Communication in Cross-Cultural Context

Neuliep (2017) indentified five common characteristics of language

1. All languages have some way of naming objects, places and things. 2. All languages have a way of naming action. 3. All languages have a way of stating the negative, contructing interrogatives and differentiating between singular and plural. 4. All languges have a systematic set of sounds, combined with a set of rules for the sole purpose of creating meaning and communicaing, with no natural or inherent realtionship between the sounds and their accompanying alphabeth. 5. All languages have a set of formal grammatical rules for combining sounds and sequencing words to create meaning.

Dimensions of social realtionships: (Harry Triandis, 1977) Suggests four universal dimensions of social relationships:

Association - dissociation: Association behvaiours include helping friends, cooperating with colleagues and supporting others´ ideas or actions, whereas dissocation behaviours are illustrated in verbal or nonverbal behaviours such as fighting or avoiding the other person. Superordination - subordination: Examples of superordinate behaviours are a supervisor giving orders to workers; subordinate behaviours, in contrast involve employees obeying orders from the above. Intimacy - formality: Intimate behaviours can be seen in a person´s self-disclosure, such as revealing personal attitudes and feelings, touching and expressing emotions; formality behaviours include sending written invitations or displaying other formal communication behaviour. Overt - covert: Overt behaviours are visible to others, such as touching, whereas covert behaviours are not visible (e.g., evaluating the behaviours of others.)

Leslie Baxter (1988) refers to the basic contradictions in human relationships as relationship dialectics, using a term borrowed from Hegel. She identifies three dialectics or points of tension, that lead to growth in interpersonal realtionships; in turn, these have implications for intercultural relations.

Autonomy - connection: The extent to which individuals want a sense of seperation from others (autonomy) or a feeling of attachment to others (connection). E.g. Individulastic and collectivstic Novely - predictablity: The dynamic tensions between people´s desire for change (novelty) and stability (predictability) in their interpersonal relationships. E.g. uncertainty avoidance Openness - closeness: The extent to which individuals want to share (openness) or withhold (closeness) personal information. E.g. Collectivistic and individualistic

Blake and Mouton (1964): Five conflict management styles

Avoiding: Physical withdrawl or refusal to discuss the conflict. Competing: Linked to the use of power to gain one´s objectives, even though it means ignoring the neeeds of the opponent. Accommodating: Refers to behaviours that conceal or play down differences by emphazising common interests. Sacrafice your own interest to satisy the other party. Compromising: Aims to find a midpoint between the opposing parties Collaborating: Conflict agents are encouraged to find a solution where both sides can win.

Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT):

Based on three assumptions: - Communication is embedded in socio-historical context - Communication is about both exchange of meaning and negotiation of personal and social identities - Communicators achieve their goals by accommodating (or not) through language, paralanguage, discourse and nonverbal behviours, including dress and appearance. Key concepts of this theory are ingroups and outgroups, accommodation (communicators adjust their communicative behaviour because of desire for social integration, approval, identification or communicationn effectivness) and non-accommodation (communicators maintain social distance from others by accentuating differences) People adjust the way they speak to different people. You change the way you speak depending on who you speak to.

Bicultural identity integration: (Benet-Martínez and colleagues)

Bicultural individuals differ in how they combine and negotiate their two cultures. High BII (compatible) people identify with both heritage and mainstream cultures, see them as compatible and complementary, see themselves as part of a combined, blended cultural being, and feel good about it all. Low BII (oppositional) people also identify with both cultures, but they are more likely to feel caught between the two cultures and prefer to keep them seperate.

Organizational communication

Communication in large cooperative networks including virtually all aspects of both interpersonal and group communication.

Characteristics of communication

Communication is a dynamic process - Continually changing as a function of earlier usage and interpretation. Encoding and deconding are influenced by prior intercations between communicators. ● Communication is interactive - It requires the active participation of at least two persons. Intrapersonal communication - communication with yourself, you are interacting with an imagined self. ● Communication is symbolic ● Communication is contextual - The cultural, physical, relational and orreceptual environment in which communication occcurs.

high context orientation

Context is needed in order to understand the communication. High-context defines cultures that are usually relational and collectivist, and which most highlight interpersonal relationships. Hall identifies high-context cultures as those in which harmony and the well-being of the group is preferred over individual achievement.

Mulder (1996) three differnet conceptions of time in Thai society:

Continuity: The belief in continuity of life, traditions and the environment, from ancestors into ednless future generations. Time stans still. Modern: Time in this conception moves ahead towards the future. Animistic(spiritualistic): Communities feel that they are controlled by a strong power beyond their control. They worship and animal sacrifices in order to manage the power.

Dimensions of interpersonal realtionships: Lustig and Koester (2013) identified three dimensions of interpersonal relationships:

Control: Involves power Affiliation: The degree of friendliness, liking, social warmth or immediacy that is communicated between people. Activation: Refers to the ways people react to the world around them.

The integrated theory of communication and cross-cultural adaptation (Young Y. Kim)

Cross-cultural adaptation is interactive and fundamentally communicative; it is "the dynamic process by which individuals, upon relocating to new, unfamiliar or changed cultural environments, establish (or re-establish) and maintain relatively stable, reciprocal and functional relationships with those environments".

LaFromboise (1993) and his colleagues identified six components of bicultural competence:

Cultural knowledge Postitive attitudes Bicultural efficacy Communication ability Role repertoire A sense of being grounded These are reflected in the framework-based model of intercultural competence formulated by Ting-Toomey and Kurogi (1998). This model consists of cognitive (knowledge and mindfulness) and behavioural (interaction skills and facework competence) dimensions of intercultural communication competence, grouped into four categories.

Influence of culture of nonverbal communication

Cultural variation in repertoire of behaviour - In different cultures differnet nonverbal behaviours can mean differnt thing or nothing at all for someone. Cultural variation in display rules - every culture has rules which govern when and in ehat context certain nonverbal expressions are required, permitted, preferred or prohibited. Cultural variation in attributing meanings to nonverbal behaviour

denotative/connotative meaning

D: the literal or dictionary meaning of a word or phrase C: the meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word or phrase, Deals with the cultural meanings that become attached to a word or an object. Big mac may include aspects of american culture such as fast food, lack of time etc

Culture (micro level)

Defined by race, gender, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientations, religion, political affiliation, physical ability and so forth.

Otherfication

Demonizing the enemy

Masculinity - femininity:

Descirbes how a culture´s dominant values are assertive (aggressively self-assured) or nurturing. Masculine cultures: People strive for maximal distinction between how men and women are expected to think and behave. They stress assertiveness, goals, competition and material success. Feminine cultures: Permit more overlapping of social roles for the sexes and place high value on feminine traits such as quality of life, interpersonal relationships, care, compassion and concern for the weak.

Individualism - collectivism:

Describes the relationship between the individual and the groups to which he/she belongs. Indvidualistic cultures: Emphasis is placed on individuals´ goals over group goals. Stress the importance of self and personal achivments. Collectivistic cultures: Emphasize values that serve and preserve the ingroup by subordinating personal goals to this end. People in collectivstic cultures are more likely to comply with the wishes of the ingroup than individualists.

