COM 101 Final

weakening commitment

-"Hostile audience" -Finding a critical distinction -Refutation >Object to the claim and counter it >Object to the speaker's influence EXAMPLE: zoning board in your town has recommended that businesses be allowed to locate in certain residential neighborhoods in order that the town might gain more tax revenue. Residents of the affected neighborhoods are strongly opposed to this idea. They fear that increased traffic, noise, and litter will reduce their quality of life. You support the zoning proposal and plan to speak in its favor to several neighborhood groups. In this situation, you will be trying to weaken the commitment of your audience to the belief that residential and commercial uses of property should be kept completely separate.

Advantages and Limitations of Impromptu

-Advantage: key is to focus on very small number of main ideas, previewing and summarizing them so that listeners have no doubts about your thesis or how ideas develop -Limitation: because you do not have a chance to plan the speech in detail, you may become entangled in the web of your thoughts

Advantages and Limitations of Memorized

-Advantages: can be helpful to memorize first few sentences of your introduction and last few sentences of conclusion, you will begin confidently and end it solidly without trailing off -Limitations: you might not take feedback into account and adapt to audience's needs, if you write and then memorize a speech for oral delivery, the recital may be stiff and stilted, it will sound memorized which quickly causes an audience to lose interest , raises concern about what might happen if you forget a line

Advantages and Limitations of Extemporaneous

-Advantages: lets you discuss ideas informally and conversationally, your focus will be on ideas rather than on specific words, making it easier to maintain eye contact and modify your message in response to feedback

Advantages and Limitations of manuscript

-Advantages: useful in highly formal situations for example the president of the United States uses this for state of union address, useful when precise timing is important (examples include major presentations at corporate or academic meetings where the stakes are high) -Limitations: reading a paper aloud is not the same as speaking directly to an audience, audiences recognize the difference and are less attentive, very few people are well trained in the art of reading aloud, makes it difficult to maintain eye contact and profit from feedback

Weaknesses of visual aids

-Can distract listeners (competition) -Can distract speakers!! -Can reduce eye contact -Can reduce credibility -Can be time-consuming -Can be a technology disaster!!

conversion

-Chip away at edges of belief -Identify a pattern of anomalies -Employ consciousness raising -Seek incremental change -Use reluctant testimony EXAMPLE: For some people, the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, had a similar effect, completely changing their view of U.S. foreign policy, or of the importance of homeland defense compared with the protection of civil liberties.

Eye contact

-Cicero's "windows to the soul" -Sustained and individuals -Benefits include: credibility, empathy and feedback

Three components of rhetorical proof

-Claim: the statement you want the audience to accept, what you are trying to prove EXAMPLE: "The drinking age should be lowered to 18." -Supporting material: evidence that supports your claim EXAMPLE: "We are allowed to vote and go to war at 18." -Reasoning (inference): Link between claim and supporting evidence EXAMPLE: "It is acceptable for young people to vote and risk their lives at 18, then we should be able to drink."

strengthening commitment

-Consciousness raising -Turning education into commitment -Increasing the sense of urgency EXAMPLE: I. A more visible police presence would benefit the community. A. It would make people feel safer. B. It would provide additional employment and economic stimulation to the town. C. It would lower the crime rate. II. The risks of a tax increase are slight. A. Only a very small increase will be needed to fund this program. B. The safety and economic benefits will attract new business to the community. C. Our town's overall tax rate still would be lower than that of other towns in the areas.

Selective perception

-Denial: The refusal to accept the claim in a message no matter how strong its justification is, they refuse to accept the general truth of the message -Dismissal: they dispute that the truth applies specifically to them; Dismissal is a common response to unsettling messages about health -Belittling the source: attack the credibility of the source. If your persuasive appeal relies almost entirely on a single source, you run the risk that listeners might discredit the source and thereby avoid your message -Compartmentalization: If a message challenges what listeners already believe, they may avoid its influence by keeping it separate from their conflicting belief, so that the two ideas do not seem at odds. (EXAMPLE: Some people who say they are environmentalists nevertheless buy sport utility vehicles with lower fuel economy and higher air pollution levels than smaller cars.)

