COM 101 Exam 2
Exclamation point
used to mark the end of a sentence that expresses a strong feeling, typically surprise, joy, or anger "I want you to leave now and never come back!" "What an incredible movie!"
Em Dashes
-Em dashes are used most commonly to replace the usage of parentheses within sentences -If the info being set off is in the middle of the sentence, a pair of em dashes is used. ` On our way to school, we walk past the Turner farm—the oldest dairy farm in town—and watch the cows being fed. -if the info being set off is at the end of a sentence, just one em dash is used ` The stores were filled with holiday shoppers—even more so than last year. -Em dashes generally signify that the words they set off are -less integral to the sentence than words set off by commas; -more integral to the sentence than words set off by parentheses; but -of equal importance to the sentence as other words not set of -em dashes may be used when a change of structure or thought occurs in the midst of a sentence ` I was about to leave when — and you won't believe what she said. *Add one space before and after em dashes in AP style
Important rule of comma usage #2
-Essential adjective clauses are not set off by commas. A relative clause is essential when you need the info it provides ex. A person WHO EATS TOO MUCH PIZZA will soon develop pepperoni breath. -nonessential adjective clauses are set off by commas. A relative clause is nonessential when you do not need the info it provides ex. Joey, WHO EATS TOO MUCH PIZZA, has developed pepperoni breath.
Titles
-In all but Ap style, titles of books, movies, albums, and plays are written in italics, bold-faced type (less commonly) or are underlined (when italics, etc., are unavailable). -Titles of chapters, articles, short stories, individual songs, and poems are enclosed in quotation marks "Introduction" Billy Joel's "Scenes from an Italian Restaurant" *AP style puts quotation marks around the titles of almost all created works. Originally, this was for practical reasons; now it is for reasons related to graphic design
Parentheses
-Parentheses are used to enclose info that gives extra detail or explanation to the regular text. They are used in two basic ways: 1. They can separate a word or words in a sentence from the rest of the sentence "On our way to school, we walked past the Turner Farm (the oldest dairy farm in the area) and watched the cows being fed. 2. They can form a separate complete sentence. "Please bring a dessert to the party. (It can be something very simple.) I look forward to seeing you there."
Misplaced Prepositional Phrases
-Prepositional phrases can function as adjectives or adverbs -When a prepositional phrase is placed at the end of a sentence, it can appear to function as an adjective when it was intended to function as ad adverb "The runners stood ignoring the crowd IN THEIR LANES." (Adjective) "The runners stood IN THEIR LANES ignoring the crowd." (Adverb) -When there is more than one clause, an adverbial prepositional phrase at the end of a sentence can appear to modify the wrong verb "Thomas had a bag of cookies that Jaqueline had baked IN HIS BACKPACK." "IN HIS BACKPACK, Thomas had a bag of cookies that Jaqueline had baked."
Paste Tense
-The past tense is used to describe events that took place in past time. -Because the present tense is used for generalizations and statements of fact, the past tense is the primary vehicle for narrative "Fred LIVED in France for eight years." "It RAINED off and on all month."
Periods
-The period has two basic functions: 1. It is used to mark the end of a sentence. "the puppy whimpered in the bathroom. Its crying woke the entire household." 2. It is often used at the end of the abbreviation "In Fri., September 12, Dr. Brophy noted that the patient's weight was 168 lbs. and that his height was 6 ft. 2 in." **Note that no additional period is added to the end of a sentence when the last word is an abbreviation** Periods are NOT USED IN ACRONYMS AND TRADEMARKS ex. IBM, NASA, SUNY
Suspensive Hyphenation
-When two or more hyphenated terms share a word or words, the shared word or words do not need to be repeated. ` Hoffman's is a local family-owned and -operated business. She began doing better in her courses in her mid- to late-freshman year. -When two or more non-hyphenated ("closed") compound terms share a second part, that part can be dropped and replaced with a hyphen ` Both land- and householders are invited to the meeting to discuss new water lines.
Noun clause
-any clause that functions as a noun is a noun clause ex. What Bailey used on the walls made the kitchen look institutional Note that noun clauses can begin with relative pronouns ex. Samantha said that our papers are due next Sunday night.
