comm arts 100 midterm 2
Factors of credibility
-Competence: how an audience regards a speaker's intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject -Character: how an audience regards a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience
attitude
-a frame of mind in favor of or opposed to a person, policy, belief, institution, etc.
creating common ground
-a technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience
understanding statistics
-are the statistics representative? -are statistical measures used correctly? -are the statistics from a reliable source?
Enhancing your credibility
-explain your competence: expertise on the subject -establish common ground with your audience -deliver your speeches fluently, expressively and with conviction
Guidelines for reasoning from specific instances
-fair, unbiased, representative -avoid FALLACY hasty generalization: an error in reasoning from specific instances, in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence -be careful with wording -reinforce your argument with statistics or testimony
Emotional Appeals
-fear: serious illness, natural disasters, sexual assault, rejection, economic hardship -compassion: disabled, battered women, neglected animals, starving children... -pride: in ones country, family, school, ethnic heritage, accomplishments -anger: terrorists and their supporters, members of congress who abuse the public trust, landlords who exploit student tenants, thieves -guilt: about not helping people less fortunate than us, not doing whats best -reverence: (respect) for an admired person, traditions, institutions
Disposition toward the topic
-interest -knowledge -attitude
audience-centeredness
-keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation
Guidelines for reasoning from principle
-pay special attention to general principle -support your minor premise with evidence
identification
-process in which speakers seek to create a bond with the audience by emphasizing common values, goals, and experiences
Monroe's motivated sequence: satisfaction
-providing a solution to a problem -present a plan and show how it will work -offer enough details about he plan and give listeners a clear understanding of it
open ended questions
-questions that allow respondents to answer however they want
fixed alternative questions
-questions that offer a fixed choice between two or more alternatives: yes, no, not sure
scale questions
-questions that require responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answer
Tips for using testimony
-quote or paraphrase accurately -use testimony from qualified sources -use testimony from unbiased sources -identify the people you quote or paraphrase
Analogical Reasoning
-reasoning in which the speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second -avoid FALLACY invalid analogy: an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike example) just because you are good at racquetball, you will be great at ping pong
Reasoning from principle
-reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion example) all people are mortal-->socrates is a person-->socrates is mortal -go from general statement to a minor premise
Monroe's motivated sequence: attention
-relating to the audience, showing importance of the topic, making a startling statement, arousing curiosity or suspense, posing a question, telling a dramatic story, using a visual aid
Monroe's motivated sequence: action
-say exactly what you want the audience to do and how to do it -conclude with a final stirring appeal that reinforces their commitments to act
Monroe's motivated sequence: need
-show there is a serious problem with the existing situation -illustrate it with strong supporting materials -listeners should be concerned about the problem they are psychologically primed to hear your solution
citing sources orally
-the book, mag, newspaper, or web document you are citing -the author or sponsoring organization of the document -the author's qualifications with regard to the topic -the date on which the document was published, posted, or updated
egocentrism
-the tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own values, beliefs, and well being
Tips for using statistics
-use statistics to quantify your ideas -use statistics sparingly -identify the sources of your statistics -explain your statistics -round off complicated statistics -use visual aids to clarify statistical trends
Monroe's motivated sequence: visualization
-visualizing its benefits -vivid imagery to show your listeners how they will profit from your policy -make audience see how much better conditions will be once your plan is adopted
accurate statements
1. make sure you don't misquote someone 2. make sure you do not violate the meaning of statements you paraphrase 3. make sure you don't quote out of context
Generating emotional appeal
1. use emotional language 2. develop vivid examples 3. speak with sincerity and conviction
Tips for using examples
1. use examples to clarify your ideas 2. use examples to reinforce your ideas 3. use examples to personalize your ideas 4. make your examples vivid and richly textured 5. practice delivery to enhance your extended examples
Tips for using evidence
1. use specific evidence 2. use novel evidence: things audience didn't already know 3. use evidence from credible sources 4. make clear the point of your evidence
Bandwagon
A fallacy that assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable example) the governor must be correct in his approach to social policy; after all, the polls show that 60% of people support him
Slippery Slope
A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented example) if they waist money building a gym they will then waist money on a library and then a memorial park...
Ad Hominem
A fallacy that attacks the person rather then dealing with the real issue in dispute example)the head of the commerce commission has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let's not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family
Either-Or
A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist example) the government must either raise taxes or reduces services for the poor
logos
The name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The two major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning
Red Herring
a fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion example) how dare my opponents accuse me of political corruption at a time when we are working to improve the quality of life for all people in the US
comparative advantages order
a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions
problem solution order
a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point represents a solution to the problem
problem cause solution order
a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second point analyzes the cause of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem
Monroe's motivated sequence
a method or organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action. The five steps of the motivated sequence are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action.
speech to gain passive agreement
a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy
speech to gain immediate action
a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy
question of fact
a question about the truth or falsity of an assertion
question of value
a question about the worth, rightness, morality, ad so forth of an idea or action
question of policy
a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken
brief example
a specific case referred to in passing to illustrate a point
example
a specific case used to illustrate or to represent a group of people, ideas, conditions, experiences, or the like.
extended example
a story, narrative, or anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point
fallacy
an error in reasoning
hypothetical example
an example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation
demographic audience analysis
audience analysis that focuses on demographic factors such as age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background
situational audience analysis
audience analysis that focuses on situational factors such as the size of the audience, the physical settings for the speech, and the disposition of the audience toward the topic, the speaker, and the occasion
stereotyping
creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike
statistics
numerical data
testimony
quotations or paraphrases used to support a point
quoting out of context
quoting a statement in such a way as to distort its meaning by removing the statement from words and phrases surrounding it
reasoning from specific evidence
reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion
Causal Reasoning
reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects -avoid FALLACY of false cause (post hoc, ergo propter hoc): speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second. "After this, therefore because of this."
evidence
supporting materials used to prove or disprove something
peer testimony
testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or insight on a topic
expert testimony
testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields
direct quotation
testimony that is presented word for word
Credibility
the audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic. the two major factors influencing a speaker's credibility are competence and character
mean
the average value of a group of numbers
initial credibility
the credibility of a speaker before he or she starts to speak
derived credibility
the credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech
terminal credibility
the credibility of the speaker at the end of the speech
need
the first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from the current policy?
supporting materials
the materials used to support a speaker's ideas. The three major kinds of supporting materials are examples, statistics, and testimony
mental dialogue with the audience
the mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech
median
the middle number in a group of numbers arranged from highest to lowest
Pathos
the name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communications refer to emotional appeals
mode
the number that occurs most frequently in a group of numbers
burden of proof
the obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary
target audience
the portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade
persuasion
the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions
reasoning
the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence
plan
the second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a problem with the current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?
practicality
the third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: will the speaker's plan solve the problem? will it create new and more serious problems?
paraphrase
to restate or summarize a source's ideas in one's own words