learning the information
Transfer-appropriate processing is likely to occur if
the type of encoding task matches the type of retrieval task
Your text describes cross-cultural studies of categorization with U.S. and Itzaj participants. Given the results of these studies, we know that if asked to name basic level objects for a category, U.S. participants would answer ___________ and Itzaj participants would answer ___________.
tree; oak
Which of the following would be in a basic level category?
truck
An advantage of the exemplar approach over the prototype approach is that the exemplar approach provides a better explanation of the ___________ effect.
typicality
The definitional approach to categorization
we may decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether a particular object meets the definition of the category
Recent research on memory, based largely on fear conditioning in rats, indicates that
when a memory is reactivated, it becomes capable of being changed or altered, just as it was immediately after it was formed
tendency for the most notable public events in a persons life to be perceived to occur when the person is young
youth bias
Which approach to categorization can more easily take into account atypical cases such as flightless birds?
Exemplar
the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption
consolidation
For most adults over age 40, the reminiscence bump describes enhanced memory for
adolescence and young adulthood
The misinformation effect occurs when a person's memory for an event is modified by misleading information presented
after the event
Bransford and Johnson's study had participants hear a passage, which turned out to be about a man on the street serenading his girlfriend in a tall building. The wording of the passage made it difficult to understand, but looking at a picture made it easier to understand. The results of this study illustrated the importance of ___________ in forming reliable long-term memories.
an organizational context during learning
Free recall of the stimulus list "apple, desk, shoe, sofa, plum, chair, cherry, coat, lamp, pants" will most likely yield which of these response patterns?
apple, cherry, plum, shoe, coat, pants, lamp, chair
Your text's discussion of false memories leads to the conclusion that false memories
arise from the same constructive process that produce true memories
In Lindsay's "misinformation effect" experiment, participants saw a sequence of slides showing a maintenance man stealing money and a computer. This slide presentation included narration by a female speaker who described what was happening in the slides as they were shown. Results showed that the misinformation effect was greatest when presentation of misleading post-event information was
auditory from a female speaker
memory for specific experiences from out life, which can include both episodic and semantic components
autobiographical memory
Learning takes place in a connectionist network through a process of ___________ in which an error signal is transmitted starting from the property units.
back propagation
According to Rosch, the ___________ level of categories reflects people's everyday experience.
basic
Which of the choices best represents cognitive economy in the following sentence? The property _______is stored at the _______node.
can fly; bird
The conclusion to be drawn from the man named Shereshevskii whose abnormal brain functioning gave him virtually limitless word-for-word memory is that having memory like a video recorder
can seriously disrupt functioning in one's personal life
The prototype approach to categorization states that a standard representation of a category is based on
category members that have been encountered in the past
Measuring the amount of time, a person requires to complete different cognitive tasks is the goal of mental ________.
chronometry
Schrauf and Rubin's "two groups of immigrants" study found that the reminiscence bump coincided with periods of rapid change, occurring at a normal age for people emigrating early in life but shifting to 15 years later for those who emigrated later. These results support the
cognitive hypothesis
periods of rapid change that are followed by stability cause stronger encoding of memories
cognitive hypothesis
Two different definitions of ___________ offered by your book include (a) "the mental representation of a class or individual," and (b) "categories of objects, events, and abstract ideas."
concepts
concrete nouns create images that other words can hang onto
conceptual peg hypothesis
Learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network
connection weights
One of the key properties of the ___________ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network.
connectionist
The process of back propagation is most closely associated with
connectionist networks
In the "word list" false memory experiment where several students incorrectly remembered hearing the word sleep, false memory occurs because of
constructive memory processes
what people report as memories are constructed based on what actually happened plus additional factors, such as the person's knowledge, experiences, and expectations
constructive nature of memory
The key difference between depictive representation and propositional representation is based on which of the following?
content
has been shown to play a role in the strength of memories that are associated with emotion?
cortisol
Arkes and Freedman's "baseball game" experiment asked participants to indicate whether the following sentence was present in a passage they had previously read about events in a game: "The batter was safe at first." Their findings showed inaccurate memories involved
creations from inferences based on baseball knowledge
Unconscious plagiarism of the work of others is known as
cryptoamnesia
unconscious plagiarism of the work of others
cryptomnesia
In the "War of the Ghosts" experiment, participants' reproductions contained inaccuracies based on
cultural expectations
One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that
damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation
involves close attention and elaborative rehearsal that focuses on an items meaning and its relationship to something else
deep processing
Which statement below is most closely associated with levels of processing theory?
