Complete Psychology Review
Intelligence Quotient
(mental age divided by chronological age) X 100. Suzy is 8 years old (actual, chronological age) but an IQ test demonstrates that she has a mental age of 12 years. 12 divided by 8 = 1.5 X 100 = an IQ of 150
physiological activity of emotions
(most) is controlled by the autonomic nervous system's sympathetic (arousing) and parasympathetic (calming) divisions. Scientists have discovered subtle differences in activity in the brain's cortical areas, in use of brain pathways, and in secretion of hormones associated with different emotions.
short-term memory
(or working memory) the mind's "current working capacity;" this is kind of like RAM in a computer. Refers to the information that the mind can process at one time. Some elements from this get stored in long-term memory
Virtual reality exposure
(the latest systematic desensitization) technique using computer technology to lead the client/patient through a progressive exposure to his or her fears. Patients wear a headset which projects a three dimensional world into the visual field. It has been useful in helping people with a fear of flying, public places, heights, and animals.
Risks with drug therapy
- Anti-anxiety drugs can produce substance abuse and dependence. -Anti-depressants can produce a dry mouth and constipation, and anti-psychotics can produce muscle and movement issues like tardive dyskinesia
Attachment
-an emotional tie with another person -shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and displaying distress on separation
Maturation
-biological growth processes that enable orderly changed in behavior -relatively uninfluenced by experience
Neurotransmitters
-chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic aps between neurons -when released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether it will generate a neural impulse
Stranger Anxiety
-fear of strangers that infants commonly display -beginning by about 8 months of age
Corpus Callosum
-large band of neural fibers -connects the two brain hemispheres -carries messages between the hemispheres -The imformation highway from the eye to the brain
Catatonic schizophrenia
Immobility (or excessive, purposeless movement), extreme negativism, and/or parrot-like repeating of anothers speech or movements
Psychogenic Fugue
A fugue is simply the addition to generalized amnesia of a flight from family, problem, or location; thus, people experiencing fugue are often found miles from their home or place of work. The person may create an entirely new life.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A stimulus that causes a 'learned' response in an organism (bell)
Critical Period
An optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development.
What distinguishes imprinting from attachment?
Attachment is the normal process by which we form emotional ties with important others. Imprinting occurs in animals that have a critical period very early in their development during which they must from their attachments and they do so in an inflexible manner
Biologically Influenced
Men and women are anatomically different with different hormone production levels (estrogen vs testosterone) and perhaps even differences in "brain wiring".
False negative
Now imagine that you and your friend turn to leave the airport together. You are talking with her so animatedly that you fail to notice when your name is called over the loudspeaker requesting that you come to the service desk. You failed to perceive something that really did exist!
Depersonalization disorder
Occurs when a person feels they are not themselves. The person may, for example, feel that one's limbs are not shaped or sized correctly. It may include a sense of being outside of one's body. Self-awareness is extremely distorted.
Negative Punishment
Occurs when something pleasant is removed from a situation as a consequence or result of a behavior. Ex: You continue to drive recklessly and endanger others, so your drivers license is taken away from you. As with any type of punishment, the behavior is weakened by the presentation of the __________.
activation synthesis theory
Others (neuroscience or biological perspective) suggest that our dreams are simply reactions to random firings of the brain that keep it stimulated during sleep.
Anorexia Nervosa
norexics starve themselves to below 85 percent of their normal body weight and refuse to eat due to their obsession with weight. The vast majority of the victims of anorexia nervosa are women.
Personality
normal ways of thinking, acting, and feeling that are characteristic of a particular person
Behavioral Perspective strongly emphasizes the...
nurture aspect. They believe that a person's current personality and actions depend only on two things: the person's past experiences and the person's current environment. They strongly believe in operant conditioning
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
observed that people's quality of life increased when they were purposefully engaged. Csikszentmihalyi formulated the concept of flow after studying artists who would spend hour after hour painting or sculpting.
Naturalistic Observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situation without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Partial Reinforcement
occur on a varied schedule
Phobias
occur when a person feels irrationally afraid of a specific object or situation
Panic Disorder
occurs when a person experiences sudden episodes of intense dread
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
occurs when a person is troubled by repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and actions (compulsions).
Anterograde amnesia
occurs when a person is unable to take newly-formed memories and 'transfer' them to long-term memory. Anterograde amnesia has recently been the subject of much interest in popular media; films and television programs feature it sometimes as an interesting element of conflict ("Following her accident, she cannot process any 'new' information" etc.).
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
occurs when a person is unexplainably and continually tense and uneasy
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
occurs when a person suffers from vivid memories of a traumatic event (flashbacks).
Aphasia
occurs when a person's ability to process language is impaired but their intellectual skills are not impacted.
High-order Conditioning
occurs when a second neutral stimulus is added and also becomes a conditioned stimulus with repeated pairings
Higher-order conditioning
occurs when a second neutral stimulus is added and also becomes a conditioned stimulus with repeated pairings. For example, if we sounded a bell and then clapped our hands and then fed a dog, he might become conditioned to salivate in response to either the bell or the sound of the clapping. Higher-order conditioning is a bit more difficult to achieve and it is also more easily extinguished than other forms of conditioning.
Extinction
occurs when an oragnism 'unlearns' a behavior
Classical conditioning
occurs when an organism associates two separate stimuli; often the presentation of one stimuli makes the organism 'expect' the other. This is what occurred to Rex in the lesson introduction - he learned to associate the sound of the rustling bag with his receiving of food. The sound of the bag caused him to 'expect' to be fed.
Classically Conditioning
occurs when an organism demonstrates a response based on another similar stimulus
Generalization
occurs when an organism demonstrates a response based on another similar stimulus
Latent Learning
occurs when an organism learns a behavior but the learned behavior is not really evident
fluid intelligence
one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
Crystallized intelligence
one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
Turners syndrome
only one chromosome for gender (the X); causes shortness and differences in sexual development and sterile
discriminate
organisms can learn to discriminate between similar stimuli and only respond to a particular one. In the previous example, let's say that only the sight of a rose causes Julie's sneezing — she has successfully learned to discriminate (in conditioning, to distinguish or choose among stimuli) among the stimuli in her environment.
visual perception
organization of visual stimulus information into understandable images
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
James-Lange
our awareness of our specific bodily response to emotion-arousing stimuli. EX: we observe our heart racing after a threat and then feel afraid
Consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
self-efficacy
our belief that we can competently perform those behaviors which are necessary to completing our tasks. If you are on your school's basketball team, your sense of self-efficacy with respect to athletic performance is probably much higher than mine!
continuity
our brain prefers to see things as smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones
Color Constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alter the wave-lengths reflected by the object
Perceptual Constancy
perceiving objects and unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, brightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change
Precognition
perceiving or predicting events that have not yet taken place. If a fortune-teller predicts that you will marry someone five years from now, that would be an example of precognition.
hallucinations
perceptions of things that just are not there-mirage, talking rabbit
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.
