com 102 chapter 3

interpretation

The stage of perception in which we assign meaning to the information we have selected. For instance, Randy thinks a man running down the sidewalk hurries because he is late, but Shondra infers that the man is chasing someone.

organization

The step of perception in which we mentally structure selected sensory data into a coherent pattern.

fundamental attribution error

The tendency to attribute someone's behavior solely to his or her personality rather than to outside forces.

outgroupers

People you consider fundamentally different from you because of their interests, affiliations, or backgrounds.

ingroupers

People you consider fundamentally similar to yourself because of their interests, affiliations, or backgrounds.

self-serving bias

A biased tendency to credit ourselves (internal factors) instead of external factors for our success. For instance, Ruth attributes the success of a project to her leadership qualities rather than to the dedicated efforts of her team.

perception-checking

A five-step process to test your impressions of others and to avoid errors in judgment. It involves checking your punctuation, knowledge, attributions, perceptual influences, and impressions.

Gestalt

A general sense of a person that's either positive or negative

punctuation

A step during organization when you structure information you've selected into a chronological sequence that matches how you experienced the order of events. For example, Bobby claims his sister started the backseat argument, but she insists that he poked her first.

positivity bias

A tendency for first impressions of others to be more positive than negative.

actor-observer effect

A tendency to credit external forces as causes for our behaviors instead of internal factors. For instance, Leon says he snapped at a coworker because she was slow instead of blaming his own impatience.

halo effect

A tendency to interpret anything another person says or does in a favorable light because you have a positive Gestalt of that person.

horn effect

A tendency to interpret anything another person says or does in a negative light because you have a negative Gestalt of that person.

negativity effect

A tendency to place emphasis on the negative information we learn about others.

Uncertainty Reduction Theory

A theory explaining that the primary compulsion during initial encounters is to reduce uncertainty about our communication partners by gathering enough information about them that their communication becomes predictable and explainable.

personality

An individual's characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and acting based on the traits he or she possesses.

empathy mind-set

Beliefs about whether empathy is something that can be developed and controlled.

stereotyping

Categorizing people into social groups and then evaluating them based on information we have in our schemata related to each group.

Influences on Perception

Culture and gender play major roles in shaping our perception of communication. Personality influences our perception of the traits we possess and how we perceive the traits of others. Implicit personality theories guide our perceptions of others' personalities.

interpersonal impressions

Ideas about who people are and how we feel about them. For instance, when Sarah and Georgia met, Georgia thought Sarah was unfriendly and conceited because she didn't say much.

algebraic impressions

Impressions of others that continually change as we add and subtract positive or negative information that we learn about them.

schemata

Mental structures that contain information defining the characteristics of various concepts (such as people, places, events), as well as how those characteristics are related to one another. We often use schemata when interpreting interpersonal communication. When Charlie describes his home as "retro," Amanda visualizes it before she even sees it.

implicit personality theories

Personal beliefs about different types of personalities and the ways in which traits cluster together. For instance, Bradley assumes that Will is a disorganized procrastinator because of Will's casual, friendly manner.

attributions

Rationales we create to explain the comments or behaviors of others. For example, Ryan reasons that Jason's quietness in class means that Jason is shy.

salience

The degree to which particular people or aspects of their communication attract our attention.

selection

The first step of perception in which we focus our attention on specific sensory data, such as sights, sounds, tastes, touches, or smells.

perception

The process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting information from our senses.

empathy

Understanding of another person's perspective and awareness of his or her feelings in an attempt to identify with them. For instance, Gill doesn't agree with Mike's protest against the new policies at work, but he can see why Mike is worried and angry.

Perception as a Process

We make sense of our interpersonal world through perception, and engage in selection, organization, and interpretation of information received from our senses. We interpret the meaning of communication by drawing on known information stored in our mental schemata. We make attributions regarding why people said and did certain things but sometimes fall prey to the fundamental attribution error, the actor-observer effect, or the self-serving bias. According to Uncertainty Reduction Theory, we commonly experience uncertainty during first encounters with new acquaintances.

Forming Impressions of Others

When we perceive others, we form interpersonal impressions. Sometimes we create general Gestalts, which are quite often positive, thanks to the positivity bias. The negativity effect plays a role in shaping how we perceive information we learn about others. Forming strong positive or negative Gestalts sometimes leads to a halo effect or a horn effect, causing us to perceive subsequent information we learn about people in distorted ways. The most accurate and refined impressions of others are algebraic impressions. When we calculate our impressions based on individual traits, we're more likely to see people as they really are and adapt our communication accordingly. The most common form of interpersonal impression is stereotyping.

Improving Your Perception of Others

When you can take the perspective of others and experience empathic concern toward them, your communication becomes more sensitive and adaptive. Responsible perception is rooted in perception-checking, routinely questioning your perceptions and correcting errors that may lead to ineffective communication.