Movement

-Effective: purposeful and planned -Ineffective: constant or aimless -Posture -To "podium" or not to "podium" that is the question

Six patterns of reasoning

-Example - Analogy -Signs -Cause -Testimony -Narrative

Means to achieve clarity, rhythm, and vividness

-Figures of sound -Figures of thought

Main benefits of using visual aids

-Human Interest (pathos) "Power of One" -Credibility (ethos) >Authenticity >Professionalism -Argument (logos) >Simplicity and clarity >Universally accessible -Emphasis and support >Focus on key points >Variety and interest -Comprehension -Retention

Key differences between oral and written style

-Informality: oral style is more informal than written style, few of us always speak in complete sentences. Nor do we observe all the grammar rules of Standard English. -Repetition: Oral style is more repetitive than written style. A speaker might repeat key ideas for emphasis or to ensure that listeners did not ignore them. -Simplicity: Oral style is simpler than written style. Speakers use shorter and more common words. Descriptions are briefer. Sentences are shorter and less complex. Jargon and technical language are avoided. -Potential for Clutter: Oral style is more likely to include clutter, because speakers are thinking on their feet and cannot revise their remarks as writers can; vocalized pauses ("umm", "uhh"), pointless repetition, and distracting words (right, you know, okay) -Reflexivity: Oral style is more reflexive than written style, meaning that speakers often refer to themselves and to the audience and situation

Inducing a specific action

-Specifically identify the action -Make the action easy to perform EXAMPLE: The most obvious examples are the candidate who is seeking votes, the charitable organization seeking contributions, the advertiser who is trying to sell a product, and the neighborhood organizer who is seeking signatures on a petition.

Speech Purposes through persuasive strategies

-Strengthening commitment -Weakening commitment -Conversion -Inducing Specific Action

Two major theories of language (kenneth burke)

-humans as symbol markers -magic of naming

Articulation

-refers to clarity of individual sounds -can be improved through specific vocal exercises for particular sounds

Enunciation

-refers to distinctness with the whole word are sounded -one specific problem is the tendency to slur words together. This is common in informal settings, where "I'm gonna," "Whaddaya know?" and "Howya doin'?" -speaking too distinctly not only distracts attention from the message but also may arouse negative feelings in listeners, who believe the speaker is either being snobbish or "hamming it up."

Pronounciation

-refers to the accepted way to sound any given word -First, the meaning of a spoken word may depend on its pronunciation, and mispronouncing it may prevent listeners from sensing which meaning you intend (FOR EXAMPLE: desert and dessert) -Second, like some of the other dimensions of vocal quality, mispronunciation calls attention to itself and may overshadow your ideas and message -Third, faulty pronunciation reflects negatively on a speaker's ethos; listeners may (mistakenly) get the impression that the speaker is ignorant or incompetent and hence is not to be trusted.

Inflection

-similar to articulation, enunciation, and pronunciation except it applies to the sentence as a whole -FOR EXAMPLE: one normal inflection pattern is to raise the pitch toward the end of a question and to lower the pitch toward the end of a statement. Speakers who reverse this pattern sound strange, and the audience may have trouble figuring out what they mean.

Rate

-the speed at which a person speaks, average rate 120 to 150 words per minute -rate increases with stress -deliberately varying rates improves speech/reinforces message