Condon and yousef´s model: (1975) (Value orientation)

Developed a value orientation model that extended Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck´s value orientations to include six spheres of universal problems. The self The family Society Human nature Nature The supernatural They derived 25 value orientations encompassed with the six spheres.

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis:

Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf's hypothesis that language creates ways of thinking and perceiving Language and thought are inextricably tied together, so that a person´s language determines the categories of thought open to that person. E.g. escimoes have more words for snow. Linguitsic determinition:(strong version of the hypothesis) The way one thinks is determined by the language ones speak Linguistic relativity(weak): Linguistic characteristics and cultural norms influence each other. Language provides the conceptual categorizes that influence how its speaker´s perceptions are encoded and stored. E.g. How many words you use to describe one thing. Nominalists argue that our perception of external reality is shaped not by the langauge but by material reality. Any thought can be expressed in any language abd can convey the same meaning. Relativists, (Sapir) believe that our language determines our ideas, thought patterns and perceptions of reality.

There are two main approaches to studying culture: Kenneth Pike (1967)

Emic and Etic

Cultures within cultures (subcultures)

Ethnicity Social class - Socialeconomic status (SES) Organization Geographic region

Reverse cultural shock:

Experienced by peolpe who return to their home country after an extended stay in a foreign culture.

Solve an intercultual conflict:

Focus on common ground and reduce disagreement Practise relational empathy: seeing the issue from the other parties side Develop a positive communication climate

FORM or FUNCTION

Form Building The rite Imperial religion Institutionalised religion The religious laws Power structures Function The inner spirituality Action Good work & good devotion

Dodd (1998) - Model of groups of cultural components

Inner core (History, Identity, Beliefs, Values, Worldwide) The intermediate layer, cultural activities (Rules, Roles, Material objects, Communication patterns, Artistic expressions, Technology, Rituals and customs) The outer layer, Istitutions within culture (Religious systems, Educational system, Political system, Economic system, Kinship (family relationship) system, Health system)

In 1988 a third was added to the model of Hofstede and Bond: Long-term and short-term orientation

Long-term orientation (Confucian work dynamism) Long-term and short-term orientation: These were considered to be another universal dimension of national culture. Long-term orientation: Identified in an international study with Chinese employees and managers. People with long-term orientation tend to be dedicated, motivated, responsible, and educated individuals with a sense of commitment and organizational identity, and loyalty. Encourages thrift, savings, perseverance towards results, ordering relationships by status, and a willingness to subordinate oneself for a purpose. Short-term orientation: Characterizes Western cultures, is consistent with spending to keep up with social pressure, less saving for the future, and a preference for quick results. The model has been criticized because it is only looking at national levels. (McSweeney, 2002)

Semantics

Meaning of words and sentences The study of meaning of words, and the relationships between words and the things they refer to.

Channel

Means by which the message travels. Sound, sight, words, telephone, the internet, mobile phone...)

The two culture thoery (Robin Lakoff, 1975)

Men and women speak differently, since boys and girls are socialized separately. Men usually use verbal communication to report about the world. It is a specific way to communicate in order to maintain independence and status in a hierarchy. Women usually use verbal communication for rapport, in order to establish a human connection.

Monotheistic Polytheistic

Monotheistic - believes in one God Polytheistic - believes in many gods

Constructuvists view vs nativist's view.

Noam Chomsky´s universal grammar is a nativist's view. Language acquisition involves triggering these models, so that only details of each language must be learned. The syntax of all languages are universal, every language is just a dialect. All humans are born with an inhate skill to learn and speak languages. Constructuvists: They argue that language acquisition involves unveiling the pattern of language and thus requires interaction with a structured environment. (Piaget, 1977)

Three common subgroups and their associated identities:

Gender identity: A part of personal as well as social identity.The term "gender" entails social roles established for the sexes, while the term "sex" refers to a biological category, usually determined at birth. Berdache: An individual with two spirits, both masculine and feminine. (Native American). Supernatural powers. Hirja: A special caste, they are born with male genitals, but do not accept specifically male or female gender roles. (India) Khanith: Males who wear clothing mixed with masculine and feminine characteristics and who engage in sexual realtions with males. Chategorized as peopple of a third gender. (Islamic culture of Oman) Subgroups defined by ethnicity and ethnic identity: Based on cultural characteristics shared by people of a particular race, national region, religion or language. Ethnic identity refers to a sense of belonging to or identification with an ethnic group. Subgroups defined by religion and religious identity Religious identity is the sense of belonging based on membership of a religion.

Held and McGrew(2007) - three perspectives on globalization

Globalists Traditionalists Transformationalists

Michel Foucault´s Theory of power (2006)

He argued that communication rarely takes place between pure equals, even though most of our models of understanding communication make this assumption. Quasi-markets - refers to institutional structures designed to gain free-market efficiency without compromising the equity benefits of traditional public administrations.

Hofsteded´s cultural dimensions (1980)

He compared work-related attitudes in IBM across more than 53 different cultures and identified four consistent cultural dimensions that influenced the behaviours of 160,000 managers and employees. Individualism - collectivism Masculinity - femininity Power distance Uncertainty avoidance

three issues that all societies face and must resolve and the cultural three dimensions it gave rise to: (Schwartz´s Cultural taxonomy)

1. Define the nature of the realtion between the individual and the group. -> Autonomy vs. Embeddedness In automony cultures people are more independent; find meaning in their own uniqueness; they are ecouraged to expresss their own prefernces, traits, feelings, opinions and motives. Cultures that are orientated towards embeddedness view the person as an entity embedded in the collectivity and finds meaning in life largely through social relationships. Expressed in values like conservatism. 2. Gurantee responsible behaviour that will preserve social fabric -> Hierarchy vs. Egalitarianism Cultures that vaule hierarchy view an unequal distribution of social, political and economic power as lagimate and desirable. Cultures that value egalitarianism believe that responsible behvaiour can be induced by encouraging people to recognize one another as moral equals who share basic interests. 3. The relation of humankind to nature -> Mastery vs. Harmony Mastery cultures encourage people to actively control and change the world and to exploit it in order to advance personal or group interests. A culture that values harmony with nature encourages acceptance and fitting harmoniously into the environment, as humans are viewed as an integral part of nature; unity with nature, protecting the environment and a world of beauty are valued.