They keep serotonin from being reabsorbed back into the 'sending neuron'. As a result, more active serotonin is present in the synapse which can help people suffering from depression.
antagonists.
They may block certain neurotransmitters from their receptor sites. They do this by fitting 'well enough' into the receptor site to 'block' the natural neurotransmitter but not 'well enough' to perform the same function.
Twin Biology
To study the effect of heredity and environment two sets of twins, identical and fraternal, have come in handy
metacognition
To think about thinking
Schachter-Singer
Two factors: General arousal + a conscious cognitive label. EX: Arousal could be labeled as fear or excitement, depending on context.
Intellectualization
The purpose of this defense mechanism is to help us develop an air of detachment from a particular problem. "Rather than talk about his ailing mother in a nursing home, Gerald asked me if I had read any existentialist literature lately."
conditioned response (or CR)
The response elicited by the CS is now called a conditioned response (or CR) because no actual unconditional stimulus is necessary to cause the response. In Pavlov's experiments, salivation was also the conditioned response in the dogs.
morpheme
The second language building block, the smallest unit of language that has a meaning. English language has 100,000 morphemes
health psychology.
The study of stress and stress-related illness
Anti-anxiety drugs
Valium, Ativan, and Xanax help people relax, sleep better, and focus on the tasks at hand. They help to control symptoms of panic, anxiety, fear and tension and generally depress (reduce) central nervous system activity.
Interposition or overlap
When one object cuts off the view or part of the view of another object, the object in the front appears to be the closer one.
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance-- the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object
Alfred Kinsey
a biologist who collected data on sexual practices from 1948-1953. From his work we know that sexual behaviors vary across both place and time and that the range of normal sexual interests and behaviorists is very broad.
Autism
a brain development disorder characterized by impairments in communication and social interaction.
emotion
a four-part process involving physiological arousal, subjective feelings, cognitive interpretation, and behavioral expression. All of these elements interact.
stereotype
a general set of ideas about members of different groups. Stereotypes are a bit different from prejudices because stereotypes are usually (at least in part) based on experiences and are not always negative. For example, if I say Professor Hanson is a "stereotypical Ivy-League professor," you may form a generally positive impression of him (based on his implied intelligence, ability, etc.).
Motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. Another important matter when psychologists study how people work. As with many concepts in psychology, motivation can be divided into different types.
reticular formation
a nerve network that ravels through the brainstem and plays an important role in controlling arousal
Action Potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
hypothalamus
a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward
Neural Firing is regulated by the all or nothing principle...
a neuron either does receive enough stimulation to fire or it does not. No neuron partially fires.
post hypnotic amnesia
a person can be helped to forget selected events
maladaptive behaviors
a person uses to reduce his or her anxiety
Incentive
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
Development
a process of growth, change, and consistency brought about by an interaction of heredity and environment.
Inductive reasoning
a process whereby a general rule can be inferred from specific cases based upon our past experiences, attitudes, beliefs, and observations. Jack's friend Jill notices that Jack's car (the Chevroyota) is very reliable. She then decides that all Chevroyotas are very reliable. She has used inductive reasoning—she has made an inference about all models of Chevroyota based on knowledge from one specific example.
social impairment
performing poorly due to the behavior or presence of others. Highest when we are not yet comfortable with the things we are attempting to do.
Mutations
a random error in gene replication that leads to change in the sequence of nucleotides; the source of all genetic diversity
Experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. By random assignment of participants, the experiment controls other relevant factors
Iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the amount of light that comes into the eye
Random Sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Functionalism
a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.
Self-Concept
a sense of one's identity and personal worth
anxiety hierarchy
a series of small "steps" that cause greater and greater amounts of distress—and then to work through that hierarchy
role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. Your school's principal, for example, probably dresses and speaks in a certain manner because of what society expects from the leader of a school.
heuristics
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone
Reflex
a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus
Neuron
a single cell,particularly a nerve cell
Operational Definition
a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables.
Operational definition
a statement of the procedures (or operations) used to define research variables. EX: intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures
Correlational studies
a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
Correlation Coefficient
a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
a stimulus that originally has nothing to do with the situation
Hippocampus
a structure in th elimbic system linked to memory
cross-sectional
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
longitudinal
a study in which the same people are restudied and tested over a long period of time
Health Psychology
a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine.
fMRI
a technique for revealing blood flow and therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. FMRI scans show brain function
MRI
a technique the uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.
compliance strategy
a technique we sometimes use to get people to do what we want
Dissociation
a temporary 'split' in consciousness— is responsible for how Hypnotism can help to relieve pain
Confirmation Bias
a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions
Projective tests
a test that shows ambiguous images and asks the subject to interpret or explain them
Hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Signal Detection Theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
Accommodation
adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
transcendence
additional layer of the hierarchy of needs pyramid by Maslow. The transcendent individual was able to rise above all needs.
conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
Jet Lag
affected by our melatonin (a hormone produced by the pineal gland of the endocrine system which causes sleepiness) levels
Thyroid gland
affects metabolism among other things
Serotonin
affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal (Undersupply = depression.)
Maturation
after birth, rapid physical, cognitive, and motor development occurs. Neural connections develop rapidly after birth with some strengthening and some being pruned away
Latency stage
ages 6-12. when sexual feelings are pushed out of consciousness, and children are busy learning academics, how to socialize appropriately with others, and a host of other issues necessary to growing up.
Alfred Adler
agreed with Freud about the importance of early childhood experiences, but he focused on the conscious or ego rather than the unconscious. He linked personality problems to feelings of inferiority, and felt that focusing on these shortcomings or mistakes in our lives might lead us to have an inferiority complex. Also first to suggest that our place in the family, or birth order, might also have an impact on the development of our personality.
Biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
Case Study
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principals
gestalt
an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
Norms
an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. 'Proper behavior'
prejudice
an unwarranted attitude toward a group of people. If a convenience store owner believes that all teenagers are lazy, she has formed a prejudice toward that group.
Bottom-Up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
standardized
analyze scores based upon a comparison of scores obtained by a pre-tested group
Exorcism
ancient ritual/practice used to rid the body of spirits
Chunking
another technique that can help with short-term memory. This occurs when we "chunk together" pieces of information. For example, a local phone number usually has seven digits. However, we tend to 'chunk' the first three together. When memorizing 875-3321 and 875-9528, for example, we may chunk the 875 and it really becomes only one item in the short term memory.