Verb phrases
AUXILIARY (HELPING) VERBS + MAIN VERB "Alice WILL HAVE WALKED to town by then" "Paul SHOULD HAVE BEEN READING those chapters in Moby Dick." -Verb phrases do not include adverbs -Do not confuse "verb phrase" and "phrasal verb"
Adverb phrases
Ad adverb phrase is simply two or more words that act as an adverb. It can modify a verb, adverb, or adjective and can tell "how," "where," "why," or "when." Meet me AT THE MALL. I will never do that, NOT IN A MILLION YEARS. She slammed the door IN A HUFF.
Types of subordinate clauses
Adverb clauses: Modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs -Begin with subordinating conjunctions -Answer adverb questions (How? When? Where?) ex. I began counting the days to graduation AS SOON AS I WALKED ONTO CAMPUS FOR THE FIRST DAY OF MY FRESHMAN YEAR. (Can be moved around in their sentences) Adjective (or relative) clauses: -Modify nouns and occasionally pronouns -Begin with relative pronouns Noun clauses: -Function as nouns within a sentence
Squinting Modifiers
Adverbs that are placed at a boundary of two clauses or phrases with the unfortunate result that the reader cannot tell which clause or phrase the adverb should go with. These modifiers are called 'squinting' because they seem to look in two different directions at the same time "The Chancellor announced THIS SPRING construction would begin on campus improvements." Possible meanings: "THIS SPRING, the Chancellor announced that construction on campus improvements would begin." "The Chancellor announced that construction on campus improvements would begin THIS SPRING." This type of error appears frequently in headlines and news writing. It is prevented by taking special care when positioning adverbs.
Adjective phrases
An adjective phrase is a group of words that describe a noun or pronoun in a sentence. The adjective phrase can be placed before, or after, the noun or pronoun in the sentence. The movie was NOT TOO TERRIBLY LONG A person SMARTER THAN ME needs to figure this out. Mom said the cost of a car is WAY TOO HIGH.
Existential Constructions
Existential sentences point out the existence of something. In English, they being with the adverb "there," followed by a linking verb (usually a form "to be"). There seems to be odd noises coming from the backyard of the abandoned house. Checking subject-verb agreement in existential constructions is easy when we re-order the sentence to reveal the subject. wrong: There is a house in New Orleans they call "The Rising Sun." reordered: A house they call "The Rising Sun" is there in New Orleans
What is a sentence fragment?
Fails to be a sentence in the sense that it cannot stand by itself. It does not contain even one independent clause
Hyphens
Four basic functions: 1. they can join two or more words to form compounds, especially when so doing makes the meaning more clear to the reader ` We met to discuss long-range planning. There were four-month-old piglets at the fair. 2. they can replace the word "to" when a span or range of data is given. ` The organization was active 1930-1935. 3.They are also used to indicate ratios and betting odds in AP style 4. They can indicate a word break at the end of a line
Gerund phrases
GERUND + OBJECTS AND/OR MODIFIERS Gerund phrases look exactly like participial phrases, but they function as nouns, not adjectives "TWIDDLING HIS THUMBS kept the bored security guard from falling asleep."
Infinte phrases
INFINITIVE + OBJECTS AND/OR MODIFIERS "To write this length essay" Infinitive phrases can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs "TO AVOIDE A LECTURE FROM HIS PARENTS was Michael's motive for thriftiness" "they best thing TO HAPPEN TO ME was getting a new car for my birthday."
Absolute Phrases
NOUN + PARTICIPLE + OPTIONAL OBJECTS AND OR MODIFIERS "Our hearts pounding with excitement, we watched the race." Rather than modifying a specific word, an absolute phrase will modify or describe the entire clause. "Angela sat on the chair, HER BACK ACHING FROM THE SEAT'S POOR DESIGN." "HER EYES SLOWLY CLOSING, Phyllis began to feel the full impact of the medication."
Participial Phrases
PARTICIPLE (PRESENT OR PAST) + OBJECTS AND/OR MODIFIERS "The bored security guard TWIDDLING HIS THUMBS stared down the hallway." "I enjoy sleeping in a bed COVERED WITH BLANKETS" Participial phrases always function as adjectives . Not all adjective phrases are participial phrases, but all participial phrases are adjective phrases.