Monroe's Motivated Sequence

1. Attention- Introduction: Gain the attention, reveal topic, establish credibility, preview 2. Need- (MP 1) Problem: Show the need for change 3. Satisfaction- (MP 2) Provide a solution to the need 4. Visualization- (MP 3) Intensify desire for the solution by visualizing its benefits 5. Action- Conclusion: Summarize and urge the audience to take action in support of the solution EXAMPLE: I. Attention Step A. Description of fondness for Coke products, but school sells only Pepsi because of an exclusive contract. B. Statistics showing percent of school day spent watching commercial "information" video programs. C. Statistics documenting the profits of commercialized education companies. D. Translation of these statistics into the probability that a younger relative is being treated as a consumer, not a student, by his or her school. II. Need Step A. Commercialized education promotes consumerism, not education. B. Commercialized education exploits schools' financial problems. C. Commercialized education benefits advertisers, not students. D. Commercialized education promotes unhealthy food and beverage options. III. Satisfaction Step A. End contracts with commercialized education companies such as Channel One. B. Vote to pass school levies to alleviate financial problems. C. Lobby lawmakers to pass laws prohibiting exploitation of students as consumers. D. Provide healthy food and beverage alternatives at school. IV. Visualization Step A. Students will not be held captive to advertisers. B. Students will spend more class time learning, not consuming. C. Students will eat healthier and live healthier. V. Action Step A. Write a letter to school board officials urging them to end contracts with commercialized education companies. B. Support your school by voting in favor of school levies. C. Participate in school fundraisers as an alternative to commercialized funding.

Desirable characteristics of speech presentation

1. Effective delivery seems natural and uncontrived- it does not call attention to itself or divert attention from the ideas in the speech 2. Effective delivery helps the audience to listen to, understand, remember and act on the speech- Listening carefully and critically to a speech is difficult; your presentation, if well done, can make it easier for your audience. For example, perhaps by lowering your voice, you can make the audience listen more carefully when you state your main idea. 3. Effective delivery builds sense of community between speaker and audience- the speaker wants to identify with listeners and symbolize that they are all members of the same speaking/listening community. In other words, the speaker wants to show empathy with listeners, to give them a sense that he or she knows what they think and can feel what they feel.

Eight dimensions of voice

1. Volume 2. Pitch 3. Rate 4. Pauses 5. Articulation 6. Enunciation 7. Pronunciation 8. Inflection

major categories of visual aids

Charts, graphs, representation, objects and models, and people

Psychological approach

Focus on individual responses -Mental Dialogue with listeners They assess They mentally argue They filter everything -Change in behavior first requires change in thought/attitude -Role of personal "attitudes" and "beliefs" Attitude = number of beliefs + strength of beliefs Beliefs weaken/strengthen with new information Behavior: Sign petition/Vote Attitude: There should be no limits on gun ownership for law-abiding citizens Beliefs: "Guns don't kill, people do", "Guns have many legitimate uses", "Guns are protected by the US constitution" -"Potency" of attitudes Number of "beliefs" regarding a particular area Extent to which these beliefs are internally "coherent" or consistent Extent to which they are tied to personal experience Degree to which we judge these beliefs to be "true" Intensity of connection to the beliefs Attitude formation is a lifelong process of adjustment

Four basic modes of speech presentations

Manuscript- Speaker reads from a prepared text of the speech Impromptu- Speaker has done little or no preparation for the speech Memorized- Commits prepared text to memory Extemporaneous- Prepared and rehearsed but neither written out nor memorized (this is the one we do)

How audiences resist pursuassion

Selective Listening, selective perception, selective influence

selective listening

Selective listening may lead the audience to hear the common ground but to ignore your message. EXAMPLE: One student speaker thought that she was being considerate of opposing viewpoints when she began a pro-life speech by acknowledging, "A pregnancy at this point in my life would be a disaster." Somehow, half the audience failed to hear her later statements that abortion would make the disaster even worse and that adoption would make it bearable.

Objects and Models

Sometimes, the best visual aid is the actual object you are talking about—as when a lawyer holds up key evidence for the jury to see EXAMPLE: Chefs on television, for instance, usually explain recipes by using real ingredients, real pots and pans, and real ovens.

Testimony

When you rely on other people for the accuracy of supporting materials EXAMPLE: "Four hundred historians state that President's Clinton's actions do not warrant impeachment." -Types: >Expert: the support of someone who is recognized as an authority on a particular subject, who has studied the subject in detail, and whose knowledge and interest in the subject far exceed the average person's. >Lay: citing the opinions of "ordinary people" to show what nonexperts think about the subject. Speeches urging teenagers to avoid drugs may cite reformed addicts, not because they are experts but because the audience can imagine these former drug abusers as not all that different from themselves. >Quoted: Police Chief Walters said, "The rate of burglaries in our town is an embarrassment to civilized society." >Paraphrased: Police Chief Walters said that the burglary rate was unacceptably high. -Tests for Inference: >Are the sources' views accurately stated? >Is the source an expert in this field? >Can the source support their claim? >Is the testimony up-to-date (still relevant)?