Suggestion
another term for hypnosis
dream analysis
another way to expose the unconscious
3 main categories of therapeutic drugs:
anti-anxiety, anti-depressant, and anti-psychotic
Bias
any preconceived notion or idea that distorts our perceptions and judgments.
Diabetic Retinopathy
appears in some patients with diabetes-blood vessels which supply blood to the retina begin to leak
Personnel psychology
applies psychology's methods and principles to selecting and evaluating workers: -Selecting and placing of employees -Training and developing employees -Appraising performance
Aptitude tests
are designed to predict your future performance.
Achievement tests
are designed to show what you have learned. Your SOL tests in Virginia would fall into this category. Just how much US History have you learned this year? AP Exams would fit here as well.
Random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.
medical model
assumes psychological disorders are mental illnesses. The medical model also asserts that disorders can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured or managed with therapy or a combination of therapies.
Social learning theory
assumes that children learn gender-linked behaviors by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
Emotion-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction.
Problem-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress directly--by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.
Parenting Influences Children's...
attitudes, values, manners, beliefs, faith, politics
Corpus callosum
axon fibers connecting two cerebral hemispheres -carries messages between the hemispheres -The information highway from the eye to the brain
Strokes
can damage the left hemisphere areas of language ability, particularly in Broca's and Wernicke's area.
hairy skin
can detect pressure and movement
Rebulla (German measles)
can have devastating effects (birth defects, blindness, deafness, mental retardation) on an unborn fetus, especially if the mother contracts the disease early in her pregnancy
Culture
can influence emotions. In communal cultures (such as Micronesia) that value interdependence, intense displays of potentially disruptive emotions are infrequent. These displays occur much more frequently in individualist cultures (such as the US).
Anal Retentive
children who focused too much on bowel control could develop a fixation that would later translate to perfectionism and an obsession with control and order.
eidetic memory
photographic memory
Eidetic Memory
photographic memory; very rare;
Reinforcements
pleasant consequences that will cause a behavior to become more likely to be repeated
reinforcement
pleasant consequences that will cause a behavior to become more likely to be repeated
Flashbulb memory
powerful, vivid, detailed memories that are usually associated with an emotional event (for example, one's wedding day or the tragedy of 9-11). Though highly detailed, they can be somewhat inaccurate (perhaps due to the emotional nature of the memory).
Flashbulb Memory
powerful, vivid, detailed memories that are usually associated with an emotional event (wedding day or 9/11); though highly detailed, they can be somewhat inaccurate due to emotional nature
somatoform disorders
psychological disorders that affect the body as well. Subdivided into two major disorders: hypochondriasis and conversion disorders.
dissociative disorders
psychological disorders that occur when conscious awareness becomes "separated" (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings
Sweet lemon rationalization
puts a positive spin on an undesirable event. When Francesca didn't get a part in the musical, she said, "It's really a good thing I didn't get the part. I really need to work on my SAT Prep class, and now I'll have more time."
REM
rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. AKA paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
physical response
rapid heartbeat, perspiration, quick intake of breath
Dendrites
receive messages from other neurons and conduct impulses toward the cell body
kinesthetic sense
receives information from your joints and muscles to help you to determine the position and movements of your body's parts. To use your kinesthetic sense, close your eyes and then touch the tip of your nose with your pinky finger. You are probably able to complete this task without really processing any sensory information due to your kinesthetic ability.
Visual Cortex
receives written words as visual stimulation
Negative symptoms
refer to 'subtractions' from normal behavior, like flat affect (something that is lacking when compared to most people).
Temperament
refers to a person's stable emotional reactivity and intensity. Identical twins express similar temperaments, suggesting heredity predisposes temperament
Learning
refers to changes in behavior that result from experience and persist over time. Learning is general thought of as a behavioral process
The social domain
refers to empathy, social judgment, interpersonal communication skills, the ability to make and retain friendships, and similar capacities.
Framing
refers to how a particular problem or issue is presented
Self-disclosure
refers to our tendency to share personal details about ourselves as we become closer to another person.
Acquisition
refers to the actual period in which the learning of a new behavior takes place
acquisition
refers to the actual period in which the learning of a new behavior takes place—during the repeated pairings of the NS with the US (like the 'bell' with the 'food').
Heritability
refers to the extent to which the differences among people are attributable to genes.
Abstract learning
refers to the learning of ideas and concepts. Being able to explain a concept like "good vs. evil" would indicate mastery of an abstract learning task.
Chaining
refers to the learning of several linked behaviors necessary to either receive a reinforcer or avoid a punishment.
psychoanalysis
refers to the process of using special techniques to help "uncover" the unconscious mind—where Freud believed most people's psychological problems were buried.
gender schema theory
refers to the theory that children learn about what it means to be male and female from the culture in which they live
Secondary Reinforcers
reinforcements that only have value because they represent something else or can be used for some function
Genes
small segments of the giant DNA molecules. Can be either active (expressed) or inactive. When turned on, genes provide the code for creating protein molecules, our body's building blocks
Albert Bandura
social cognitive psychologist, emphasized the power of situations and how we think about them as impacting the development of our personalities. Using his concept of reciprocal determinism, he suggested that the characteristics of a person (traits), that person's environment (the current situation), and their behavior all interact to produce or make changes in personality.
Gender Roles
society's expectations about the way men and women should behave; established by culture
Astigmatism
some objects appear blurry, but others do not
Detached Retina
sometimes the result of a head injury
William James
sought to expand the work o the structuralists by including the scientific study of how structures helped an individual to function and flourish. He is known as the Father of Functionalism. Wrote first real psychology textbook
Synapse
space between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron can be called the synaptic gap or cleft
Stratify
splitting the sample into categories based on the makeup of the population
Oral stage
stage one. occurs from birth to age 1. infants explore the world by using their mouths. They find pleasure and comfort in biting, sucking, and chewing.
Anal Stage
stage two. Happens between ages 1-3. If a conflict develops at this stage of development, the child's potty training efforts may be compromised, and some life-long personality characteristics could result.
William Sheldon
started the trend in the mid-1950s with body-typing. Sheldon proposed that people could be divided into 3 general body types with accompanying personality characteristics.
Weeber's law
states that the intensity of the jnd depends upon how large the stimulus is or, difference thresholds are not a constant amount but a constant proportion.
Psychoactive drugs 4 categories:
stimulants, depressants, opiates, and hallucinogens.
Authoritarian
strict parents who expect absolute obedience. There is little discussion of the rules, and the punishment to discourage "bad behavior" is used much more frequently than reward to encourage "good behavior". Children tend to be distrustful of authority figures and can be less sociable than other children
structured and unstructured interviews
structured interviews ask the same set of job-relevant questions of all applicants, allowing employers to review applicant responses in a more objective manner than in the unstructured interview process.