Prepositional phrases
Preposition + noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause or Preposition + modifiers + noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause "On the rotting tree limb" "From eating too often" Prepositional phrases function in sentences as adjectives or adverbs. -As adjectives, they answer the question "Which one?" As such, they are sometimes considered adjective phrases "The bus stop AT THE END OF THE STREET seldom saw riders." As adverbs, they answer the questions "How?" "When?" or "Where?" As such, they are sometimes considered adverb phrases. "Allan opened the locked door WITH HIS CREDIT CARD" "UNDER THE BRIDGE, the troll slept fitfully."
Adjective Clauses ("Relative Clauses")
RELATIVE PRONOUN (OBJECT) OR RELATIVE ADVERB + SUBJECT + VERB = Incomplete thought that functions as an adjective or RELATIVE PRONOUN AS SUBJECT + VERB = Incomplete thought that functions as an adjective The party WHERE SHE HAD LOST HER GLASSES The man WHOSE SKIN HAD TURNED GREEN The alpine skier, WHO HAD NEVER BEFORE LEFT SCANDINAVIA, found that he loved the tropics The man WHOM YOU GAVE THE CHECK TO appeared shocked.
Recognizing and Fixing dangling modifiers
Recognizing Them: -Move a copy of the subject of the main clause into the subject of the modifying phrase. -Change the verb in the modifier so that it agrees with the new subject of the modifying phrase; and -If this new sentence doesn't make sense, the original phrase is a dangling modifier. Fixing them: -Change the modifier to make it compatible with the main part of the sentence; or -Change the main part of the sentence to make it compatible with the modifier
Main (or independent) clause
Subject + verb = complete thought ex. Clean dorm rooms smell good. **every sentence must have at least one main or independent clause**
Types of fragments:
Subordinate clause fragments-Flooring the accelerator, Juan wove through the heavy traffic. As his ex-girlfriend Gigi chased him down the interstate. Participial phrase fragments: Aunt Olivia always wears a motorcycle helmet. Worrying that a meteor or chunk of space debris will conk her on the head. Infinitive phrase fragments: Jiggling his foot nervously, Ronald sat in the provost's office. To explain why he had brought Squeeze, his seven-foot pet python, to Mr. Parker's English class. Afterthought fragments: Jacob has several ways to annoy his instructors. Such as rolling his eyes, smirking, reading supermarket tabloids during lecture, folding handouts into paper airplanes, and drawing caricatures on his desk. "Lonely verb" fragments: After dinner, Mike and Pat leave their dirty dishes on the desk patio. And let the raccoons, possums, and armadillos that visit the yard eat the leftovers Appositive fragments: When Dustin pulled into the driveway, Alicia admired his flashy new car. A red convertible with fancy rims and fuzzy dice hanging from the rearview mirror.
Tense shifting
Tense shifting is moving from one tense to another in a single paragraph or sentence. Sometimes it is inappropriate; sometimes it is appropriate. Inappropriate tense shifting: When we ARRIVED at the park, the guide IS ready to lead us up to the mountain. Appropriate tense shifting: We STAYED in the old lodge that IS located at the beginning of the trail. Within a narrative, tenses should not change, but if statements of fact or generalizations are made, these may be stated in the present tense.
Semicolons
The semicolon has two basic functions: 1. It can separate two independent clauses, particularly when these clauses are of equal importance "The crowds gathered outside the museum hours before the doors were opened; this was one exhibit no one wanted to miss" 2. If used as a comma it can be used to separate such elements as clauses or items in a series or list, particularly when one or more of the elements already includes a comma. "The path took us through the deep, dark woods; across a small meadow; into a cold, wet cave; and up a hillside overlooking the lake."
Ellipses
-An ellipsis (...) is used to indicate words that are omitted as superfluous or able to be understood from contextual cues "The professor said, 'Your exam will be on Friday. I know that only a few of you are prepared, so I will be leading special tutoring sessions s=on Wednesday and Thursday. This is a major exam, so do your best.'" ~ "The professor said, 'Your exam ... on Friday ... is a major exam, so do your best.'" -An ellipsis should be placed where the words are omitted. It does not replace a period at the end of a sentence, which may also be needed. "I know that only a few of you are prepared.... . This is a major exam, so do your best." -In some styles of formal writing, ellipses may be used to indicate pauses or breaks in thought, as in dialogue. In other styles, they may not be used!