Conflict stages and conflict management

1. First stage: Latent conflict, involves a situation in which the conditions are ripe for conflict, becasue incompatibilities and interdependance exist between the two parties. Conditions are ripe for conflict because incompatible goals and interdependence exist between parties. 2. Perceived conflict: Occurs when one or more of the parties believe that incompatabilities exist. It is possible to have letent conflict without perceived conflict. They can view the world differnt but it is only a problem it they need to solve a probelm together. One or more parties believe incompatible goals and interdependance exist. 3. Felt conflict: The parties begin to formulate strategies about how to deal with the conflict, and to consider outcomes that may or may not be acceptable. Parties begin to focus conflict issues and formulate strategies to deal with the conflict 4. Manifets conflict Conflict and fonflict stratgies are enacted through communication between parties 5. Conflict aftermath Conflict seems "settled". However, it has short-term or long-term effects on the realtionship between the conflicting parties. E.g. Nude beaches german vs. Poland Nudist beaches has been the norm in germany (latent conflict) Polishg people notice nude beaches (percieved conflict) Shocked (felt conflict) Incomprehensible and intrusive (manifest conflict) Authoroties put up signs ( conflict aftermath)

Edvard Hall (1966) High contact and low contact cultures

Hight contact cultures: Cultures that display high degree of affiliation. Low contact cultures: Cultures that display low degree of affiliation

There are two countervailing tendencies associated with globalization:

Homogenization: Known as the overcoming of cultural or economic differences Fragmentation, new forms of cultural fragmentation and innovation. The dialectic pf homogenization and fragmentation can be descirbed as engagement versus isolationiam or globalism.

Human nature orientation:

Human nature (people are good-mixed-evil) Human nature orientation: Addresses the question: What is the intrinsic(inborn) character of human nature? Born to be good or evil or a mixture of both?

Chen and Starosta (2005) identified five characteristics of human realtionships:

Human realtionships are dynamic: Human realtionships are hierarchical, from strangers to intimate friends Human realtionships are reciprocal: Occurs when individuals in a relationship network can satisfy each other´s social needs. Human realtionships are unique Human realtionships are independent and irreplaceable

Integrated threat theory: ( Walter Stephan and colleagues (1999)

Identified four domains of threat: - Realistic: Threat to the political and economic power and well-being of the ingroup. Immigrants vs host - Symbolic: Concerns group differnces in values, beliefs, morals and attitudes, which may lead to prejudice against members of ourgroups. - Negative stereotypes: Serve as a basis for negative expectations concerning the behviour of members of the stereotyped group. E.g. when migrant group members are perceived to be untrustworthy, mainstream group members may feel threatend when interacting with them. - Intergroup anxiety: Refers to people´s feeling of being personally threatend in intergroup interactions becuase they are concerned about negative outcomes for themselves, such as being embarrased, rejected or ridiculed.

Similarity attraction paradigm: Proposed by Byrne (1971)

If we percieve that our attitudes are similar to those of other people, we are attracted to them, because the similarity in attitudes validates our view of the world.

Communication is symbolic, but not all symbols are linguistic.

In linguistics, symbols represent a subcategory of signs, and like signs, they are not completely arbitrary(random). Referent: The cow is a four-legged animal, The relationship between a word and a referent is completely arbitrary.

William Schutz (1966) states that humans satisfy the basic needs of inclusion, affection and control through these relationships. (Social networks, ethic communities, friends, family, organizations and online social platforms).

Inclusion - A sense of belonging or of being involved with others, as well as of including others in our activities. Affection - Refers to sharing emotions, and to showing love to and being loved by others. Control - Refers to people´s ability to influence others, themselves and the surrounding environment, along with the desire to be influenced by others (or not).

Three key elements of conflict:

Incompatible goals The interdependance of the parties involved Communication

Individualization Universalization

Individualization refers to a feeling of certainty about one´s place in the world. Universalization stands for one´s mental outlook when it recongnizes the relative nature of values and of the universal aspects of human nature (Kim, 2008)

Cultural convergence: Defined by Kincaid (2009)

"movement toward one point, toward another communicator, toward a common interest and toward greater uniformity, never quite reaching that point" Orginally used to address shortcomings of the transmission model of communication, advancing the view that no two people can ever reach the same meaning for information; it is just a matter of a greater or lesser degree of similarity. A melting pot, focuses on the relationship between individuals or groups of people who share information and converge over time towards a greater degree of mututal agreement. Cultural overlap

Affective, cognitive and goal-oriented conflict: (Amason, 1996)

- Affective conflict - Arises from interpersonal tension and is largely emotioanl in nature. - Cognitive conflict - Arises from disagreements between two parties in relation to viewpoints, attitudes and opinions. - Goal-oriented conflict - People disagree about goals over either a preferred future - where conditions, relationships and needs must be met - or expectations about their opponents´ behaviour.

DMIS from Ethnocentric to Ethnorelative

- Denial: One´s own culture is experienced as the only real one. Other cultures are avoided by maintaining psychological and/or physical distance. - Defence: One´s own culture is experienced as the only good one. The world is organized into "us" and "them", where we are superior and they are inferior. - Minimization: Elements of one´s own worldview are experienced as universal. People expect similarites and they may insist on correcting others´ behaviour to match their expectations. Ethnorelative: an appreciation for and sensitivity to cultural differences - Acceptance: One´s own culture is experinced as equal to others. Acceptance does not have to mean argument - cultural difference may be perceived negatively, but the judgement is not ethnocentric. - Adaption: The experience of another culture replaces perception and behaviour appropriate to the culture. One´s own culture. One´s own worldview is expanded to include worldviews from others. People may intentionally change their behaviour to communicate more effetively in another culture. Intregration: One´s experince of self includes the movement in and out of differnt cultural worldviews.

Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese (1975) - realtionships develops in three phases

- Entry phase: Communication is governed by a set of social norms, focuses mostly on demographic information. - Persoanl phase: May include personal problems, attitudes and opinions. Informal and relaxed - Exit phase: Interaction decreases, they are no longer intrested in maintaining the realtionship and tend to avoid communication.

Conflicts categorized by intensity:

- High-intensity conflicts: at the national or international level involve a series of intense battles between military forces adopted by at least one party, or even involve the threat of nuclear weapons. - Low-intensity conflicts: Do not involve the use of armed forces.

Ting-Toomey(1994) seven suggestions to help manange conflict effectively for people from individualistic operating in a collectivistic cultural context:

1. Understand the opponent´s face-maintenance assumptions in order to keep a balance between humility and pride and between shame and honour communication. 2. Save the opponent´s face by carefully using informal consultation or a go-between to deal with low-grade conflicts before they fall irrevocably into face-losing situations. 3. Give face to opponents by not pushing them into a corner with no leeway for recovering face 4. Avoid using too much verbal messages 5. Be empathetic by listening attentively and respecting the opponent´s needs 6. Put aside the explicit and direct communication style 7. Tolerate the opponent´s tendancy to avoid facing the conflict by being patient, thereby maintaining harmoniuous atomsphere and mutual dignity.

Coordinated management of meaning theory (CMM):

A decribing theory focusing on interpersonal communication, with people who are not like us. Describing the cultural context is needed in order to understand communication within and/or across cultures.Three goals of the thory: To understand who we are, what it means to live a life, and how this is related to particular instances of communication To render(framställa) cultures comparable while acknowledging their incommensurability(oförenlighet) Generate an illuminating(increase knowledge) critique of cultural practices.

Principles of ethical intercultural communication: Bradford Hall (2005)

A more appropriate way to examine intercultural communication ethics is to integrate both universal and relative perspectives, both contrains creativity and stability in human societies. Communication ethics is a combination of constraints and empowerment, "do unto others as you would have them do unto you" Genreal principles that govern all ethical intercultural communication include respect, non-judgementalism, mindfulness and mutuality.

