Cognitive psychology MC Exam 3

seeing in the absence of visual stimulus

visual imagery

Peggy is participating in a paired-associate learning experiment. During the study period, she is presented with pairs of words such as boat-hat and car-house. While taking the test, she would be presented with

boat _______ - car ________.

Mantyla's "banana/yellow, bunches, edible" experiment demonstrates that for best memory performance, retrieval cues should be created

by the person whose memory will be tested

The conceptual peg hypothesis would predict enhanced memory for which word pair?

cake mug

Which of the following representation types is associated with abstract concepts?

propositional

The ___________ model includes associations between concepts and the property of spreading activation.

semantic network

The semantic network model predicts that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information about a concept should be determined by

the distance that must be traveled through the network

According to the ______ approach to memory, what people report as memories is based on what actually happened plus additional factors such as other knowledge, experiences, and expectations.

constructive

What is the key difference between synaptic consolidation and systems consolidation?

scale

person's knowledge about some aspect of the environment

schema

According to your text, imagery enhances memory because

imagery can be used to create connections between items to be remembered

a debate about whether imagery is based on spatial mechanisms

imagery debate

Hebb's idea of long-term potentiation, which provides a physiological mechanism for the long-term storage of memories, includes the idea of

increased firing in the neurons

misidentifying the source of a memory

Source monitoring error (source misattributions)

In the experiment conducted by Viskontas and coworkers using picture pairs, a participant's later experience of familiarity with a particular pair was coded as ________.

"know"

reaction time data sets illustrates the typicality effect for the bird category, given the following three trials? (NOTE: Read data sets as RTs for Trial 1: Trial 2: Trial 3) Trial 1: An owl is a bird. Trial 2: A penguin is a bird. Trial 3: A sparrow is a bird.

583: 653: 518

A script is a type of schema that also includes knowledge of

a sequence of actions

helps form direct connections between the various cortical areas

reactivation

Which of the following terms does NOT reflect the concept of flashbulb memories?

accurate

something that accompanies the real mechanism but is not actually part of the mechanism

epiphenomenon

A spatial imagery test measures a person's capacity with imaging which of the following?

layout

linking the type of encoding to retrieval

levels of processing theory

In the semantic network model, a specific category or concept is represented at a

node

Elaborative rehearsal of a word will LEAST likely be accomplished by

repeating it over and over

Which of the following represents a basic level item?

Guitar

Lakeisha and Kim have been studying for two hours for their chemistry exam. Both girls are tired of studying. Lakeisha decides to watch a two-hour movie on DVD, while Kim decides to go to bed. What would you predict about their performance on the chemistry exam?

Kim performs better because of consolidation

spatial correspondence between imagery and perception is supported by ______ and involves a task called _____

Kosslyn; mental scanning

Suppose we asked people to form simultaneous images of two or more animals such as a rabbit alongside an elephant. Then, we ask them basic questions about the animals. For example, we might ask if the rabbit has whiskers. Given our knowledge of imagery research, we would expect the fastest response to this question when the rabbit is imagined alongside

a bumblebee

Mental scanning experiments found

a direct relationship between scanning time and distance on the image

Your book explains that brief episodes of retrograde amnesia (e.g., the traumatic disruption of newly formed memories when a football player takes a hit to the head and can't recall the last play before the hit) reflect

a failure of memory consolidation

In a lexical decision task, participants have to decide whether

a presented stimulus is a word

In Slameka and Graf's (1978) study, some participants read word pairs, while other participants had to fill in the blank letters of the second word in a pair with a word related to the first word. The latter group performed better on a later memory task, illustrating the

generation effect

generating material yourself, rather than passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention

generation effect

the amnesia tends to be most severe for events that happened just before the injury and to become less severe for earlier events

graded amnesia

Shepard and Metzler measured the time it took for participants to decide whether two objects were the same (two different views of the same object) or different (two different objects). These researchers inferred cognitive processes by using

mental chronometry

The scanning task used by Kosslyn involves

mental images

Rosch found that participants respond more rapidly in a same-different task when presented with "good" examples of colors such as "red" and "green" than when they are presented with "poor" examples such as "pink" and "light green." The result of this experiment was interpreted as supporting the ___________ approach to categorization.