Brackets
-Brackets allow the insertion of editorial material inside quotations. They can be used for the following purposes: 1. They can be used for clarification if the original material includes a noun or pronoun that is unclear. "In his memoirs, the author reveals, "The year we moved into the house [1985] was a difficullt one for us, both emotionally and financially.'" The media mogul was overheard saying, "I would never do a deal with ]Acme Corporation's CEO,] Wile E. Coyote." 2. When used in this way, the bracketed information should be an addition, not a substitution. In many cases, brackets can be avoided by reframing the quotation. awkward: "Why can't we do the same thing [provided government-funded grants to independent filmmakers] in this country?" Christina Black asks. Recast: Citing filmmaking grants provided by the Australian government, independent filmmaker Christina Black asks, "Why can't we do the same thing in this country?"
Brackets (cont'd)
-they may be used to provide a translation of foreign words or phrases that might not be understood ` Smith writes in his autobiography: "I seldom spoke in French class. When I did, I usually just said je ne sais pas [I don't know]." -In most contexts, it is acceptable to silently change the first letter of quoted material from uppercase to lowercase, or vice versa. In certain contexts, such changes must be indicated with brackets ` "[T]his study has been widely cited, notwithstanding in its dubious methodology." - Brackets may be used to indicate errors. The latin word "sic" is used to indicate an error or confirm an unusual usage in the original material. ` The final report indicated that "pilot error were [sic] the most likely cause of the crash." -If you use italics to emphasize a portion of a quotation, indicate the change in brackets. ` She said she would consider "a very short extension of the deadline, but only UNDER THE MOST EXTRAORDINARY CIRCUMSTANCES[emphasis added]." -If the original material contains language you deem inappropriate for your audience, brackets can be used to remove it. ` He told them to "sit the [expletive] down." -In the rare event that parentheses are required within parentheses, use brackets instead. This is one of the few uses of brackets outside of quotations. ` In his twenties, he toured the country giving lectures to physics students (subsequently published as M-theory for Morons [2008]).
Fixing fragments
1. You can add them to other sentences 2. You can make them into independent clauses by adding missing elements 3. You can leave them alone (if you created them intentionally) -Will the village council pass the ordinance? Probably.
What's a clause?
A clause is a word group with at least both a subject and a verb
Commas (pt. 2)
A comma can separate three or more items in a series or list "Charlie, Melissa, Stan, and Mark will be this year's soloists in the spring concert" A comma is used to separate and set off the elements in an address or other geographical designation "Irving has lived at 123 ELM STREET, BUFFALO, NY 14226, for eleven years" A comma is used to set off direct quotations. "The king has no clothes," said the boy, "but i have a bathrobe he can borrow." A comma is used to set off titles after a person's name. "Alice Jones, M.D., is their family physician." A comma is used to separate elements of dates (in some cases.) "We will leave on April 17, 2018, and return on April 19 at 8:00 p.m." In general, commas are used to set off word groups when the "natural order" of a sentence is interrupted (as by an appositive or adverb" or rearranged (as when a prepositional phrase or subordinate clause begins a sentence.) "Rob, THE FINEST FELLOW I EVER MET, came to dinner last night." (appositive) "I don't like it. I will, HOWEVER, do as you ask." (adverb) "The pansies in the window box continued blooming in the winter cold." (Natural order) but "IN THE WINTER COLD, the pansies in the window box continued blooming" (rearranged)
Comma splices
A comma splice is a sentence in which only a comma (not a semicolon or a comma and a coordinating conjunction) is used to separate independent clauses. ` The cat ate the rat, the rat ate the peanut butter. I went into the second grade, I had my first basic lessons in grammar there. Comma splices are often created accidentally, without our identifying them as problems. Comma splices are easily corrected and seldom require a complete rewriting of the sentence. They can be fixed by: 1.Inserting a semicolon in place of the comma "The cat ate the rat; the rat ate the peanut butter." 2. Changing the first independent (main) clause into a dependent (subordinate) clause. "When I went into the second grade, I had my first basic lessons in grammar there." 3. Inserting a coordinating conjunction after the comma. "She walked all the way home, and she shut the door." 4. Making the sentence into two sentences. "Register for next semester as soon as you can. Get the classes you want."