Prejudice

A negative attitude towards individuals resulting from stereotypes (Cooper et al., 2007) Prejudices serves several functions: Utilitarian: our prejudices may be rewarded ecnomically or socially. Ego-defensive: Prejudice allows us to avoid admitting certain things about ourselves. Value-expressive function: it allows people to highlight the aspects of life they value, such as affiliation with a particular social group. Knowledge function: It allows us to organize and structure our world in ways that make sense to us and are relatibely convenient. Five forms of prejudices: Verbal abuse, physical avoidance, discrimination, physical attack and massacre.

Imperialism

A policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force. a system in which a country rules other countries, sometimes having used force to get power over them.

Paternalism

A policy of treating subject people as if they were children, providing for their needs but not giving them rights. thinking or behaviour by people in authority that results in them making decisions for other people that, although they may be those people´s advantage, prevent them from taking responsibility for their own lives

Conservatism

A society emphasizes close-knit harmonious realtions, the maintenance of the status quo and traditional order.

Harmony

A society that emphasizes harmony with nature.

Mastery

A society that emphasizes the active mastery of the social environment and the individual´s rights to get ahead of other people.

Hierarchy

A society that emphasizes the legitimacy of hierarchical roles and resource allocation.

Egalitarian commitment

A society that emphasizes the transcendence of selfless interests.

affective autonomy (Schwartz)

A society that recognizes individuals as autonomous entites who are entitled to pursue their own stimulation and hedonistic (pleasure seeking) interests and desires.

Intellectual Autonomy

A society that recognizes individuals as autonomous entities who are entitled to pursue their own intellectual interests and desires.

Identity Negotiation Theory:

A theory that emphasizes the process of communicating one's own desired identities while reinforcing or resisting others' identities as the core of intercultural communication. Proposed by Stella Ting-Toomey (2005a), emphasizes particular identity domains as being influential to our everyday interactions. Individuals acquire and develop their identities through interactions with others, as it is in this way that we acquire the values, beliefs, norms and styles govering communication behaviour. The means of negotiation cultural identity is described as a "transactional interaction process whereby individuals in an intercultural situation attempt to assert, define, modify, challenge and/or support their own and others´ desired self-images." Identities are developed through interaction with others.

Diffusion of innovations:

A theory that explains how, why and at what rate new ideas and technology are adopted. The two key concepts are: Homophily - the degree to which pairs od individuals who interact are similar in certain attributes, such as beliefs, education, social status, and the like Hetrophily: Refers to the opposite

Activity orientation:

Activity (a state of being-inner development-industriousness(Persevering determination to perform a task)) Activity orientation: Addresses the question: What is the modality(form, shape) of human activity? This refers to the use of time for self-expression and play, self-improvment and development and work. Is work or prayer the most important? Human work is understood as a duty that benefits both the individual and society as a whole.

Cross-cultural adjustment

Adjustment problems relate to changing routines and the culture shock—many established routines have to change in a foreign locale has to be understood as a manifestiation of broader social trends that are not confined to the experiene of imigrants, but rather extending to many other kinds of associations and networks, as well as into cultural life changes.

Social exchange theory:

Aims to explain the conditions for the development of interpersonal and intercultural realtionships. (John Thibaut and Harold Kelly, 1978) Establish realtionships because they will be mutually beneficial.

The silk road

An acient network of trade routes that connected the East with the West, stretching from Central Asia, South Asia and the coast of Arabian Peninsula to the Miditerranean Sea.

Ethic enclave

An area where relatively large numbers of people from the same ethnic or racial background live in their host country.

Cultural home

An individual´s sense of belonging to an ethic, racial or geographic community with shared traditions and practices.

Schwartz´s Cultural taxonomy

Another cultural values framework to understand the influence of cultural vaules on attitudes and behaviours, known as Schwartz´s cultural taconomy. Schwartz defines values as the "desirable goals, varying in importance, that serve as guiding principles in people´s lives´. This data were collected from teacher and student samples in 38 nations between 1988 and 1992. These values are: Conservatism Intellectual autonomy Affective autonomy Hierarchy Mastery Egalitarian commitment Harmony

Traditionalists

Argue that the significance of globalization as a new phase has been exaggerated. Regional rather than global, see a significant role for nation-states.

Communication styles:

Assertiveness: Low context cultures, be frank, open and direct, the voice of everyone in the group especially the young is important Interpersonal harmony: High context cultures, bluntness and frankness uncivilized traits, the oldest and most eductaed speak

Types of conflicts:

- Interpersonal conflict - Occurs between two (or serveral) people when they disagree with each other, or when they compete for something. - Intergroup conflict - Occurs when two groups percieve disagreements over resources, power, territory and the like. - Interorganizational conflict - Involves disputes between two or more organizations, in this case, the organizations themselves enter intergroup disputes. International conflicts - Refer to disputes and hostilities between nations, even leading to wars fought between nations over political goverance or territorital disputes. - Intercultural conflicts - invloves perceived or actual incompatibility in the goals and interests, resources, values, expectations, processes or outcomes between two or more people from different cultures. Can be at both interpersonal and/or international levels.

Levels of communication

- Intrapersonal communication - Interpersonal communication - Group communication - Organizational communication - Mass communication

Types of nonverbal communication

- Kinesis (body movement) - Proxemics (the use of space)(territory) - Chronemics (the use of time) - Haptics (the use of touch) - Physical appearance and dress - Paralanguage (quality and characteristics of the voice) - Carries as much information about emotions, attitudes and regulation of the interaction as all the non-verbal channels put together. - Olfactics (the use of smell, scent and odour)

These are reflected in the framework-based model of intercultural competence formulated by Ting-Toomey and Kurogi (1998). This model consists of cognitive (knowledge and mindfulness) and behavioural (interaction skills and facework competence) dimensions of intercultural communication competence, grouped into four categories.

- Knowledge dimension: Cultural dimensions Face negotiation styles Communication styles (Primary skills are listening, observation, trust building, dialogic collaboration and face negotiation) - Mindfulness dimension Openness to novelty Awareness of differences Mindful reactivity Self-reflextivity - Interaction skills Listening Obeservation Face negotaition Trust-building Collaboration dialouge - Facework competence criteria Perceived appropriateness Percevied effectiveness Mutual adaptability Mutual satisfaction

Knapp and Hall (1997) Six primary functions of nonverbal communication

- To repeat the message sent by the verbal code (wave goodbye, point in a direction) - To contradict the verbal message (frown while saying that the dress looks good) - To be a substitute for a verbal message (Policeofficers use handgestures in traffic, when you don´t speak the same language. - To complement a verbal message (Put your finger to your mouth when you ask someone to whisper, jump up and down while telling that you´re happy about something. - To accentuate the verbal message (Increases or decreases the intensity of a message. Say I love you and kiss someone on the cheek, neutral tone of voice to lower the intencity of positive or bad news) - To regulate verbal communication (Give a direction to the conversation, head nods and hand movements to control the flow of a conversation or to direct turn taking, stare at a child to stop their naughty behaviour

Chronemics

- Use of time - Monochronic - View time as linear, western culture, a beginning and an end. Time can be bought, saved, spent, wasted, lost or made up and observing the clock time is important. People should only do one thing at once. - Polychronic - View time as cyclical and people attempt to perform multiple tasks simultaneously.