prototype

Which approach to categorization involves forming a standard representation based on an average of category members that a person has encountered in the past?

prototype

Experimental evidence suggesting that the standard model of consolidation needs to be revised are data that show that the hippocampus was activated during retrieval of ___________ memories.

recent and remote episodic

when a memory is retrieved, it becomes fragile, like it was when it was originally formed

reconsolidation

enhanced memory for adolescence and young adulthood found in people over 40

reminiscence bump

Your text describes the case of M.G.S. who underwent brain surgery as treatment for severe epilepsy. Testing of M.G.S. pre- and post-surgery revealed that the right visual cortex is involved in the

size of the field of view

The "wedding reception" false memory experiment shows that false memories can be explained as a product of familiarity and

source misattribution

the process of determining the origins of our memories, knowledge, or beliefs

source monitoring

Trinh is a famous chef. Since she does not like to share her secret family recipes, she does not write down her special creations, which makes it difficult to remember their ingredients. To aid her memory, she has created a unique "mental walk" that she takes to recall each recipe. For each one, she has a familiar "route" she can imagine walking through (e.g., from the end of her driveway to her living room) where she places each item in the recipe somewhere along the way (e.g., fish sauce splattered on the front door). By doing so, Trinh is using ___________ to organize her memories.

the method of loci

Collins and Quillian's semantic network model predicts that the reaction time to verify "a canary is a bird" is ___________ the reaction time to verify "an ostrich is a bird."

the same as

The repeated reproduction technique used in memory studies involves

the same participants remembering some information at longer and longer intervals after learning the information

Transfer-appropriate processing is likely to occur if

the type of encoding task matches the type of retrieval task

Your text describes cross-cultural studies of categorization with U.S. and Itzaj participants. Given the results of these studies, we know that if asked to name basic level objects for a category, U.S. participants would answer ___________ and Itzaj participants would answer ___________.

tree; oak

Which of the following would be in a basic level category?

truck

An advantage of the exemplar approach over the prototype approach is that the exemplar approach provides a better explanation of the ___________ effect.

typicality

The definitional approach to categorization

we may decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether a particular object meets the definition of the category

Recent research on memory, based largely on fear conditioning in rats, indicates that

when a memory is reactivated, it becomes capable of being changed or altered, just as it was immediately after it was formed

tendency for the most notable public events in a persons life to be perceived to occur when the person is young

youth bias

Which approach to categorization can more easily take into account atypical cases such as flightless birds?

Exemplar

the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption

consolidation

For most adults over age 40, the reminiscence bump describes enhanced memory for

adolescence and young adulthood

The misinformation effect occurs when a person's memory for an event is modified by misleading information presented

after the event

Bransford and Johnson's study had participants hear a passage, which turned out to be about a man on the street serenading his girlfriend in a tall building. The wording of the passage made it difficult to understand, but looking at a picture made it easier to understand. The results of this study illustrated the importance of ___________ in forming reliable long-term memories.

an organizational context during learning

Free recall of the stimulus list "apple, desk, shoe, sofa, plum, chair, cherry, coat, lamp, pants" will most likely yield which of these response patterns?

apple, cherry, plum, shoe, coat, pants, lamp, chair

Your text's discussion of false memories leads to the conclusion that false memories

arise from the same constructive process that produce true memories

In Lindsay's "misinformation effect" experiment, participants saw a sequence of slides showing a maintenance man stealing money and a computer. This slide presentation included narration by a female speaker who described what was happening in the slides as they were shown. Results showed that the misinformation effect was greatest when presentation of misleading post-event information was

auditory from a female speaker

memory for specific experiences from out life, which can include both episodic and semantic components

autobiographical memory

Learning takes place in a connectionist network through a process of ___________ in which an error signal is transmitted starting from the property units.