Analogy

a comparison of people, places, things, events, or more abstract relationships; the key feature of inference from analogy is a comparison between the known and the unknown EXAMPLE: The United States would have fewer gun deaths if it made guns illegal. Guns are illegal in Japan and there are few guns there. -Types: >Literal: "Canada has made universal health care work, so the United States should adopt it." >Figuratively: "His election will be a slam dunk" -Tests for inference: >Are there differences and similarities? >Do the differences outweigh the similarities? -Guidelines: >Avoid trite or farfetched analogies >Analyze what you are comparing Don't count on them to get it!

Hostile audience

an audience that is strongly committed in opposition to the views of the speaker

Selective Influence

audiences also may be selective in how they are influenced by the message -Boomerang effect: The opposite effect from that which a speaker intends; this can happen if an appeal is so powerful that it overwhelms the audience. Concluding that nothing they can do will help matters, listeners may actually do the opposite of what the speaker has urged, thinking, "What I do won't matter anyway."

Narrative

comes into play when a speaker tells a story. A story is often more powerful than other ways of developing an idea -Tests for Inference: >Is the narrative coherent? >Is the story realistic, or is it far-fetched? >Are characterizations consistent? >Does the narrative have resonance?

Cause

explains the relationship between things by pointing to the influence of one thing on the other -Types: >Prediction: "Clouds are rolling in...looks like it will rain." >Assignment of responsibility: "Minority enrollment declined because the legislature eliminated affirmative action" >Explanation: "Declining funding for public schools has led to lower student test scores. -Tests for Inference from Cause: >Is sign confused with cause? >Is there a common cause fallacy? >Is there a post hoc fallacy? >Are multiple/alternative causes being ignored? -Guidelines: >Analyze what the alleged cause is and how it exerts its influence on the effect. >A cause can have multiple effects, and an effect can have multiple causes. Be sure that your analysis of the cause-effect relationship is plausible and that your inference will be accepted as reasonable.

Appearance

general appearance, before you speak, approaching the podium, leaving the podium

Gestures

movement of hands and arms, the importance of deliberateness, gestures should appear natural

Rhythm

pace, of the speech can help to convey a mood—of loftiness, of momentum, or of equilibrium, for example -Repetition: Repeating a key idea, argument, or theme is a way to emphasize its significance. ("The incarceration rate in the United States is astonishingly high—higher than Canada's, higher than England's, higher than Singapore's, higher even than China's." -Parallel Wording: "Unemployment has been a tragedy in the past. Unemployment is a tragedy in the present. Unemployment will continue to be a tragedy in the future." -Antithesis: the pairing of opposites within the speech ("Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.") -Inversions of Word Order: Variations from normal word order, even if they are not antitheses, may cause listeners to sit up and take notice because an unusual phrase is memorable

the speaker's body

personal appearance, movement, gestures, eye contact

Conversational quality

presenting a speech so it sounds spontaneous no matter how many times it has been rehearsed

Example

reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion EXAMPLE: "I got an A on the test" "John got an A on the test" "Jane got an A on the test" Conclusion: Everyone got an A on the test. -Advantages: makes a general or abstract statement more concrete and tangible -Guideline:: limit number of examples, make sure it is believable, avoid obvious overused examples, match details to your purpose, make examples memorable

Volume

refers to loudness, the higher the volume, louder the voice, as beginning speaker you should probably should use a greater voice to help convey sense of confidence, you can emphasize an idea either by speaking louder or by lowering your voice. In both cases, listeners renew their attention because the vocal variety signals that they should listen carefully. By changing your volume, you can either understate an idea or overclaim it, depending on your purpose and the situation

Charts

simplifies complex material by arranging it visually according to an obvious principle. The listener is helped not only by being able to see as well as hear the information, but also by the way in which the chart organizes the material