Ethnocentrism

- the tendency for people to see their own culture (or ingroup) as the point of reference, while seeing other cultures (or outgroups) as insignificant or inferior (Neuliep,2017).

Culture is...

... Holistic (characterized by the belief that the parts of something are intimately interconnected and explicable only by reference to the whole.) ...learned ...dynamic (a subject of change over time) ...ethnocentric(the belief that one´s own culture is superior to others)

There are multiple definitions to communication, but is a few common components. These are...

...people, message, channel and context.

June Yum (1988) proposed a realtionship model comparing differences between North Americans and East Asians. Identities five types of relationship:

Particularistic vs. Universalistic: Originally proposed by John Condon (1977). Particularistic: People maximize differnces in age, sex and staus adn encourage mutuality and interdependency. Tend to be more hierarchical and realationships are established on this level. East Asian cultures. Universalitic: People establish interpersonal realtionships based on rules of fairness and equality. North America. Laws and regualtions are written for everyone to follow. Long-term vs. Short-term: Long-term are preferred in East Asian cultures. Social reciprocity is important and they tend to feel indebted to others. One person pay for everyone and that is in the end returned. Short-term: North Americans. Symmetrical reciprocity. Freedom and independency is important. Ingroup vs. Out group: Very clear distinctions between those in East Asian cultures. Formal vs. Informal: Depends on the hierarchical structure of society. East Asian are more comfortable with initiating a relationship using a third party as a go-between. Hi I am vs Hi this is my friend. Personal vs. Public: There is an overlap in East Asian cultures. They do not seperate the person and the issue. Westernes: Emphasize privacy, individualism, autonomy and self-reliance, encourages them to keep public and persoanl relationships apart. Seperate issue and person.

Gullahorn and Gullahorn (1963) extended the U-curve model into the W-curve model to account for reverse culture shock.

People returning home might first feel excitement and then feel out of place.

Bureaucratic organization:

Personal relations play a minor role because the focus is on the task at hand. Worldview: Refers to the outlook a culture has on the nature of the universe, the nature of humankind, the relationship between humanity and the universe, and other philosochical issues defining humans´ place in the cosmos.

Linguistic in human language focuses on sound, structure and meaning Koester (2013) identified five interrelated components of language:

Phonology: Morphology: Semantics: Syntax: Pragmatics:

Pidgins vs Creoles

Pidgins A mixture of langugaes of people speaking differnt languages. Creoles If this is passed on and becomes a hybrid language it becomes a pidgins

Stereotypes

Preconceived beliefs about the characteristics of certain groups based on physical attributes or social status.

Communication theory of identity:

Proposes that identity is formed, maintained and modified in communicative processes because a person´s sense of self is defined and redefined in social interactions. (Hecht et al., 2005) This theory complements role identity by acknowledging identity as relational, and at the same time utilizes the notion of group-based identities and categorization from social identity theory. However, it extendes both fields by situating identity in social interaction. Role identity theory: Identity is formed when relevant symbolic meanings are attached to and organized in an individual through social interaction. Social identity theory: When people place themselves in socially recognizable categories, they validate through social interactions wether those categories are relevant to them.

Group communication

Purposeful communication in limited-sized groups in which decision making or problem solving occurs.

Sources of international and intercultural conflict

Racial violence: A complex and enduring social problem that exists in many forms at the institutional, interpersonal and individual levels. Van Dijk (2004: 41) "Racism is a system of ethnic/racial inequality , reproduced by discriminatory social practices, including discource at the local (micro) level and by institutions, organizations and overall group realtions on the global (macro) level, and cognitively supported by sacist ideologies. Inter-ethnic and inter-religious hatred: Conflicts arising from prejudice against certain ethnic and religious groups. Disputes over political, territorial and economic issues:

U-curve model of culural shock (Oberg, 1960) (Lysgaard, 1955):

Reactions were characterized by increased levels of depression and anxiety related to doubt over how to live in a new cultural environment. - The honeymoon stage: Intense excitment associated with being somewhere different and unusual. - Disintegration(the rejection phase) : When frustration and stress begin to set in due to the differences experienced in the new culture. - Reorientation or adjustment phase: Involves the reintegration of new cues and an increased ability to function in the new culture. - Adaption stage: People become more comfortable in the new culture as it becomes more predictable; they actively engage in the culture with their new problem-solving and coflict resolution tools, with some sucess. - Biculturalism: people are able to cope comfortably in both the home and new cultures.

Social identity:

Refer to those parts of an individual´s self-concept that derive from his or her membership in a group together with the value and emotional significance attached to the membership.

Identity:

Refers primarly to a person´s subjective experience of himself or herself in relation to the world. Can be defined at personal and social levels.

Cultural hybridization:

Refers to a new cultural form that combines elements of other cultures.

Transitional justice:

Refers to a range of approaches that cultures undertake to deal with the legacies of widespread or systematic human rights abuse, as they move from a period of violent conflict or oppression towards peace, democracy, the rule of law, and respect for individual and collective rights. (Simic and Volcic, 2013)

Noice

Refers to all factors that interfere with information transfer and the receipt of the message. Can be physical (distracting sounds or sights), psychological (nervousness) and semantic (differnt interpretations of a concept). Physical Physiological Psychological Syntactical Cultural

Power Distance Index

Refers to the extent to which a culture tolerates inequality in power distribution. It also refers to the extent to which power, prestige and wealth are distributed within a culture. Cultures with large power distance: Inequalities among people are both expected and desired. Children are expected to be obidenient towards parents and people are supposed to show respect to those with higher status. They have power and influence in the hands of a few rather than distributed throughout the population. Cultures with smaller power distance: Emphasize equality among people, stressing that there should be interdependance between people at different power levels. People in these cultures tend to minimize differnces of age, sex, status and roles.

Cultural shock

Refers to the feelings of disorientation and anxiety that a sojourner experiences due to his or her inability to adjust to a new cultural environment (Furnham and Bochner, 1982).

Cross-cultural adaption

Refers to the process of increasing one´s level of fitness in a new cultural environment. (Kim, 1988)

cultural identity

Refers to those social indetities that are based on membership of a cultural group; they are our identification with and perceived acceptance by a cultual group, into which we are socialized and with which we share a system of symbols, values, behvioural norms and cultural traditions.

Uncertainty avoidance:

Reflects a culture´s tolerance of ambiguity (uncertainty) and acceptance of risk. High uncertainty avoidance cultures: People are active and security seeking. High need for information and certainty. Tends to be found in collectivistic cultures. Cultures weak in uncertainty avoidance: Comfortable dealing with diversity and ambiguity. People are contemplative(reflective), less agressive, unemotional, relaxed, accepting personal risks and relatively tolerant.

Three strategies to ensure more success than failure when communicating with culturally different others.