back propagation

According to Rosch, the ___________ level of categories reflects people's everyday experience.

basic

Which of the choices best represents cognitive economy in the following sentence? The property _______is stored at the _______node.

can fly; bird

The conclusion to be drawn from the man named Shereshevskii whose abnormal brain functioning gave him virtually limitless word-for-word memory is that having memory like a video recorder

can seriously disrupt functioning in one's personal life

The prototype approach to categorization states that a standard representation of a category is based on

category members that have been encountered in the past

Measuring the amount of time, a person requires to complete different cognitive tasks is the goal of mental ________.

chronometry

Schrauf and Rubin's "two groups of immigrants" study found that the reminiscence bump coincided with periods of rapid change, occurring at a normal age for people emigrating early in life but shifting to 15 years later for those who emigrated later. These results support the

cognitive hypothesis

periods of rapid change that are followed by stability cause stronger encoding of memories

cognitive hypothesis

Two different definitions of ___________ offered by your book include (a) "the mental representation of a class or individual," and (b) "categories of objects, events, and abstract ideas."

concepts

concrete nouns create images that other words can hang onto

conceptual peg hypothesis

Learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network

connection weights

One of the key properties of the ___________ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network.

connectionist

The process of back propagation is most closely associated with

connectionist networks

In the "word list" false memory experiment where several students incorrectly remembered hearing the word sleep, false memory occurs because of

constructive memory processes

what people report as memories are constructed based on what actually happened plus additional factors, such as the person's knowledge, experiences, and expectations

constructive nature of memory

The key difference between depictive representation and propositional representation is based on which of the following?

content

has been shown to play a role in the strength of memories that are associated with emotion?

cortisol

Arkes and Freedman's "baseball game" experiment asked participants to indicate whether the following sentence was present in a passage they had previously read about events in a game: "The batter was safe at first." Their findings showed inaccurate memories involved

creations from inferences based on baseball knowledge

Unconscious plagiarism of the work of others is known as

cryptoamnesia

unconscious plagiarism of the work of others

cryptomnesia

In the "War of the Ghosts" experiment, participants' reproductions contained inaccuracies based on

cultural expectations

One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that

damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation

involves close attention and elaborative rehearsal that focuses on an items meaning and its relationship to something else

deep processing

Which statement below is most closely associated with levels of processing theory?

deep processing involves paying closer attention to a stimulus than shallow processing and results in better processing

Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack the feature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. This poses a problem for the ___________ approach to categorization.

definitional

spatial representations such as the picture of the cat under the table in which parts of the representation correspond to parts of the object called...

depictive representations

memory depends on the _____ that an item receives

depth of processing

one of the keys to the success of the cognitive revolution was that cognitive psychologists

developed ways to measure behavior that could be used to infer cognitive process

key factor in the memory-enhancing capacity of sleep?

distraction

How would you describe the relationship between elaborative rehearsal and maintenance rehearsal in terms of establishing long-term memories?

elaborative is more effective than maintenance

Elementary school students in the United States are often taught to use the very familiar word "HOMES" as a cue for remembering the names of the Great Lakes (each letter in "HOMES" provides a first-letter cue for one of the lakes: Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). This memory procedure usually works better than repeating the names over and over. The use of this familiar word provides an example of

elaborative rehearsal

remember a number by considering meaning or making connections to other information

elaborative rehearsal

Research into reconsolidation of memories in people who have PTSD has focused on the ________ aspects of memory.

emotional

According to the levels of processing theory, memory durability depends on the depth at which information is

encoded

Acquiring information and transforming it into long-term memory is

encoding

the process of acquiring information and transferring it to LTM

encoding

we encode information along with its context

encoding specificity

If you say that "a Labrador retriever is my idea of a typical dog," you would be using the ___________ approach to categorization.