Terminal branches
structures at the end of the neuron opposite the dendrites
Thomas Bouchard
studied the lives of identical twins who were reared apart. Bouchard found that the twins frequently chose similar career paths and had similar interests — a clear demonstration of the effects of heritability
Evolutionary Psychologists
study how natural selection has shaped our universal behavior tendencies. EX: they might study how "aggressive behavior" has helped species survive and how those aggressive behaviors were passed on from one generation to another.
Social psychologists
study how thought and behavior are influenced by things like culture and peer pressure. They also study how people respond to social influences like conformity and authority figures. As globalization continues in the modern world, social psychologists seek to answer more and more questions about how human being can communicate and interact in more positive, constructive ways
Behavioral psychologists
study the effects of consequences on behavior. They often help people unlearn undesirable responses (like fears or smoking) and replace them with more constructive learned responses
Molecular geneticists
subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes. They look for specific genes that influence behaviors
Developmental Psychology
subfield of psychology -- how we develop physically, cognitively, and socially, from conception to death.
Teratogens
substances that can harm the developing fetus. Any of these the mother ingests can reach the developing child and place it at risk. Alcohol, caffeine, smoking, and drug addiction can seriously affect the developing fetus
Anti-psychotics
such as Thorazine, Haldol, and Clozaril are commonly prescribed to help alleviate hallucinations and delusions of schizophrenic patients. Thanks to these drugs, many schizophrenic patients are able to lead productive lives outside of the hospital.
Constructed Memory
suddenly recovered, perhaps after being repressed
Constructed (or reconstructed or recovered) memory
suddenly recovered, perhaps after being repressed (according to psychoanalytic theory). These memories are sometimes true, but are often very inaccurate; asking leading questions often changes the nature of the recalled memory.
Hans and Sybil Eysenck
suggested that there are three genetically produced dimensions of personality that everyone has to some degree: Extraversion,Neuroticism, and Psychoticism
Howard Gardner
suggested that we have multiple intelligences such as linguistic logical, mathematical, musical, spatial, movement or kinesthetic, insight, and social-interpersonal, naturalist, intra-personal. Robert Sternberg added three more: analytical or problem solving, creative, and practical.
Posthypnotic
suggestion that can be made that might also influence behavior without the person being consciously aware of the origin of the suggestion
withdrawal
happens when a person has built up a tolerance, and feels symptoms when the drug is not present. Symptoms include: headache, night sweats, high blood pressure, heart palpitations, hallucinations, delusions, insomnia, etc.
Maladaptive
harmful, distressing, or hurtful to the individual; interferes with normal daily activities (cannot get out of bed).
A resting neuron...
has a slightly negative charge
Robert Zajonc and Joseph LeDoux
have demonstrated that some simple emotional responses occur instantly—not only outside of conscious awareness but before any cognitive processing takes place.
primary reinforcers
have value "by themselves." EX: candy
Psychoactive substance
having an effect on mental state or functioning EX: caffeine
Trephination
holes being drilled or carved into the skulls using primitive tools. This is the evidence that prehistoric peoples somehow linked the brain to behavior or thinking.
Ghrelin
hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends "I'm hungry" signals
Insulin
hormone secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose
Pschodynamic
how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts. How can someone's personality traits and disorders be explained by unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas?
Salience
how much it "sticks out" or becomes noticeable to us
Psychosocial development
how one develops identity. Erik Erikson studied this
Behavior genetics
how our genes and our environment influence our individual differences. To what extent are psychological traits such as intelligence, personality, sexual orientation, and vulnerability to depression products of our genes? Of our environment?
Neuroscience
how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences. How do plain messages travel from the hand to the brain? How is blood chemistry linked with moods and motives?
Evolutionary
how the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes. How does evolution influence behavior tendencies?
Cognitive
how we encode process, store, and retrieve information
Behavioral
how we learn observable responses.
Assimilate
how we take in new information and incorporate it into what we already know. This usually occurs quickly and naturally, but can cause problems
Linda Bartoshuk
humans differ in the number of papillae found on their tongues. These differences in number put some people into a supertaster group, some into a taster group, and some into a non-taster group.
Orexin
hunger triggering hormone secreted by the hypothalamus
Primacy Effect
information presented at the beginning of a list is easier to remember
primacy effect
information presented at the beginning of a list is easier to remember
recency effect
information presented at the end of a list is easier to remember
Recency Effect
information presented at the end of the list is easier to remember
Top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
three-box model
information processing model. Memory asserts that there are essentially three stages of memory: sensory memory, short-term (or working memory), and long-term memory
vestibular sense
information sent by those fluid filled semi-circular canals in your ear that help you to monitor your balance and general body orientation. If you've ever gotten carsick, your vestibular sense has been at work telling your digestive system that you are being jolted around unnaturally.
levels of processing model
takes into account how 'much' or how 'deeply' we process information — like how we may shallowly process a phone number for a few brief moments to make a call, but how we more deeply process academic information to apply later.
Selective Attention
the ability to attend to some stimuli while ignoring others. Example: the cafeteria is crowded and the noise level is phenomenal. Sound and visual stimuli are almost overwhelming. But, you are able to attend to the conversation of the person across the table from you, and respond to their questions about what you did Friday night.
psychokinesis
the ability to move objects by mental power.
Depth Perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.
Gender typing
the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
manifest content
the actual, remember 'storyline' of the dream
Pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
Intensity
the amount of energy in a light or sounds wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the waves amplitude
Law of Effect
the assertion that an organism is more likely to repeat behaviors that are followed by pleasant consequences and less likely to repeat behaviors that are followed unpleasant consequences
Law of effect
the assertion that an organism is more likely to repeat behaviors that are followed by pleasant consequences and less likely to repeat behaviors that are followed unpleasant consequences
Objective Permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
medulla
the base of the brainstem;controls heartbeat and breathing
Cell
the basic structural unit of a living thing
Psychoanalytic Perspective
the belief that the unconscious mind strongly influences our thinking and behaving
homeostasis
the body's tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state.
beta waves
the brain produces ------ waves when it is very alert and awake
Plasticity
the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development
thalamus
the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
Personal space
the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies; varies from culture to culture
Middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vicbrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window
Transduction
the changing of stimulus information to neural signals that can be perceived by the brain
Coronary Heart Disease
the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle;the leading cause of death in many developed countries
Long-term Memory
the collection of stored memories; include episodic, procedural, and semantic memories
control condition
the condition of an experiment that consists with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluation the effect of the treatment
experimental condition
the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Cortex
interprets impulses formed from the retina that switch over to the optic nerve
Threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
Ambient Light
the light around us
retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
Amnesia
the loss of memory; can be classified into retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia.