Seek commonalities Overcome stereotyping and prejudice: practise cultural relativism Develop flexibility and openness

People go through two processes to adapt to the unfamiliar cultural context

Self-regulation: when sojourners (temporary residents) try to resolve ambiguities(tvetydig) of information by drawing upon their familiar home culture schemas to understand the new cultural context. Self-direction: They try to reorganize their home culture schemas or to develop new culture schemas in order to adapt to the new environment.

linear model of communication

Sender, channel and reciever. Sender-Message-Channel-Reciever (SMCR) model of communication by David Berlo (1960). They should have the same level of communication. The Mathematical Theory of Communication - Shannon, Claude and Weaver, Warren. The telephone communication. The linear model is often called transmission model, which conceptualizes messages as "containers" of meaning, and communication as a process of sending and receiving information.

Factors influencing cross-cultural adaption:

Similarity between host and home cultures Ethnic support Personal characteristics and background: Such as age, native language and education, personal experiences such as previous exposure to other cultures and personality characteristics such as extraversion. Mainstream media: The image given in the new culture Ethnic media: learn about the new culture in a familiar way Intergroup contact Political and social environments

Relational orientation:

Social relations (individualistic-collective-hierarchical) Relational orientation: Addresses the question: What is the modality(form, shape) of a person´s relationship to others? Refers to perceptions of the self and the ways in which society is organized. It can be lineal, collateral and individualistic. Individualistic cultures: People are encouraged to accept responsibility as independent individuals. Collectivistic cultures: Individuals subordinate personal needs to their ingroup, particulary their family, e.g. arranged marriages.

8 basic components of human communication

Source, message, Channel, Receiver, Encoding, Decoding, Noice, Feedback

Etnography

Specific research methodology that has been employed to study different cultures and subcultures. Aims to describe the whole culture

The ideological asymmetry hypothesis (Sidanius and Pratto, 1999) -

Suggests that hierarchy-attenuating ideologies such as multiculturalism appeal more to low-status groups than to high-status groups. Low-status groups / minority: Multiculturalism offers the possibility of maintaining their own culture and at the same time obtaining higher social status in society. High-status / majority: May see the ethnic minorities and their desire to maintain their own culture as a threat to mainstream cultural identity and their higher status position.

Syntax

The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language. The study of grammar and structures, where are prepositions

Orientalism: Edvard Said (1994)

The concept refers to a specific kind of discource that fosters the differnece between the familiar (Europé, the West, "us", the democratic and civilized) and the strange (the Orient, the East, "them", the uncivilized and barbric). Rests upon four dogmas: 1. The Orient is undeveloped and inferior, while the west is ratioanl, developedm humane and superior. 2. The Orient lives according to rules inscribed in their sacred texts, rather than in response to the changing demands of life. 3. The Orient is eternal and uniform, and the people are incapable of defining themselves, thereby justifying the vocabulary used by the West to describe them. 4. The Orient is either something to be feared (e.g. Islamic terrorism) or to be controlled by pacification, occupation or development. Orinetalism as a theory also descirbes the suble ways in which hatred can be transmitted through many communication channels.

Tranculturation theory:

The converging and merging of cultures. Its a multidirectional process.

ethnolinguistic vitality

The degree of prestige, acceptability, and importance attached to a group's language.

Cultural relativism

The degree to which an individual jusdges another culture by its context (Chen and Starosta, 2005)

Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor (1973) - Social penetration theory, explain the development of relationships through the exchange of information.

The depth of information exchange reflects one of four stages of relationship development: Orientation: Superficial information about weather or demographic information Exploratory affective exchange: Information about our personlitites Affective exchange: Opinions and attitudes Stable exchange: Freely express their true opinions

Dispora

The dispersion or spreading of something that was originally localized (as a people or language or culture)based on the Greek term speiro, meaning to "sow", and the preposition dia, meaning over. = migration and colonization. (utspridning) Firslty id reffered to religious groups that were forced to move and became widespread. Today it refers to traditional migrant groups, such as jews, but also much wider communitities comprised by voluntary migrants living in more than one culture.

Anxiety/uncertainty avoidance theory: William B. Gudykunst (2004) Based on uncertainty reduction theory, proposed by Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese (1975).

The effective interpersonal and intercultural communication is a function of how individuals manage the anxiety and uncertainty they experience when communicating with others. Exposure to unpredictability and unfamiliar settings can cause indivudials to think in ethnocentric and sterotypical ways. Effective communication requires that the interactants have the ability to reduce and manage uncertainty, particulary during their initial encounter with each other.

Receiver

The intended target of the message.

Models of communication:

The linear model and The interactive model / The transactional model

source

The origin of information. Might be concious - Seeking informtion (asking someone for directions), sharing experience (Expressing feelings about a wedding attended) or giving instructions (assigning tasks to an employee). Or non-concious - frown at food,

Socialization

The process by which people learn customs and values of their culture. The process by which we develop a sense of proper and improper behaviour and communication within the confines of those cultural rules.

Decoding

The process by which the reciever, as the target of the message, converts the coded message into meaning.

Globalization

The process of increasing interconnectedness between socities and people at the economic, political and cultural levels. The widening, deepning and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary social life.

interpersonal communication

The process of understanding and sharing meaning between at least two people when relatively mutual opportunities for speaking and listening exist.

Mass communication

The process of understanding and sharing meaning with a broad audience through mediated channels. Mass media like radio, television and newspapers are specifically conceived and designed to reach a large audience.

intrapersonal communication

The process of understanding and sharing meaning within the self.

Man-nature orientation

The relationship of people with nature (people should be subordinate to-in harmony-with dominant nature) Man-nature orientation: Address the question: What is the relationship of humans to nature? The relationship can be subjugation to nature, harmony with nature or mastery over nature.

Feedback

The response of the receiver after receiving the message.

Stages of the perception process

The selection stage: Information is received via the senses and attended and interpreted by the brain. Selective perception invloves in three steps: selective exposure, selevctive attention and selective retention. The categorization stage: The process of ordering the environment by grouping persons, objects and events on the basis of similar features or characteristics. The interpretation stage: The attachment of meaning to data obtained through the sensory organs. Synonymous with decoding in communication. People filter information physiologically (e.g. hearing, eyesight, touch), sociologically (e.g. demogrphics, group membership) and psychologically (e.g. attitudes, belifes and dispositions) according to Goss (1995).

Encoding

The source uses shared codes to convert concepts, thoughts and feelings into a message.

Cultural diffusion:

The spread of ideas, customs, and technologies from one people to another Happens when a culture learns or adopts a new idea or practice from another culture or cultures.

The halo effect

The tendency to presume that someone who has one good trait is likely to have another good trait.

The outgroup homogeneity effect (Mullen and Hu, 1989)

The tendency to see members of outgroups as "all alike", without recognizing the individual differences that we appreciate in ingroup members.

interactive model of communication

The transactional model, individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages. Embedded in Barnlund´s transactional model is the constructionist approach, which relates communication to an individual or a group of people in social, cultural and relational contexts. Contexts shape communication. The emphasis on context and people that forms the basis for the interactive model of communication.