examplar

memory for the circumstances surrounding shocking, highly charged events

flashbulb memory

the ease with which a statement can be remembered

fluency

The concept of reconsolidation is based on the ________ of retrieved memories.

fragility

Paivio (1963) proposed the conceptual peg hypothesis. His work suggests which of the following would be most difficult to remember?

freedom

Extrapolating from the cultural life script hypothesis, which of the following events would be easiest to recall?

graduating from college at age 22

Research shows that ___________ does not improve reading comprehension because it does not encourage elaborative processing of the material.

highlighting

the enhanced probability of evaluating a statement as being true upon repeated presentation

illusory truth effect

link between imagery and thinking gave rise to

imageless thought debate

Perky's experiment, in which participants were asked to "project" visual images of common objects onto a screen, showed that

imagery and perception can interact with one another

Ira and his sister are playing "Name that Tune," the object of which is to name the title of the song when given the song's first line. Ira suggests the line "Sleigh bells ring, are you listening?" His sister can't come up with the answer at first, but realizing that the title is often embedded in the lyrics, she tries to sing them silently to herself. She then bursts out "Ah! It's 'Winter Wonderland'!" It is most likely that Ira's sister used ___________ in playing the game.

inner audition

The "imagery debate" is concerned with whether imagery

is based on spatial or language mechanisms

According to the typicality effect

items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group

Katie and Alana are roommates taking the same psychology class. They have a test in four days during a 10:00-11:00 AM class period. Both women intend to study for three hours, but because of different work schedules, Katie will study one hour for each of the next three days, while Alana will study three hours the day before the exam. What could you predict about their performances?

katie should perform better because of the spacing effect

The concept of encoding specificity is grounded in which of the following?

location

enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation

long-term potentiation

(holding a phone number in your memory) if you do this without any consideration of meaning or making connections with other information, you are engaging in

maintenance rehearsal

You have been studying for weeks for a nursing school entrance exam. You love the idea of becoming a nurse, and you have been enjoying learning about the material for your exam. Each night, you put on comfortable clothes and study in the quiet of your lovely home. Memory research suggests you should take your test with a(n) ________ mindset.

relaxed

According to the levels of processing theory, which of the following tasks will produce the best long-term memory for a set of words?

making a connection between each word and something you have previously learned

The observation that older adults often become nostalgic for the "good old days" reflects the self-image hypothesis, which states that

memory for life events is enhanced during the time we assume our life identities

Flashbulb memory is best represented by

memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an emotional event that remains especially vivid but not necessarily accurate over time

the ability to re-create the sensory world in the absence of physical stimuli, is used to include all of the senses

mental imagery

Kosslyn's island experiment used the ___________ procedure.

mental scanning

participants create mental images and then scan them in their minds

mental scanning

Kosslyn concluded that the image field is limited in size. This conclusion was drawn from the ___________ experiment.

mental walk

In drawing conclusions about the relationship between imagery and perception, a notable difference between them is that

method of loci

misleading information presented after a person witnesses an event can change how the person described that event later

misinformation effect

early in consolidation, the hippocampus communicates with cortical areas

multiple trace model of consolidation

The idea that we remember life events better because we encounter the information over and over in what we read, see on TV, and talk about with other people is called the

narrative rehearsal hypothesis

we may remember events like those that happened on 9/11 not because of a special mechanism but because we rehearse these events after they occur

narrative rehearsal hypothesis

a list of words is presented- later, the first word of each pair is presented, and the participant's task is to remember the word it was paired with

paired-associate learning

is a connectionist model proposing that concepts are represented by activity that is spread across a network?

parallel distributed processing theory

Your text describes an experiment by Talarico and Rubin (2003) that measured people's memories of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Which of the following was the primary result of that research?

participants had high confidence in the accuracy of their memories of the terrorist events 24 weeks later, but made significant errors when asked what they were doing on the day of the attacks

