comm arts 100 midterm 2

Factors of credibility

-Competence: how an audience regards a speaker's intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject -Character: how an audience regards a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience

attitude

-a frame of mind in favor of or opposed to a person, policy, belief, institution, etc.

creating common ground

-a technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience

understanding statistics

-are the statistics representative? -are statistical measures used correctly? -are the statistics from a reliable source?

Enhancing your credibility

-explain your competence: expertise on the subject -establish common ground with your audience -deliver your speeches fluently, expressively and with conviction

Guidelines for reasoning from specific instances

-fair, unbiased, representative -avoid FALLACY hasty generalization: an error in reasoning from specific instances, in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence -be careful with wording -reinforce your argument with statistics or testimony

Emotional Appeals

-fear: serious illness, natural disasters, sexual assault, rejection, economic hardship -compassion: disabled, battered women, neglected animals, starving children... -pride: in ones country, family, school, ethnic heritage, accomplishments -anger: terrorists and their supporters, members of congress who abuse the public trust, landlords who exploit student tenants, thieves -guilt: about not helping people less fortunate than us, not doing whats best -reverence: (respect) for an admired person, traditions, institutions

Disposition toward the topic

-interest -knowledge -attitude

audience-centeredness

-keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation

Guidelines for reasoning from principle

-pay special attention to general principle -support your minor premise with evidence

identification

-process in which speakers seek to create a bond with the audience by emphasizing common values, goals, and experiences

Monroe's motivated sequence: satisfaction

-providing a solution to a problem -present a plan and show how it will work -offer enough details about he plan and give listeners a clear understanding of it

open ended questions

-questions that allow respondents to answer however they want

fixed alternative questions

-questions that offer a fixed choice between two or more alternatives: yes, no, not sure

scale questions

-questions that require responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answer

Tips for using testimony

-quote or paraphrase accurately -use testimony from qualified sources -use testimony from unbiased sources -identify the people you quote or paraphrase

Analogical Reasoning

-reasoning in which the speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second -avoid FALLACY invalid analogy: an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike example) just because you are good at racquetball, you will be great at ping pong

Reasoning from principle

-reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion example) all people are mortal-->socrates is a person-->socrates is mortal -go from general statement to a minor premise

Monroe's motivated sequence: attention

-relating to the audience, showing importance of the topic, making a startling statement, arousing curiosity or suspense, posing a question, telling a dramatic story, using a visual aid

Monroe's motivated sequence: action

-say exactly what you want the audience to do and how to do it -conclude with a final stirring appeal that reinforces their commitments to act

Monroe's motivated sequence: need

-show there is a serious problem with the existing situation -illustrate it with strong supporting materials -listeners should be concerned about the problem they are psychologically primed to hear your solution

citing sources orally

-the book, mag, newspaper, or web document you are citing -the author or sponsoring organization of the document -the author's qualifications with regard to the topic -the date on which the document was published, posted, or updated

egocentrism

-the tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own values, beliefs, and well being

Tips for using statistics

-use statistics to quantify your ideas -use statistics sparingly -identify the sources of your statistics -explain your statistics -round off complicated statistics -use visual aids to clarify statistical trends

Monroe's motivated sequence: visualization

-visualizing its benefits -vivid imagery to show your listeners how they will profit from your policy -make audience see how much better conditions will be once your plan is adopted

accurate statements

1. make sure you don't misquote someone 2. make sure you do not violate the meaning of statements you paraphrase 3. make sure you don't quote out of context

Generating emotional appeal

1. use emotional language 2. develop vivid examples 3. speak with sincerity and conviction

Tips for using examples

1. use examples to clarify your ideas 2. use examples to reinforce your ideas 3. use examples to personalize your ideas 4. make your examples vivid and richly textured 5. practice delivery to enhance your extended examples

Tips for using evidence

1. use specific evidence 2. use novel evidence: things audience didn't already know 3. use evidence from credible sources 4. make clear the point of your evidence

Bandwagon

A fallacy that assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable example) the governor must be correct in his approach to social policy; after all, the polls show that 60% of people support him

Slippery Slope

A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented example) if they waist money building a gym they will then waist money on a library and then a memorial park...

Ad Hominem

A fallacy that attacks the person rather then dealing with the real issue in dispute example)the head of the commerce commission has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let's not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family

Either-Or

A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist example) the government must either raise taxes or reduces services for the poor

logos

The name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The two major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning

Red Herring

a fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion example) how dare my opponents accuse me of political corruption at a time when we are working to improve the quality of life for all people in the US

comparative advantages order

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions

problem solution order

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point represents a solution to the problem

problem cause solution order

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second point analyzes the cause of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem

Monroe's motivated sequence

a method or organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action. The five steps of the motivated sequence are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action.

speech to gain passive agreement

a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy

speech to gain immediate action

a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy

question of fact

a question about the truth or falsity of an assertion

question of value

a question about the worth, rightness, morality, ad so forth of an idea or action

question of policy

a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken

brief example

a specific case referred to in passing to illustrate a point

example

a specific case used to illustrate or to represent a group of people, ideas, conditions, experiences, or the like.

extended example

a story, narrative, or anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point

fallacy

an error in reasoning

hypothetical example

an example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation

demographic audience analysis

audience analysis that focuses on demographic factors such as age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background

situational audience analysis

audience analysis that focuses on situational factors such as the size of the audience, the physical settings for the speech, and the disposition of the audience toward the topic, the speaker, and the occasion

stereotyping

creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike

statistics

numerical data

testimony

quotations or paraphrases used to support a point

quoting out of context

quoting a statement in such a way as to distort its meaning by removing the statement from words and phrases surrounding it

reasoning from specific evidence

reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion

Causal Reasoning

reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects -avoid FALLACY of false cause (post hoc, ergo propter hoc): speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second. "After this, therefore because of this."

evidence

supporting materials used to prove or disprove something

peer testimony

testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or insight on a topic

expert testimony

testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields

direct quotation

testimony that is presented word for word

Credibility

the audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic. the two major factors influencing a speaker's credibility are competence and character

mean

the average value of a group of numbers

initial credibility

the credibility of a speaker before he or she starts to speak

derived credibility

the credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech

terminal credibility

the credibility of the speaker at the end of the speech

need

the first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from the current policy?

supporting materials

the materials used to support a speaker's ideas. The three major kinds of supporting materials are examples, statistics, and testimony

mental dialogue with the audience

the mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech

median

the middle number in a group of numbers arranged from highest to lowest

Pathos

the name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communications refer to emotional appeals

mode

the number that occurs most frequently in a group of numbers

burden of proof

the obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary

target audience

the portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade

persuasion

the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions

reasoning

the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence

plan

the second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a problem with the current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?

practicality

the third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: will the speaker's plan solve the problem? will it create new and more serious problems?

paraphrase

to restate or summarize a source's ideas in one's own words