Message

The verbal or/and nonverbal form of ideas, thoughts or feelings. Composed of verbal codes (language and some gestures) and nonverbal codes (Facial expressions, body movements, tone of voice, use of space, time orientation...)

Eight aspects through which cultural values can exert influence on the effectivness of negotiation: (Lewicki, Saunder, Barry and Minton (2003)

The way the negotiation is defined The parties at the negotiation table The protocol that is followed The style of communication The time frame The perception of risk Wether the negotiation is on a group or individual basis The way the agreement is shaped and enforced

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck´s value orientations

They argued that all human cultures are confronted with universal problems that emerge from relationships with others, and with time, activities, and nature. Value orientations: The means that a society uses to solve these universal problems. Four assumptions: All human societies face the same problems They use different means to solve them The means to address universal problems are limited Value orientations are behaviorally observable through empirical studies There are five value orientations: Man-nature orientation Activity orientation Time orientation Human nature orientation Relational orientation

Time orientation:

Time (past-present-future) Time orientation: Answers the question: What is the temporal focus of human life? Past-orientated cultures: Emphasize tradition Present-orientated cultures: Stress spontaneity and immediacy Future-orientated cultures: Emphasize the importance of present activities to future outcomes.

Translation and Interpretation

Translation: Refers to the process of converting a source text, either spoken or written, into a different language. Interpretation: The process of verbally expressing what is said in another language.

Transnationalism and Transmigrants

Transnationalism - Refer to the process by which migrants forge and sustian multi-stranded social realtions that link together their socitites of origin and settlement Transmigrants - Immigrants who develop and maintain multiple relationships - familial, economic, social, organizational, religious and political - spanning borders.

Model of acculturation develop by John Berry (1980):

Two principles: Cultural maintenance: helps people of a particular culture retain and/or preserve relevant care values so that they can maintain their sense of well-being, recover from illness, or face handicaps and/or death Contact participation: the extent individuals value and seek out contact with those outside their own group, and wish to participate in the daily life of the larger society Immigrants are confronted with two basic issues: maintainence of their heritage culture and maintenance of relationships with host society. Integration: (YES - CM, YES - CP) A positive value placed on both the heritage and the new culture; integrationists wish to maintain their ethnic traditions and at the same time to become intrergal part of the host society. Assimilation: (NO - CM, YES - CP) A negative value placed on the old and a postive value on the new Separation: (YES - CM, NO - CP) A positive value on the old and a negative value on the new Both refer to rejecting one culture and living exclusively in the other. Marginalization: (NO - CM, NO - CP) A negative value on both cultures.; Mariginalization refers to individuals devaluing their cultural heritage but not having a significant psychological contact with the host cultural identity. Individualists: People who reject ethich identity and host cultural identity.

Rita Hardiman (2001) - propses that identity development follows several stages:

Unexamined identity: characterized by acceptance of the dominant norms and a lack of desire to look into one´s identity. Acceptance: A stage during which dominant group members internalize the identity imposed by the culture. Redefinition: A re-interpretation of the dominant culture occurs and may be accompanied by attempts to openly challenge it. Integration: Whereby white people connect themselves to a dominant culture that reflects an awareness of the special privilege accorded to them and an appretiation of the values of minority cultures.

Approaches to ethics

Universalism vs relativism Ethical universalism - believe that there are universal ethical principles that guide behaviour across all socities. Ethical relativism - Believe that ethics is closely related to motive, intuiton and emotion. Communicative approach Recognizes that humans are socialized into a particular set of cultural norms, but they are capable of critically reflecting upon and changing those cultural norms. Can also critically look at other cultures norms and know which ones to adapt and which ones to reject.

Structural linguistics:

Views language as a coherent system whereby every item acquires meaning in relation to the other items in the system. The signifier: spoken or written words, attributes meaning to objects, concepts and ideas. The signified: Mental pictures produced by the signifier.

Ingroup favouritism: (Hogg, 2003):

We have a tendency to evalute ingroup memebers more positvely than outgroup members.

Religious world view:

Western dichotomy Religion and faith private Religion, an activity among others Kept out of secular(not connected with religion or spirtituality) life Freedom to believe ot not believe, freedom of speech 2/3 world integrated Religion communal Religion, an ethic and national identity Permeates all parts of life Forms and symbols sacred

Expectnacy Violation Theory - Judee Burgoon

When a person is vioalting our prejudices

social categorization

When people exagerate the similarties within their group and the differnces between other groups.

Cultural schema theory:

When we interact with members of the same culture in certain situations many times, cultural schemas are stored in our brain; cultural schemas are built through repetition. Refers to generalized knowledge of past experiences that have been organized into related categories and are used to guide people´s behaviours in familiar situations. The previous knowledge we have when entering into a communication act is reffered to as cultural schemas.

Cultural frame switching

Where they shift between their two cultural interpretative frames in response to cues in the social environment.

Cultivation Theory (George Gerbner)

a perspective on media use that emphasizes the impact media exposure has on individuals A relationship between heavy television viewing and people´s worldview.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

a statement that causes itself to become true by directly or indirectly altering actions. If you believe that you are bad a math the test might go bad, just because you think like that

Paralanguage

an extensive set of noises (such as cries) and tones of voice that convey significant information about the speaker - Voice qualities - include elements like pitch, volume, tempo, rhythm, tone, pausing and resonance of the voice. - Vocalization - includes laughing, crying, sighing, yelling, moaning, swallowing and throat clearing.

Transformationalists

argue that globalization has structural consequences and is a driving force in society which influences political, social and economic change. globalization represents a significant shift, but they question the inevitability of its impacts. There is still a significant scope for national, local and other agencies.

Globalists

believe that there is such a thing as globalization and that it encompasses virtually the entire globe They view globalization as an inevitable development which cannot be resisted or significantly influenced by human intervention, particularly through traditional political institutions, such as nation-states.

Kinesics

body language/facial expressions Gestures, hand and arm movements, leg movements, facial expressions, eye contact and posture. - Embles - hand gestures that have a direct literal verbal translation, e.g OK in US, money in Japan and zero in Indonesia - Illustrators - hand and arm movements that function to complement or accent words, e.g show size with hands while telling how big it was - Affect Displays - Facial expressions that communicate an emotional state. - Regulators - Behaviours and actions that govern or manage conversations. - Adaptors - Satisfy physcological or physiological needs, e.g. Scratching an itch satisfies a physiological need, adjusting glasses before talking may satisfy a psychological need to calm down.

A human relationship

can be defined as an interactional process of connecting ourselves with others in a network of social needs. (Chen and Starosta, 2005)

Multiculturalism

can be used to characterize a society with diverse cultures, at a descriptive level. As an attitude, it can refer to a society´s tolerance towards diversity and acceptance of equal societal participation.

Development Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS)

denial, defense, minimization, acceptance, adaptation, integration One of the widely known approches to developing intercultural identity is the Development Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS), which was created by Milton Bennett (1986, 1993) as a FRAMEWORK TO EXPLAIN PEOPLE´S REACTIONS TO CULTURAL DIFFERENCES.Argument that one´s experience of cultural differences becomes more complex as one´s competence in intercultural realtions increases. He observed that individuals confront cultural difference in certain predictable ways as they learn to become more competent intercultural communicators. He organized these behaviours into six stages of sensitivity to cultural differences, moving from ethnocentric, which characterizes the first three stages, to ethnorelative, which characterizes the last three stages.