Dementia
the mental erosion that results from progressive damage to the brain
Difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd). The jnd is based on detection that occurs 50% of the time because our sensations and perceptions are not always the same; at some times you will be able to see the light from a single candle, for example, from various distances.
Absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. For instance, to detect the dimmest star visible in the night sky would be right at the point of your absolute threshold. This, then, becomes the minimum stimulation needed for detection of a particular stimulus.
mere exposure effect
the more often we are exposed to something the more likely we are to develop a favorable attitude towards it
bystander effect
the more people witness an emergency event, the less likely any one individual is to actually help out!
selective attention
Our ability to attend (pay attention to) sensory information varies. Sometimes we can tune it out almost entirely. Have you ever been so engrossed in a book that you simply did not hear someone asking you a question? We can attend selectively.
How do we locate sounds?
Our ears are six inches apart on average, and can differentiate in the loudness and time lag of sounds. However, we don't locate a sound that comes from behind, ahead, below, or above as well as the sounds that come from the side because the sounds hit the two ears simultaneously.
Accommodate
Our experience teach us that our concepts must occasionally be altered to 'make room' for new information in our schema.
P Test
P value indicates how unlikely the results of a study occurred by chance. The lower the P value, the more accurately we can generalize the results to a larger population
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
PTSD can occur after experiencing or witnessing severely threatening, uncontrollable events with a sense of fear, helplessness, or horror. Symptoms can include haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, personality change, and insomnia.
Paranoid schizophrenia
Preoccupation with delusions or hallucinations, often with themes of persecution (being excessively punished) or grandiosity (being excessively superior to others)
blood-brain barrier
Protects the brain from assault by harmful substances.The thicker walls that surround the brain's blood vessels sometimes effectively block the entry of substances harmful to the brain. But psychoactive drugs contain much smaller molecules, and these manage to pass through this. When these molecules arrive, they take on one of three roles:
Anti-depressants
Prozac, Paxil, and Pamelor are mood elevators that help people to feel better about themselves. Drugs of the SSRI family (like Prozac, Paxil, and Zoloft) work by increasing the amount of serotonin available in the synapse by blocking its re-absorption back into the sending neuron.
What is contemporary psychologist's position on the nature-nurture debate?
Psychological events often stem from the interaction of nature and nurture, rather than form either of them acting alone
Naturalistic observations
involve merely observing and reporting data no manipulation of variables is involved. A field study that observes chimpanzees in the wild, then, is very different from a field experiment that tries to influence the chimps' behavior.
Exposure therapy
involves developing procedures to reduce or eliminate maladaptive responses by exposing the individual to the feared stimuli. One exposure therapy technique often used is systematic desensitization.
Hostile aggression
involves intentional hurting without a clear purpose or goal; for example, Sue gets angry at Jackie and pushes her down on the playground.
Scatter plot/frequency distribution
involves plotting one item(like subject) along the bottom or X-axis and another item (like sleep hours) along with side or Y-axies
Recall Memories
involves retrieving information in the absence of any type of clue (fill in the bank questions)
Recognition Memory
involves retrieving information with some sort of clue (multiple choice questions)
TAT (thematic apperception test)
involves showing ambiguous sketches to people and having them 'make up a story' or describe the situation? This test (along with the more ambiguous inkblot test) can also be used by psychoanalysts to help bring unconscious thinking into the open.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
The intelligence test that is the most widely used in the country today. It gives an overall intelligence score, but also individual verbal and performance scores. Many school systems use the Otis Lennon or the Nagliari to test for giftedness
Zygote
The life cycle beings when one sperm cell unites with an egg to form a fertilized egg. -Enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division -Develops into an embryo
unconditioned response
The presence of the US causes this. This is the natural response to the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov's experiments, the UR was the salivation. (UR OR UCR)
Confounding variable
is essentially any difference between the experimental group (the subjects that will receive the treatment) and the control group (the subjects that will receive no treatment).
Anton Mesmer
is generally credited with giving hypnosis a bad reputation. He purported to be able to cure people of various illnesses using what he termed animal magnetism.
Sleep talking
is more of a Stage 1 activity in that transition period to or from wakefulness. Sometimes the sounds are gibberish, sometimes they are words, sometimes they make sense, and sometimes they do not.
superego
is our conscience and drives our sense of right and wrong. The superego might say, "I can't hit you back-you're three years old and I'm 16, and I'm in charge of the playground!"
Experimenter bias
is similar to confirmation bias, occurs when researchers unconsciously accept and report only data that seems to confirm the desired outcomes of the study.
Myopia
nearsightedness: parallel rays are focused in front of the retina and objects are seen clearly only when near to the eye.
Double-blind
neither the research subjects nor the researchers themselves are made aware of which group participants (subjects) are assigned to. Double-blind studies tend to lessen the effect of both participants' and researchers' expectations.
Feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features (such as edges, lines, angles and movement)
Amygdala
neural centers in the limbic system linked to emotion
limbic system
neural system (includes the hipocampus, amygdala, and hypthalamus) ocated below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
Sensory Neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the CNS
Sensory Neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system
Receptor sites
neurotransmitter molecules then travel across the synapse to fit into special slots called receptor sites on the next neuron. If these neurotransmitters stimulate the next neuron enough, it will also fire and the process will begin again.
Endorphins
neurotransmitters that are linked to pain control and to pleasure. Drugs alter a person's body production of endorphins
Glabrous Skin
non-hairy skin. is more sensitive, and is found primarily on the lips, palms of the hands, and bottoms of the feet.
diffusion of responsibility
the more people witness an emergency event, the less responsibility any one individual feels because the responsibility feels diffused (spread out) among the entire group. All too often, the result is that no one does anything and tragedy occurs.
Prototype
the most typical example of a concept to help us more easily categorize.
self-actualized
the need to live up to one's fullest and unique potential
Optive Nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
pluralistic ignorance
the notion that people tend to look to others for appropriate behavior in an unfamiliar event or setting.
Frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second)
Brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain; beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
Experimental research
the only kind of research that can demonstrate true cause and effect relationships between two variables. Experiments involve the formation of a hypothesis - a testable statement that expresses a relationship between two variables.
Figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)
Illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
relative deprivation
the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself.
Grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
Blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there
Sensory interaction
the practice that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
Conservation
the principal that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
Natural Selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Imprinting
the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life. The first moving object a chick sees after hatching is normally its mother.
Accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
Stress
the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.
Stress
the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events—called stressors—that we appraise as threatening or challenging.