deep processing involves paying closer attention to a stimulus than shallow processing and results in better processing
Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack the feature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. This poses a problem for the ___________ approach to categorization.
definitional
spatial representations such as the picture of the cat under the table in which parts of the representation correspond to parts of the object called...
depictive representations
memory depends on the _____ that an item receives
depth of processing
one of the keys to the success of the cognitive revolution was that cognitive psychologists
developed ways to measure behavior that could be used to infer cognitive process
key factor in the memory-enhancing capacity of sleep?
distraction
How would you describe the relationship between elaborative rehearsal and maintenance rehearsal in terms of establishing long-term memories?
elaborative is more effective than maintenance
Elementary school students in the United States are often taught to use the very familiar word "HOMES" as a cue for remembering the names of the Great Lakes (each letter in "HOMES" provides a first-letter cue for one of the lakes: Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). This memory procedure usually works better than repeating the names over and over. The use of this familiar word provides an example of
elaborative rehearsal
remember a number by considering meaning or making connections to other information
elaborative rehearsal
Research into reconsolidation of memories in people who have PTSD has focused on the ________ aspects of memory.
emotional
According to the levels of processing theory, memory durability depends on the depth at which information is
encoded
Acquiring information and transforming it into long-term memory is
encoding
the process of acquiring information and transferring it to LTM
encoding
we encode information along with its context
encoding specificity
If you say that "a Labrador retriever is my idea of a typical dog," you would be using the ___________ approach to categorization.
examplar
memory for the circumstances surrounding shocking, highly charged events
flashbulb memory
the ease with which a statement can be remembered
fluency
The concept of reconsolidation is based on the ________ of retrieved memories.
fragility
Paivio (1963) proposed the conceptual peg hypothesis. His work suggests which of the following would be most difficult to remember?
freedom
Extrapolating from the cultural life script hypothesis, which of the following events would be easiest to recall?
graduating from college at age 22
Research shows that ___________ does not improve reading comprehension because it does not encourage elaborative processing of the material.
highlighting
the enhanced probability of evaluating a statement as being true upon repeated presentation
illusory truth effect
link between imagery and thinking gave rise to
imageless thought debate
Perky's experiment, in which participants were asked to "project" visual images of common objects onto a screen, showed that
imagery and perception can interact with one another
Ira and his sister are playing "Name that Tune," the object of which is to name the title of the song when given the song's first line. Ira suggests the line "Sleigh bells ring, are you listening?" His sister can't come up with the answer at first, but realizing that the title is often embedded in the lyrics, she tries to sing them silently to herself. She then bursts out "Ah! It's 'Winter Wonderland'!" It is most likely that Ira's sister used ___________ in playing the game.
inner audition
The "imagery debate" is concerned with whether imagery
is based on spatial or language mechanisms
According to the typicality effect
items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group
Katie and Alana are roommates taking the same psychology class. They have a test in four days during a 10:00-11:00 AM class period. Both women intend to study for three hours, but because of different work schedules, Katie will study one hour for each of the next three days, while Alana will study three hours the day before the exam. What could you predict about their performances?
katie should perform better because of the spacing effect
The concept of encoding specificity is grounded in which of the following?
location
enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation
long-term potentiation
(holding a phone number in your memory) if you do this without any consideration of meaning or making connections with other information, you are engaging in
maintenance rehearsal
You have been studying for weeks for a nursing school entrance exam. You love the idea of becoming a nurse, and you have been enjoying learning about the material for your exam. Each night, you put on comfortable clothes and study in the quiet of your lovely home. Memory research suggests you should take your test with a(n) ________ mindset.
relaxed
According to the levels of processing theory, which of the following tasks will produce the best long-term memory for a set of words?
making a connection between each word and something you have previously learned
The observation that older adults often become nostalgic for the "good old days" reflects the self-image hypothesis, which states that
memory for life events is enhanced during the time we assume our life identities
Flashbulb memory is best represented by
memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an emotional event that remains especially vivid but not necessarily accurate over time
the ability to re-create the sensory world in the absence of physical stimuli, is used to include all of the senses
mental imagery
Kosslyn's island experiment used the ___________ procedure.
mental scanning
participants create mental images and then scan them in their minds
mental scanning
Kosslyn concluded that the image field is limited in size. This conclusion was drawn from the ___________ experiment.