Signs

something that stands for something else—which is usually an abstraction or something that we cannot observe directly EXAMPLE: The governor is doing well in his quest for votes since his crowds are large and enthusiastic. -Types: >physical observation- "Standing water in the parking lot....it must have rained." >statistical indexes-"Home sales are up....consumers must have more confidence." >institutional regularity-"The national anthem is playing on TV...must be the start of a sporting event" -Tests for Inference from Signs: >Is another inference more credible? >Can the sign have multiple inferences? -Guidelines: > Link abstract and concrete inferences >Point to multiple signs >Don't claim too much

Problem solution structure

the author presents a problem and provides solutions for the problem EXAMPLE: I. Tobacco use among teenagers is significant and high. A. Rates of tobacco use among teenagers are high. B. Teenagers continue to believe that using tobacco enhances their image. C. Most adults who use tobacco began when they were teenagers. II. High tobacco use among teenagers is a serious problem. A. Use of tobacco products is strongly associated with premature death. B. Tobacco-related diseases add billions of dollars to the cost of health care. C. The quality of life is diminished for smokers and others. D. It undermines economic justice to burden society with the costs of tobacco-related illness. E. E-cigarettes are not a likely solution. III. A successful solution to the problem has several components. A. It includes efforts to eliminate the root causes of teenage tobacco use. B. It includes more effective enforcement of laws regarding the purchase of tobacco. C. It includes creating more persuasive appeals to tobacco companies. IV. The comprehensive solution I have proposed is the best way to deal with the use of tobacco among teenagers. A. It will stop tobacco use at the source when possible. B. It will deter the sale of tobacco products to teenagers. C. It will improve the quality of life for both smokers and nonsmokers.

Pauses

the brief silences within a speech -the first way they enhance speeches are they emphasize what the speaker said, providing a kind of nonverbal underlining. While the speaker is silent, listeners can think about what they have just heard, storing the thought in memory -the second way they enhance speech is they mark transitions in a speech and this gives the audience time to absorb what was just said before switching again to active listening -pausing is bad when you pause for too often, pausing at the wrong places, not pausing long enough, using vocalized pauses (such as 'uh' or 'umm')

Pitch

the placement of the voice on the musical scale, extremely high pitches grate on the ears, like fingernails scratching a chalkboard; and extremely low pitches are distorted and too resonant, which most listeners also find displeasing, moderation is key, two factors applied to pitch are stress and variety

Target audience

those individuals whom a speaker especially wants to address, usually people whose response will determine whether the speech succeeds

Vividness

to present in words what are really compelling visual images, pictures that listeners can see in their mind's eye -Description -Stories -Comparisons: Metaphor and Similes -Vivid Sounds: Alliterations and Onomatopeia -Personification -Reference to Hypothetical People

Graphs

visual display of relationships that shows how change in one thing is related to change in another. The most common types are line graphs, bar graphs, and pie graphs

Representations

visual portrayals of reality. They include textual graphics, diagrams, maps, photographs, and film or video.

Clarity

you should make the speech as easy to comprehend as is appropriate for the situation -Concrete Words: Because most people process images more easily than abstract concepts, your message will be clearer if you use concrete words and images. -Maxims: are short, pithy statements—often in the form of proverbs—that are familiar to most people and can be used to describe a situation or idea. ("Some say we can't solve this problem, but I say: Yes we can.") -Limiting Jargon, Defining Technical Terms: specialized or technical terms that outsiders find difficult to understand. -Word Economy: using words efficiently and avoiding unnecessary words ("like, okay, right") -Active Voice: It makes clear who does what, and it usually requires fewer and simpler words to express an idea.

People

your own body can serve as an effective visual aid EXAMPLE: if your topic is "Power Walking," you can demonstrate the high-intensity movements involved in this type of walking. The demonstration not only will show listeners how to do it, but also will help make credible your claim that power walking is vigorous exercise. Disadvantages: If you plan to use the help of others, it is best to make arrangements with them ahead of time. You will avoid being embarrassed if no one responds when you ask for a volunteer