Learning
the process of changing one's behaviors over a period of time
Memory
the process of recalling information or procedures
Perception
the process of selecting and interpreting information gathered from the environment. We can think of sensation as receiving stimulus information and perception as making sense of that information.
shaping
the process of using reinforcers or rewards and/or punishers to gradually shape behaviors.
Parallel Processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. contrast with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving
structured interview
the questions and their sequence have been pre-determined. The same series of questions is asked of each interviewee, letting interviewers more accurately compare responses. As you might imagine, structured interviews help control for the sense of overconfidence an interviewer might experience if he or she is using a more subjective interviewing strategy.
long-term memory
the relatively 'limitless' collection of stored memories. Information must be recalled from long-term to short term memory to be 'processed' by the mind.
Fovea
the retina´s area of central focus. The fovea converts the light energy into neural impulses. The impulses are received by the optic nerve which sends messages to the brain. Where the optic nerve leaves the eye there are no receptors which creates a blindspot.
Ethics
the right or morally good way of doing something.
dream analysis
the royal road to the unconscious
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
Vestibular Sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
Audition
the sense or act of hearing
phoneme
the smallest unit of sound in a particular language.The English language uses 40-45
Sensory Memory
the split-second memory that occurs when stimulus information is first received; includes iconic and echoic memories
sensory memory
the split-second memory that occurs when the senses 'take in' information. This leads to short-term memory
psychoneuroimmunology
the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health.
Parapsychology
the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
Psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
hypochondriac
the subject displays physical ailments for which physicians can find no cause. A person with hypochondriasis may also interpret minor problems as major illnesses.They normally truly believe that they are experiencing symptoms or life-threatening illnesses.
psychoactive drug
the substance must change the chemistry of the brain, and put the body into an altered state of consciousness.
Kinesthesis Sense
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
foot-in-door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a lager request.
facial feedback effect
the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.
Overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct--to over-estimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements.
Opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
Determinism
the theory that our behaviors at any given moment are determined by our past experiences and the present environment
Gate-control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fivers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain
Unconditional positive regard
the therapist always views the client in a positive light, no matter what he or she says or does. Rather than give advice and direction, the therapist listens carefully while the client explores his or her feelings and values, and make their own decisions about how to change and improve behavior or thinking. The therapist would not criticize or challenge, but restate the client's own phrases to show respect for and understanding of the client's position.
lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina / it focus on incoming rays by changing its curvature (this process is also known as accommodation)
Semantic Memories
these involve remembering facts, concepts, and meanings. If you can define a word, you are recalling your semantic memory of that word
Inhibitory
they 'calm' the next neuron and discourage firing. Many popular sleep-aid medications work by enhancing the action of inhibitory neurotransmitters in the brain
Eclectic
they draw from several of the different schools of thought
Primary Reinforcers
they have value "by themselves"
Drugs that decrease anxiety and/or induce sleep are often categorized as CNS depressants because...
they inhibit neural activity in the central nervous system.
Episodic memories
this is when we recall 'episodes' or events from our lives. An example would be recalling your 10th birthday party.
Procedural memories
this is when we recall 'how to do' something; for example, knowing how to ride a bike or play a musical instrument.
Fixed Interval
this occurs when a behavior is rewarded the first time it occurs after a fixed interval of time has passed
Night terrors
typically accompanied by a blood curdling scream that often sends parents hurtling down the hallway to seen what has happened to their child. The child is unable to remember the frightening hallucination, and generally falls back to sleep before the parents arrive. Brain wave recordings show that the child is passing rapidly back and forth between sleep and wakefulness.
fixated
unable to see things from a fresh perspective
tend and befriend
under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend.)
archetypes
universal symbols present throughout the world in art, myths, stories throughout the ages. He found evidence for collective unconscious in these
punishments
unpleasant consequences that will cause a behavior to become less likely to be repeated
Punishments
unpleasant consequences that will cause a behavior to becomes less likely to be repeated
Ambivalent (or resistant) attachment
unpredictable attachment. The infant may show extreme upset when parent leaves, but might not even return to the parent when he/she returns
Atypical
unusual, uncommon, or rare (for example, an adult who talks to an imaginary friend)
Inferential statistics
used to show how "significant" research findings are and whether or not they can be generalized to an entire population.
Modeling
useful in reducing fears and reinforcing behaviors. Someone with a fear of dogs might spend some time with a dog lover/agility trainer who will model the proper ways to approach and understand dog behavior.
Premack Principle
using a preferred activity in order to reinforce completion of an activity that is not preferred
Premack principle
using a preferred activity in order to reinforce completion of an activity that is not preferred
telegraphic speech
using only a noun and verb, and leaving out extraneous words.("Want juice!" or "Daddy go!" or "No veggies!").
The two word stage
usually present by 24 months, generally shows an appreciation for the grammar rules of the native language.
electro-convulsive (shock) therapy.
very effective for depression. The patient is given muscle relaxant/anti-anxiety medication and that the amount of current sent through your brain is relatively small
Walter Cannon
viewed stress as a significant part of the 'fight-or-flight' system and studied stress hormones that are released into our bloodstreams.
Stroboscopic motion
viewing a quick series of slightly varying images will appear to us to be movement. Animated cartoons rely on this principle to create the illusion of motion.
reification
viewing an abstract concept as if it were a concrete thing
Rorschach inkblots
were among the first techniques used. They involved presenting a series of ambiguous inkblot images to a client/patient and having that person describe what is seen. Are not used very often today.
Nurture
what happens to you after birth: parenting, peer influences, environment, and events in your life
Nature
what you are born with: genes, temperament, and instincts
Bipolar Disorder (formerly called Manic Depressive Disorder)
when a person alternates between depression and mania (an overexcited, wildly optimistic, hyperactive state)
Major Depressive Disorder
when a person experiences prolonged (longer than two weeks) hopelessness and lethargy (lack of energy or drive). The person may experience feelings of worthlessness or loss of interest in family, friends, work, or other activities.
catharsis
when anger builds up until we experience a release of aggressive energy through action or fantasy. While some psychologists have argued that catharsis is a good way to "blow off steam," others point to new research that indicates that catharsis can actually reinforce the anger and make us angrier in the long run.
groupthink
when group members do not speak up about potential problems with a solution that has been agreed upon by a group, usually so that harmony can be preserved. As a result, inaccurate conclusions are reached or bad decisions are made.
alpha waves
when it is in a relaxed but awake state
Anterograde Amnesia
when newly-formed memories cannot be transferred to long-term memory
social facilitation.
when our behaviors are strengthened or enhanced by the behavior or presence of others. Highest when we are doing things we are already rather proficient (good) at.
altruism or altruistic behavior
when people engage in acts of kindness that truly seem to be totally selfless.