Ganis and coworkers (2004) used fMRI to measure brain activation for perception and imagery of objects. Their results showed that

perception and imagery activate the same areas of the frontal lobe, but perception activates more of the back of he brain than imagery does

Which of the following statements is true of the cognitive interview technique?

police allow witnesses to talk with minimum of interruption from the officer

__________ occurs when reading a sentence leads a person to expect something that is not explicitly stated or necessarily implied by the sentence.

pragmatic inference

when reading a sentence leads a person to expect something that is not explicitly stated or implied by the sentence

pragmatic inference

The maintenance rehearsal task of learning a word by repeating it over and over again is most likely to

produce some short-term remembering, but fail to produce longer-term memories

representations in which relationships can be represented by abstract symbols, such as an equation or a statement

propositional representations

As described in your text, the pegword technique relies on all of the following EXCEPT

propositions

In the experiment in which participants sat in an office and then were asked to remember what they saw in the office, participants "remembered" some things, like books, that weren't actually there. This experiment illustrates the effect of __________ on memory.

schemas

our conception of the sequence of actions that usually occurs during a particular experience

script

proposes that memory is enhanced for events that occur as a person's self-image or life identity is being formed

self-image hypothesis

memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself

self-reference effect

According to the ___________ approach, there are certain types of concepts that have specific neural circuits in the brain.

semantic category

involves little attention to meaning, as when a phone number is repeated over and over or attention is focused on a word's physical features such as whether it is printed in lower-case of capital letters

shallow processing

imagery and perception may...

share the same mechanisms

According to memory research, studying is most effective if study sessions are

short and across several days

Wei has allergy symptoms. He has gone to his regular doctor and an allergy specialist, but he wasn't given a prescription by either doctor. Instead, he was advised to buy an over-the-counter medicine. While he was in the specialist's waiting area, he read a magazine where he saw three ads for an allergy medicine called SneezeLess. A week later, in a drug store, Wei says to his brother, "My doctor says SneezeLess works great. I'll buy that one." Wei and his doctor never discussed SneezeLess. Wei has fallen victim to which of the following errors?

source monitoring

the advantage for short study session

spacing effect

A mental rotation task is focused on the ________ aspect of imagery.

spatial

mental and perceptual images both involve

spatial representation of the stimulus

According to the cognitive hypothesis, experiences that occur during periods of rapid personal development followed by periods of stability tend to be easier to remember due to which of the following?

strong encoding

The standard model of consolidation proposes that the hippocampus is

strongly active when memories are first formed and being consolidated but becomes less active when retrieving older memories that are already consolidated

Based on the information your textbook provided about different category types, jumping from ___________ categories results in the largest gain in information.

superordinate level to basic level

James Nairne would say that effective encoding of memory is based on

survival

takes place over minutes or hours, involves structural changes at synapses

synaptic consolidation

___________ consolidation involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a fairly long time scale.

systems

takes place over months or even years, involves gradual reorganization of neural circuits within the brain

systems consolidation

Jenkins and Russell (1952) presented a list of words like "chair, apple, dish, shoe, cherry, sofa" to participants. In a test, participants recalled the words in a different order than the order in which they were originally presented. This result occurred because of the

tendency of objects in the same category to become organized

Dr. Leung is leading a research team to explore the retrieval practice effect. Which of the following will likely be a key component of her team's research protocol?

testing

enhanced performance due to retrieval practice

testing effect

Jeannie loves to dance, having taken ballet for many years. She is now learning salsa dancing. Although the movements are very different from the dances she is familiar with, she has found a successful memory strategy of linking the new dance information to her previous experiences as a dancer and to her own affection for dance. This strategy suggests reliance on

the self-reference effect

For the category "fruit," people give a higher typicality rating to "banana" than to "kiwi." Knowing that, we can also reason that

the word "fruit" will lead to a larger priming effect for banana than for kiwi

Autobiographical memory research shows that a person's brain is more extensively activated when viewing photos

they took themselves

most closely associated with the early history of the study of imagery?