mental walk
In drawing conclusions about the relationship between imagery and perception, a notable difference between them is that
method of loci
misleading information presented after a person witnesses an event can change how the person described that event later
misinformation effect
early in consolidation, the hippocampus communicates with cortical areas
multiple trace model of consolidation
The idea that we remember life events better because we encounter the information over and over in what we read, see on TV, and talk about with other people is called the
narrative rehearsal hypothesis
we may remember events like those that happened on 9/11 not because of a special mechanism but because we rehearse these events after they occur
narrative rehearsal hypothesis
a list of words is presented- later, the first word of each pair is presented, and the participant's task is to remember the word it was paired with
paired-associate learning
is a connectionist model proposing that concepts are represented by activity that is spread across a network?
parallel distributed processing theory
Your text describes an experiment by Talarico and Rubin (2003) that measured people's memories of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Which of the following was the primary result of that research?
participants had high confidence in the accuracy of their memories of the terrorist events 24 weeks later, but made significant errors when asked what they were doing on the day of the attacks
Ganis and coworkers (2004) used fMRI to measure brain activation for perception and imagery of objects. Their results showed that
perception and imagery activate the same areas of the frontal lobe, but perception activates more of the back of he brain than imagery does
Which of the following statements is true of the cognitive interview technique?
police allow witnesses to talk with minimum of interruption from the officer
__________ occurs when reading a sentence leads a person to expect something that is not explicitly stated or necessarily implied by the sentence.
pragmatic inference
when reading a sentence leads a person to expect something that is not explicitly stated or implied by the sentence
pragmatic inference
The maintenance rehearsal task of learning a word by repeating it over and over again is most likely to
produce some short-term remembering, but fail to produce longer-term memories
representations in which relationships can be represented by abstract symbols, such as an equation or a statement
propositional representations
As described in your text, the pegword technique relies on all of the following EXCEPT
propositions
In the experiment in which participants sat in an office and then were asked to remember what they saw in the office, participants "remembered" some things, like books, that weren't actually there. This experiment illustrates the effect of __________ on memory.
schemas
our conception of the sequence of actions that usually occurs during a particular experience
script
proposes that memory is enhanced for events that occur as a person's self-image or life identity is being formed
self-image hypothesis
memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself
self-reference effect
According to the ___________ approach, there are certain types of concepts that have specific neural circuits in the brain.
semantic category
involves little attention to meaning, as when a phone number is repeated over and over or attention is focused on a word's physical features such as whether it is printed in lower-case of capital letters
shallow processing
imagery and perception may...
share the same mechanisms
According to memory research, studying is most effective if study sessions are
short and across several days
Wei has allergy symptoms. He has gone to his regular doctor and an allergy specialist, but he wasn't given a prescription by either doctor. Instead, he was advised to buy an over-the-counter medicine. While he was in the specialist's waiting area, he read a magazine where he saw three ads for an allergy medicine called SneezeLess. A week later, in a drug store, Wei says to his brother, "My doctor says SneezeLess works great. I'll buy that one." Wei and his doctor never discussed SneezeLess. Wei has fallen victim to which of the following errors?
source monitoring
the advantage for short study session
spacing effect
A mental rotation task is focused on the ________ aspect of imagery.
spatial
mental and perceptual images both involve
spatial representation of the stimulus
According to the cognitive hypothesis, experiences that occur during periods of rapid personal development followed by periods of stability tend to be easier to remember due to which of the following?
strong encoding
The standard model of consolidation proposes that the hippocampus is
strongly active when memories are first formed and being consolidated but becomes less active when retrieving older memories that are already consolidated
Based on the information your textbook provided about different category types, jumping from ___________ categories results in the largest gain in information.
superordinate level to basic level
James Nairne would say that effective encoding of memory is based on
survival
takes place over minutes or hours, involves structural changes at synapses
synaptic consolidation
___________ consolidation involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a fairly long time scale.
systems
takes place over months or even years, involves gradual reorganization of neural circuits within the brain
systems consolidation
Jenkins and Russell (1952) presented a list of words like "chair, apple, dish, shoe, cherry, sofa" to participants. In a test, participants recalled the words in a different order than the order in which they were originally presented. This result occurred because of the
tendency of objects in the same category to become organized
Dr. Leung is leading a research team to explore the retrieval practice effect. Which of the following will likely be a key component of her team's research protocol?