Passionate love
when people feel a deep, emotional sense of being absorbed in each other
Procedural Memories
when people recall "how to do" something; for example knowing how to ride a bike or play an instrument
Episodic Memories
when people recall 'episodes' or events from their lives; for example, recalling your 10 birthday
long-term potentiation
when the neurons associated with a particular task or memory application fire and network with each other
connectedness
when things are uniform and appear to be linked together, we tend to perceive them as being connected
Hindsight Bias
Tendency to belive,after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. "Knew it all along"
'cognitive triad'
(Aaron Beck)people themselves, their world, and their future. Beck theorized that these three factors can combine to create mood disorders. For example, depressed people tend to view themselves in a poor light, the world as a 'bad' place, and the future as 'likely to get worse'.
Residual schizophrenia
Withdrawal, after hallucinations and delusions have disappeared
Retrograde amnesia
"classic" type of memory loss that most of us are familiar with. With retrograde amnesia, a person is unable to remember important information (his or her identity, etc.) following an injury or psychologically significant incident.
Introspection
"looking within" Involves asking subjects to record simple mental reactions to specific stimuli (like the smell of a flower)
Endorphins
"the morphine within" - functions in pain control; involved in serious addictions
Psychological disorders
'harmful dysfunction' in which behavior and/or thinking is judged to be atypical, disturbing, maladaptive, and unjustifiable.
Conflict
'incompatibility'; often conflicts can occur simply because of perceived incompatibilities of goals or needs. There are four ways to resolve conflicts
Psychotherapy
'talk therapy'
Neuron's action potential
(Another name for the tiny amount of electrical current)When the action potential reaches the terminal buttons, it may be strong enough to cause more neurotransmitters to be released into the synapse. No two neurons actually touch; they are always separated by the synapse (also called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft).
Somatic Therapy
(Biomedical therapy) somatic means "dealing with or related to the body". Somatic therapies, then, address the body (blood/brain chemistry, etc.) to cause changes in thinking and behavior.
bile theory
(Hippocrates) as an explanation of the causes of mental illness. Supposing that the human body was made up of four substances, blood, phlegm, yellow bile (urine), and black bile (feces), Hippocrates suggested that an imbalance of these substances was at the root of mental and physical illness. The therapeutic job of the physician, therefore, was to restore the balance of these physiological processes as necessary to normal brain functioning and mental health.
Behaviorists
(John B Watson and BF Skinner) were not specifically concerned with how a personality developed. Their concept was that regardless of your personality or its problems, if there was a behavior that was bothering you personally, it could be changed through applying principles of conditioning to the situation. Skinner asserted that behavior was personality. He believed that the environment shapes who we become, and who we become is also shaped by the reinforcement we have experienced.
learned helplessness
(Martin Seligman ) the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. People with learned helplessness often do not even attempt to make things better because they have learned to think that their efforts will be useless.
Dopamine
(an important neurotransmitter) is strongly associated with schizophrenia. Antipsychotic medications used to treat schizophrenia lower dopamine levels.
Echoic Memory
(auditory) When you hear a sound, you form a similar split-second memory of the image in your mind; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
Sympathetic division
(division of the autonomic nervous system) alerts the body and helps it get "energized" to respond to a stressor. It speeds up our breathing and heart rate and prepares the muscles for action. EX: people with phobias readily feel this. (A.K.A. Flight or Fight)
Parasympathetic division
(division of the autonomic nervous system) calms us down after the stress is over. It returns heartbeat and breathing to normal levels and allows "secondary" functions (like digestion) to continue after the stressful event.
Sex Hormones
(estrogen in females and testosterone in males), in combination with the hypothalamus, help our bodies develop and function as either male or female.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs in pyramid form:
(from bottom up) 1.) Physiological needs- satisfy hunger/thirst. 2.)Safety Needs-feeling that one is safe. 3.)Belongingness/ love/ acceptance. 4.)Esteem-achievement;self-esteem and praise from others. 5.) Self-Actualization
Clairvoyance
(from the French for "seeing clearly") means perceiving distant events as they happen. If someone 'senses' that, far away, an disaster is occurring, this would be an example of clairvoyance.
Eugenics movement
(the science of improving the qualities of a breed or species by careful selection of the parents). was alive and well in the world at the time. Although Terman's initial tests were supposed to assess inherent intelligence, many of the questions tested acquired knowledge—the kind of knowledge of a cultural nature that a new immigrant, for instance, might not have acquired by the time they took the test.
Instincts
(very similar to the evolutionary perspective) — the idea that genes predispose species to typical behaviors.
Visual sensation
(vision or seeing) an important, complex process. Like all sensation, it begins with detection and ends with transduction. After transduction, the process of visual perception takes over.
Iconic Memory
(visual) a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
causes for intellectual disability
-Those present in Down syndrome or Fragile X syndrome liver enzyme issues like PKU -The ingestion of toxic substances like lead (present in drinking water or lead based paints) and mercury (present in many old style dental fillings) -Inheritance or genetics -Exposure to HIV infection in prenatal life -The use of drugs or alcohol by pregnant women -High fevers related to some childhood diseases like rubella (German measles) -Traumatic brain injuries -Deprivation of oxygen during the birth process -Malnutrition -And physical malformation of the brain.
Action Potential
-a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon -generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane
Adrenal Glands
-a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys -secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) which help to arouse the body in times of stress
Basic Trust
-a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy -said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
Health consequences of stress:
-Catastrophic events (large-scale events or natural disasters that nearly everyone appraises as threatening:war or hurricanes) -Significant life changes ( marriages, births, deaths, job loss) -Daily hassles (traffic jams, long commutes, stressful work or school situations)
Sensorimotor Stage
-First Stage of Piaget's -birth to 2 years old -Develops object permanence -Experiences the world through the senses -'afraid' of strangers
Preoperational Stage
-Second Stage of Piaget's Representing things with words and images; using intuitive rather than logical reasoning. -Pretend play -Egocentrism
Nervous System
-The body's speedy, electrochemical communication system -Consists of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
Concrete Operational Stage
-Third Stage of Piaget's Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations -Develops ideas of conservation -Understands analogies and mathematical operations
Nerves
-neural cables containing many axons -part of the peripheral nervous system -connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
Endocrine System
-the body's slow chemical communication system -a set of glands that asecrete hormones into the bloodstream
Cerebral Cortex
-the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres -the body's ultimate control and information processing center
Wilhelm Wundt
A German physiologist set up the first true scientific psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879.
Standard Deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. High is spread out, low means to be 'closer together'
Myelin Sheath
A fatty covering on some axons that acts to speed along neural (electrical) impulses. In people with multiple sclerosis, these become damaged.
Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory. (Oversupply = overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures)
Variance
A measure of spread within a distribution (the square of the standard deviation).