thought is always accompanied by imagery

Leaving a footprint in the wet sand—with a deep indentation for the heel, a rise for the arch, and each toe clearly identified—is similar to which concept?

topographic map

Which type of research employed a "train on perception, test on perception" method to demonstrate imagery/perception overlap?

transcranial magnetic stimulation

When the methods used to encode and retrieve information are the same, this is called ________ processing.

transfer-appropriate

Memory performance is enhanced if the type of task at encoding matches the type of task at retrieval. This is called

transfer-appropriate processing

better performance when the type of processing matches in encoding and retrieval

transfer-appropriate processing

Asking people to recall the most influential events that happened during their college careers shows that __________ in people's lives appear to be particularly memorable

transition points

Monique is an interior design student. As part of her internship, she is redesigning a small kitchen for a client. She would like to expand the kitchen and add a dining area. Before creating sketches for the client, she imagines the new layout in her mind, most likely using

a depictive representation

According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take longest to verify which statement below?

a turtle is an animal

People often report an annoying memory failure when they walk from one end of the house to the other for something and then forget what they wanted when they reach their destination. As soon as they return to the first room, they are reminded of what they wanted in the first place. This common experience best illustrates the principle of

encoding specificity

Lindsay's misinformation effect experiment, in which participants were given a memory test about a sequence of slides showing a maintenance man stealing money and a computer, showed that participants are influenced by misleading post-event information

even if they are told to ignore the post-event information

Which of the following is the most accurate statement regarding post-event information and the misinformation effect?

even when participants are told that the post-event information is incorrect, the misinformation effect can still occur

Research suggests that the ___________ approach to categorization works best for small categories (e.g., U.S. presidents).

exemplar

___________ are actual members of a category that a person has encountered in the past

exemplars

Mental imagery involves

experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input

A lesson to be learned from the research on flashbulb memories is that

extreme vividness of a memory does not mean it is accurate

Priming occurs when presentation of one stimulus

facilitates the response to another stimulus that usually follows closely in time

Your text describes imagery performance of a patient with unilateral neglect. This patient was asked to imagine himself standing at one end of a familiar plaza and to report the objects he saw. His behavior shows

neglect always occured on the left side of the image, with "left side" being determined by the direction in which the patient imagined he was positioned

participants tried to remember the story at longer and longer intervals after they had first read it

repeated reproduction

Which of the following is key to the illusory truth effect?

repetition

Memories of the past that have been pushed out of a person's consciousness are considered to be ________.

repressed

___________ cues help us remember information that has been stored in memory.

retrieval

bringing information into consciousness by transferring it from LTM to working memory

retrieval

a word or other stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory

retrieval cue

Examples from your book describing real experiences of how memories, even ones from a long time ago, can be stimulated by locations, songs, and smells highlight the importance of ___________ in long-term memory.

retrieval cues

loss of memory for events that occurred before the injury

retrograde amnesia

Kosslyn interpreted the results of his research on imagery (such as the island experiment) as supporting the idea that the mechanism responsible for imagery involves ___________ representations.

spatial

representations in which different parts of an image can be described as corresponding to specific locations in space

spatial representations

The principle that we encode information together with its context is known as encoding

specificity

Collins and Quillian explained the results of priming experiments by introducing the concept of ___________ into their network model.

spreading activation

memory unfolds according to a sequence of steps in which the hippocampus is involved in encoding new memories, and makes connections with higher cortical areas

standard model of consolidation

matching the conditions at encoding and retrieval can influence memory - learning is associated with a particular internal state, such as mood or awareness

state-dependent learning

Complete the following analogy: Perception is to ________ as imagery is to ________.

stone; smoke

Items high on prototypicality have ___________ family resemblances.

strong

Latoya is remembering a fun day at the beach that she had with her dad when she was a little girl. Which region of brain will have the LEAST connection to the more personal aspects of Latoya's memory?

prefrontal cortex