Xenophobia

fear of stranger, främlingshat

Global Transformation

highlights how local social movements attempt to "effect large-scale, collective changes in the domains of state policy, corporate practice, social structure, cultural norms, and daily lived experience The worldwide economic and technological changes that influence how people relate to one another. e.g. Almost everyone can buy nike shoes or an iphone

The emic approach

investigates how local people think Views each culture as a unique entity(existance) that can only be examined by constructs developed from inside the culture. Focuses on identifying culture-specific aspects of concepts and behviour that cannot be compared across all cultures. Knowledge and interpretations existing within a culture, shaped by local customs, values, meanings and beliefs, a "native" or "insider" culture. To understand the culture from the natives point of view.

The etic approach

involves studying behavior from outside the culture and examining similarities and differences across cultures Culture can be examined with predetermined categories that can be applied to all cultures in the search for cultural universals.

National identity

is characterized by one´s individual self-perception as a member of a nation. Smith (2007) contends that national identity is a politically organized category that is reproduced and reinvented through different symbols, values, memories, myths and traditions that compose the distinctive heritage of a nation. E.g. national flag, national anthem. Two main features: Based on a set of common characteristics that hold members of the nation together. Includes common descent, shared culture, language and common historical herritage, and a common legal and economic system. Secondly, national identity always implies difference - it involves not only awareness of the ingroup, but also awareness of others from whom the nation seeks to differtiate iteself.

origin of the word culture

originates from the Latin word cultura, which means to till, as in till the soil or land.

pampering

parental behavior in which a child is overindulged or spoiled

Communication style:

refers to how language is used to convey meaning to others. Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey (1988) identified four communication styles: Direct/indirect Elaborate/Succinct Elaborate: The use of rich, expressive and emblished language Succinct: Simple assertions and even silence is valued Personal/Contextual - the individuals goals vs the groups, you for all person or show respect with usted Instrumental/Affective - Goal-orientated, individualitic / Sender-focused, collectivistic. Instrumental, the speaker uses communication as a mean to achieve an outcome, the boss explicity tells the subordinate what to do and why. Affective care more about the communication than the outcome.

Racism

refers to the belief that some racial groups are superior and that other racial groups are necessarily inferior. Two kinds of racism: Overt racism: which involves the explicit expression of racist attitudes. Easy to spot, because they actively argue on behalf of such racist attitudes. Inferential racism: Subtler and involves such things as the unthinking acceptance of racial stereotypes.

implicit personality theory

sets of assumptions about how different types of people, personality traits, and actions are related to each other describes asssumed relationships among personality traits (Schneider, 1973)

low context orientation

shared meanings are primarily derived from written and spoken words

Morphology

structure of words The combination of basic units that carry meaning, happy and unhappy, one dog many dogs

Proxemics

study of space - Fixed features - The size of someone´s office, communicates status or power - Semi-fixed features - The movable objects within an office, such as furniture and decorations can communicate the degree of openness as well as status and power. E.g. desk facing the door which may make visitors feel welcome but may also communicate a barrier between the visitor and the resident. - Personal space - The distance within which people feel comfortable when interacting with others.

Haptics

study of touch - High contact cultures - those who tend to encourage touching and engage in touching more frequently (e.g. Southern and eastern Europé. - Low contact cultures - Anglo-celtic cultures

John Berry´s Model of Acculturation

the adoption of the behavior patterns of the surrounding culture

Acculturation:

the adoption of the behavior patterns of the surrounding culture refers to the changes that cultural groups undergo when "groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups"

Pragmatics

the appropriate use of language in different contexts The impact of language on human perception and behaviour. How language is used in a social context. Direct or indirect approach.

Interpellation

the communication process by which one is pulled into the social forces that place people into a specific identity, e.g. teacher calling students, students puts them in one identity.) Louis Althusser (1971) describes the process whereby a society creates individuals as particular kind of people form of interpellation or hailing, (as when someone calls out to you, asking you to respond) When we come to recognize ourselves as the type of subject being called, the interpellation is succesful.

Cultural colonization:

the inculcation of a British system of government and education, British culture, and British values that denigrate the culture, morals, and even physical appearance of formerly subjugated peoples sometimes used synonymously with cultural imperialism. The concept of "othering", which is predominantly used to refer to stereotypical images of non-white populations.

Conflict

the interaction of interdependent people who perceive opposition of goals, aims and values and who see the other party as potentially interfering with the realization of these goals.

Cultural Hegemony

the pervasive and excessive influence of one culture throughout society Defined as the structurally enabled predominant influence of one culture over another.

Phonology

the study of speech sounds in language Explores how sounds are organized in a language. Pronounce. e.g. click sound, she sound in swedish, the sound each language make. Organization of sounds of each language.

Olfactics

the study of the sense of smell - Artefacts, dress and smell

Attribution Theory:

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition Fritz Heider (1958), modified since then by Edward Jones, Keith Davis and Harold Kelley - social pshychologists. Heider - A person seeking to understand why another person acted in a certain way may attribute causes to the behaviour in question. Internal or external attributions. Internal - The inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about that person, such as attitude, beliefs or personality. External - Situational causes to a person´s behaviour.

Personal identity

the word is used to define an individual in terms of his or her difference from others. Include physical features, hobbies, interests, family relationships, social cirlces, as well as personal aspects of age, sex, nationality, religious affiliation, disability, sexual orientation and so forth.

Global village

the world considered as a single community linked by telecommunications. A world in which communication technology, such as television, radio and news services, brings news and information to the most remote parts of the world.

Theory of self disclosure

theory that the more someone discloses to someone else, the more that person is going to trust them and be willing to disclose more information back The process of revealing personal information that another person would be unlikely to discover through thrid sources.

The verbal langauge is based on symbols

things that stand for their referents (the thing that a symbol (a word) stands for, but are not part of the referents

How is cultural identity shown?

through language, strong traditions, rituals, dress, social structure and way of communication.

Patronising

treat with an apparent kindness which betrays a feeling of superiority to speak to or behave towards someone as if they are stupid or not important. ( condecending way of talking, lilla gubben )

Dimension of Religion

•RITUAL -Visible ceremonies, institutions. •MATERIAL -Sacred objects, places, buildings •NARRATIVE -The story carrying the truth. •DOCTRINAL -Systematized central beliefs. •ETHICAL -The moral teaching of the believer. •SOCIAL -Codes of conduct in the community. •EXPERIENTIAL -guilt, awe, mystery, devotion, liberation, ecstasy, inner peace, conversion

Meta-model of communication (Craig ,1999)

•Rhetorical: learned & practiced •Semiotic: mediates subjectivity via signs •Phenomenological: experiential encounter of self & other through dialogue •Cybernetic: information processing •Socio-psychological: expression, interaction & influence •Socio-cultural: social & cultural patterns •Critical: Discursive reflection