Compound subjects
A compound subject is formed when two or more subjects are joined by a coordinating conjunction or a correlative conjunction ex: and, or, either...or, neither...nor RULES: 1. IF the coordinating conjunction is "and," the compound subject requires a plural verb "Hector and Eloise ARE planning to attend the party 2. If the coordinating conjunction is "or" or "nor," the verb much agree in number with the second (or last) subject. "Neither Hector nor Eloise IS planning to stay late." 3.If the nouns of the subject refer to the same person or thing, a singular verb is used. "My brother and best friend Hector IS planning to attend the party." 4. Distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when considered as a unit, use singular verbs. "Ten dollars IS a high price to pay for that sandwich." 5. Some collective nouns may take either a singular or a plural verb, depending of their use in a sentence. "The staff IS in a meeting." 6."Were" replaces "was" in sentences that express a wish or are contrary to fact. "If Joe WERE here, you'd be sorry."
Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier is said to dangle because it looks like it might fall off the sentence it is attached to. Dangling modifiers are adverbial phrases of various sorts, participial and infinitive phrases being the most common. ex. While crossing the street, the bus hit her. Coming into the room, the seats were disarray.
Fused sentences
A fused sentence is a sentence that has no punctuation at all separating one independent clause from another "This cup has a leak in the bottom my coffee is seeping out onto my desk." Often created accidentally, without our identifying them as problems, especially if they occur within complicated sentences -Like comma splices, fused sentences are easily corrected and seldom require a complete rewriting of the sentence. They can be fixed by: 1. Inserting a semicolon "For our annual picnic, Rupert and Gertrude brought potato salad; we brought hamburgers." 2. Inserting a comma and a coordinating conjunction. "The cup has a leak in the bottom, and my coffee is seeping out onto my desk." 3. Creating separate sentences. "Earl and I listened to the mp3 produced by the new group. Neither of us was impressed."
What's a phrase?
A phrase is a word group (or "group of related words") that does not contain the subject-verb pair necessary to form a clause -Phrases can be short or long "Before noon" "After slithering down the stairs and across the road to scare nearly to death Mrs. Philpot busy pruning her rose bushes."
Four functions of a sentence
Declarative-conveys a statement Interrogative-conveys a question Exclamatory-conveys an exclamation Imperative-conveys a command
Apostrophes
The apostrophe has two basic functions: 1. It is used to show where a letter or letters are missing in a contraction "We've decided that if she can't go, then we aren't going either." 2. It is used to show possession-The possessive of a singular noun or an irregular plural noun is created by adding an apostrophe and an "s" "The horse's mouth" "The men's department" The possessive of a regular plural noun is created by just an apostrophe "The horses' mouths" "The pilots' uniforms" the possessive of a proper noun ending in "s" is sometimes created by an apostrophe and an "s" and sometimes by just an apostrophe. the choice is made upon considerations of convenience and sound. "Moses' " "Ellis's " Apostrophes are NOT used to form plurals Numbers: In the decade of the 1950s, few women worked full-time outside the home Capital letters: ("book" style): As, Bs, Cs Plural capital letters and abbreviations: ABCs of engineering, VIPs But there are exceptions to the rule: -The apostrophe is used for plurals of lower-case letters: p's, q's -The apostrophe is used to form plurals of single capital letters (only in "news" A's, B's, C's -Note:
Present perfect tense
The present perfect tense is used to describe actions that have occurred continuously or repeatedly from some time in the past right up to the present "Fred HAS LIVED in France for eight years." "It HAS RAINED off and on all month."
Past perfect tense
The present perfect tense is used to emphasize the fact that a particular event in the past was complete before a more recent past-time event too place "Fred HAD LIVED in France for eight years." "It HAD RAINED off and on all month."
Present tense
The present tense is used to make: 1. Statements of fact -Syracuse is in the Eastern Time Zone. 2. Generalizations -To study the textbook is a waste of time 3. May be used in fiction and some nonfiction to express the "historical present"
Important rule of comma usage:
When ad adverb clause precedes the main or independent clause, a comma is needed between them ADVERB CLAUSE + , + MAIN CLAUSE "Because the elephant ate my shirt, I had to leave the circus tent" When an adverb clause follows the main or independent clause, a comma is NOT needed between them MAIN CLAUSE + 0 + ADVERB CLAUSE "I had to leave the circus tent because the elephant ate my shirt."