testing
enhanced performance due to retrieval practice
testing effect
Jeannie loves to dance, having taken ballet for many years. She is now learning salsa dancing. Although the movements are very different from the dances she is familiar with, she has found a successful memory strategy of linking the new dance information to her previous experiences as a dancer and to her own affection for dance. This strategy suggests reliance on
the self-reference effect
For the category "fruit," people give a higher typicality rating to "banana" than to "kiwi." Knowing that, we can also reason that
the word "fruit" will lead to a larger priming effect for banana than for kiwi
Autobiographical memory research shows that a person's brain is more extensively activated when viewing photos
they took themselves
most closely associated with the early history of the study of imagery?
thought is always accompanied by imagery
Leaving a footprint in the wet sand—with a deep indentation for the heel, a rise for the arch, and each toe clearly identified—is similar to which concept?
topographic map
Which type of research employed a "train on perception, test on perception" method to demonstrate imagery/perception overlap?
transcranial magnetic stimulation
When the methods used to encode and retrieve information are the same, this is called ________ processing.
transfer-appropriate
Memory performance is enhanced if the type of task at encoding matches the type of task at retrieval. This is called
transfer-appropriate processing
better performance when the type of processing matches in encoding and retrieval
transfer-appropriate processing
Asking people to recall the most influential events that happened during their college careers shows that __________ in people's lives appear to be particularly memorable
transition points
Monique is an interior design student. As part of her internship, she is redesigning a small kitchen for a client. She would like to expand the kitchen and add a dining area. Before creating sketches for the client, she imagines the new layout in her mind, most likely using
a depictive representation
According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take longest to verify which statement below?
a turtle is an animal
People often report an annoying memory failure when they walk from one end of the house to the other for something and then forget what they wanted when they reach their destination. As soon as they return to the first room, they are reminded of what they wanted in the first place. This common experience best illustrates the principle of
encoding specificity
Lindsay's misinformation effect experiment, in which participants were given a memory test about a sequence of slides showing a maintenance man stealing money and a computer, showed that participants are influenced by misleading post-event information
even if they are told to ignore the post-event information
Which of the following is the most accurate statement regarding post-event information and the misinformation effect?
even when participants are told that the post-event information is incorrect, the misinformation effect can still occur
Research suggests that the ___________ approach to categorization works best for small categories (e.g., U.S. presidents).
exemplar
___________ are actual members of a category that a person has encountered in the past
exemplars
Mental imagery involves
experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input
A lesson to be learned from the research on flashbulb memories is that
extreme vividness of a memory does not mean it is accurate
Priming occurs when presentation of one stimulus
facilitates the response to another stimulus that usually follows closely in time
Your text describes imagery performance of a patient with unilateral neglect. This patient was asked to imagine himself standing at one end of a familiar plaza and to report the objects he saw. His behavior shows
neglect always occured on the left side of the image, with "left side" being determined by the direction in which the patient imagined he was positioned
participants tried to remember the story at longer and longer intervals after they had first read it
repeated reproduction
Which of the following is key to the illusory truth effect?
repetition
Memories of the past that have been pushed out of a person's consciousness are considered to be ________.
repressed
___________ cues help us remember information that has been stored in memory.
retrieval
bringing information into consciousness by transferring it from LTM to working memory
retrieval
a word or other stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory
retrieval cue
Examples from your book describing real experiences of how memories, even ones from a long time ago, can be stimulated by locations, songs, and smells highlight the importance of ___________ in long-term memory.
retrieval cues
loss of memory for events that occurred before the injury
retrograde amnesia
Kosslyn interpreted the results of his research on imagery (such as the island experiment) as supporting the idea that the mechanism responsible for imagery involves ___________ representations.
spatial
representations in which different parts of an image can be described as corresponding to specific locations in space
spatial representations
The principle that we encode information together with its context is known as encoding
specificity
Collins and Quillian explained the results of priming experiments by introducing the concept of ___________ into their network model.
spreading activation
memory unfolds according to a sequence of steps in which the hippocampus is involved in encoding new memories, and makes connections with higher cortical areas
standard model of consolidation
matching the conditions at encoding and retrieval can influence memory - learning is associated with a particular internal state, such as mood or awareness
state-dependent learning
Complete the following analogy: Perception is to ________ as imagery is to ________.
stone; smoke
Items high on prototypicality have ___________ family resemblances.
strong
Latoya is remembering a fun day at the beach that she had with her dad when she was a little girl. Which region of brain will have the LEAST connection to the more personal aspects of Latoya's memory?
prefrontal cortex