Commas
a comma can separate the clauses of a compound sentence when there are two independent clauses joined by a conjunction, especially when the clauses are not very short "The rain fell all day, so I decided to stay home and sleep." A comma can separate the clauses of a compound sentence when there is a series of independent clauses, the last two of which are joined by a conjunction "The bus ride to the resort was rough, the cabin was dirty, the food was awful, and we were ready to leave after the first night." A comma is used to precede or set off, and therefore indicate, a nonessential dependent clause (a clause that could be omitted without changing the meaning of the main clause) "The cookies, which were just baked, exuded a wonderful fragrance" A comma can follow an introductory phrase "In the cool autumn afternoons, Ellen and Michael loved jogging in the park." A comma can set off words used in direct address "Other than that, Mrs. Lincoln, how was the play?" A comma can separate two or more coordinate adjectives (adjectives that could otherwise be joined with "and") that modify one noun "The robin gazed hungrily at the BIG, FAT, JUICY WORM." ***Note that cumulative adjectives (in which an adjective modifies another adjective) are not separated by a comma "She wore BRIGHT YELLOW RUBBER BOOTS." non-coordinate adjectives are not separated by commas He drove A TINY YELLOW FRENCH CAR
Noun phrases
a noun phrase functions in a sentence as a noun (as a subject, object, or subject complement) Amy bought A HOUSE WITH NO ROOF Optional modifiers + noun + optional modifiers "The girl with the dragon tattoo" "A house with no roof" Noun phrases can be appositives, renaming nouns or pronouns "Amy bought a new home, A HOUSE WITH NO ROOF, on Euclid Ave.
Question Marks
a question mark is used to mark the end of a sentence that asks a direct question (generally, a question that expects an answer). -Rhetoric questions don't always need them "Is there a reason to bring that much money with us?"
Sentence
a set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject and predicate and consisting of a main clause and sometimes one or more subordinate clauses
Quotation Marks
quotation marks have two basic functions: 1. they are used to set off direct quotations (exact renderings of someone's spoken or written words) "I think your new car was a good purchase," Phillip remarked to Justine. **NOTE: indirect quotes (which are often preceded by "that," "if," or "whether") are not set off by quotation marks He told me that he went to school in Boston They can be used to set off words or phrases that have specific technical usage, or to set off meaning of words, or to indicate words that are being used in a special way in a sentence -The part of the flower that bears the pollen is the "stamen." -He must outgrow his "Peter Pan" behavior. Quotation marks should NEVER be used to emphasize a word of words in a sentence -Wow! You looked "really great" in that dress tonight! Quotation marks enclose commas and periods -She called the performance "lackluster," she she won't be recommending it to her friends. Quotation marks are enclosed by colons and semicolons -She called the performance "lackluster"; she won't be recommending it to her friends. Quotation marks either enclose or are enclosed by question marks and exclamation points, depending upon whether the question mark or exclamation point is a part of the direct quotation. "Do you have a copy of the article called "Introduction to Reporting"?
Subordinate (or dependent) clauses
subordinate conjunction or relative pronoun + subject + verb = incomplete thought ex. After the elephant ate my shirt. Whom I saw eating the rotting garbage. **Subordinate or dependent clauses can never stand alone as complete sentences. They must be attached to main or independent clauses.
Colons
the colon has 5 basic functions: 1. It can introduce something, especially a list of items, after an independent clause "In my mailbox were three pieces of mail: a postcard, a catalog and a wedding invitation" 2. It can separate two clauses in a sentence when the second clause is being used to explain or illustrate the first (independent) clause "Most of the dogs in the neighborhood are quite small: two of them are Chihuahuas." 3. It can introduce a statement or a quotation after an independent clause "His parents say the most important rule is this: Always tell the truth" 4. It can be used to follow the greeting in a formal or business letter. "Dear Dr. Wilson" 5. In the U.S., it is used to separate minutes from hours (and seconds from minutes) in showing time of day and measured length of time. "You should be at the restaurant by 12:20"
Misplaced Adverb Qualifiers
the most commonly misplaced adverb qualifiers are those we use most commonly: -nearly -almost -just -only *Adverb qualifiers should be placed where the word or words they are intended to modify are obvious to your readers.