Dissociative identity disorder
A rare dissociate disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. This disorder used to be referred to as "multiple personality disorder."
Sense of Touch
AKA haptic or tactile sense. skin is the largest organ in your body, and is comprised of two types of skin
conditioned stimulus (or CS)
After repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (or CS). Because it is interpreted as introducing the US, the CS begins to cause the same response as the US — even when the US is not present at all.
4 stages of sleep continued
After that first Stage 4 event, we rise rapidly through the other stages back to Stage 1 again, and it is at that point that we enter our first REM (dream) period of the night. Throughout the course of the night, we only get to Stage 4 one more time, and our Stage 1 returns to REM sleep last a little longer each time. Our last dream of the night, presupposing that we have slept about 6 ½ to 7 hours, may last up to 25 minutes. That's one of the reasons that dreams we have right before waking are so memorable!
mental decline
Alzheimer's disease is a degenerative brain disease usually noticed by debilitating effects on memory
Dorothea Dix
American reformer who advocated for better treatment of the mentally ill
Lazarus
Appraisal ("Is it dangerous or not?")--sometimes without our awareness--defines emotion. EX: The sound is "just the wind"
Blank Slates
Aristotle believed that babies were born as "blank slates" and that humans only gather knowledge from experience as they grow and develop
Double-blind 2
As you might have guessed, double-blind procedures require assistance of outside researchers. These helpers generally only assign the subjects to test and control groups and then allow the original researchers to conduct the experiment. After results are gathered, the original researchers are informed which group was the test and which was the control.
contact theory
Based on the notion that prejudices and stereotypes are founded on lack of knowledge of other groups or cultures, this stresses that simply bringing groups into contact with each other can increase understanding and decrease prejudices.
Basic vs. Applied
Basic research for example, may seek to link certain psychological traits with smoking behavior, while applied research may seek to help smokers quit. Either way, good research must be both valid and reliable.
Random assignment/ random sampling
Be sure not to confuse random sampling with random assignment. Random sampling is done to make the sample truly representative of the larger population; random assignment into test and control groups helps limit the impact of subject-related confounding variables.
reverse tolerance
Because these drugs linger in the body for long periods of time, the reintroduction of the drug with another dose simply piles up the amount in the body, often to dangerous or lethal levels. Even if the second dose is less than the first, it can cause the same or even greater effects. EX: LSD, psilocybin mushrooms, peyote, and marijuana. Marijuana, for instance, can stay in hair follicles for up to seven years.
longitudinal study
Began in the 1920's and 30's. Terman was interested in finding out the effects of having a high IQ on the people's lives.
prosocial behaviors
Behaviors that are intended to help others
Genes
Biomedical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes
Cannon-Bard
Bodily response + simultaneous subjective experience. EX: Our heart races as we experience fear.
insight therapies
Both psychoanalytic and humanistic therapies are called this because their focus is on helping people see and understand elements of their selves—not to direct people's thinking or change their behaviors.
Dendrites
Branching structures around the soma ('cell body') of the neuron; receive messages from other neurons
Bulimia nervosa
Bulimics eat large amounts of food in a short period of time (binging) and then get rid of the food (purging) by vomiting, excessive exercise, or the use of laxatives. Bulimics are obsessed with food and their weight. The majority of bulimics are women.
Rods
Contained in the top layer of the retina. These are retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
one word stage
By the first birthday, a baby will begin to produce one syllable words. The words may be only marginally recognizable as words, but with good parent modeling and reinforcement, their vocabulary will quickly proceed to the two word stage.
Interneurons
CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
collective unconscious
Carl Jung took Freud's concept of the unconscious mind one step further. This is a repository of shared memories that we inherit and which includes information present in our minds at birth.
Disturbing to others
Certain types of disorders cause distress to other people, including those we love or are closest to us
papillae
Chemically sensitive receptors (or taste buds) for taste are located in papillae (about 6 taste buds per papillae) on the tongue, throat, and soft palate in the mouth. A tasted substance is dissolved in part by saliva which causes the chemicals to be released for the taste buds to detect and register
Extrasensory perception (ESP)
Claims of extrasensory perception can generally be divided into three categories: telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.
Pavlovian conditioning
Classical conditioning is also called this after Dr. Ivan Pavlov, the Russian physiologist who studied stimuli and responses in dogs.
collectivism
Collective efficacy would be our belief that with a group effort, we can achieve our goals.
Cones
Contained in the top layer of the retina. These are retinal receptor cells that are concentrate near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detenct fine detail and give rise to color sensations. Group around the fovea
REM rebound
Deprived of that REM sleep, we can experience a REM rebound (our time spent in REM sleep temporarily increases) when we finally get back to it.
Three major research methods:
Description, Correlation, Experiment
Disorganized schizophrenia
Disorganized speech or behavior, or flat or inappropriate emotion. Strange use of language can include made-up words called neologisms or rhyming nonsense words, called clang associations
Somatic Nervous System
Division 1 of 2 in PNS. Controls the body's skeletal muscles
Sympathetic Nervous System
Division 1 of 2 in the Autonomic Nervous System. Arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
Autonomic Nervous System
Division 2 of 2 is PNS. Controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs (heart). Breaks down into the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system
Irrational or unjustifiable
Does it 'make sense' to most people in the population/culture? The fear of water may be common, but not being able to wash or an intense fear of rain that prevents you from leaving the house would seem irrational to most people.
Axon
Elongated structure extending from the soma that conducts electrical impulses and ends in terminal branches/buttons
Hillock
Enlarged region between the soma and axon; an information 'collecting ground'
Hillock
Enlarged region between the soma and axon; information collection ground
Oedipus/Electra
Extra stage. Children may go through a period when they want the parent of the opposite sex all to themselves. Boys-Oedipus complex. Girls-Electra complex
Eclectic approach strictly adheres to one psychological perspective
False
Psychology has only existed since 1879.
False. Psychological thought has existed since prehistoric times; scientific psychology is a more modern development).
Sigmund Freud
Famous for the "unconscious mind"
information Processing Theory
Focuses on encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
Gestalt
Focuses on the whole
False positive
For example, imagine you have a good friend that you have not seen in over two years. You are waiting for her at an airport. From a distance, you mistakenly "see" her three times before she actually gets off the plane and joins you
Forgetting
Forgetting can be caused by encoding, storage, or retrieval failures
Initial excitement
Genital areas become engorged with blood, penis becomes erect, clitoris swells, respiration and heart rate increase
Formal Operations
Fourth Stage of Piaget's -Can use abstract reasoning to solve problems -Can think hypothetically -Engage is moral reasoning
Type A personality
Freidman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people. Type A people tend to secrete more of the hormones that accelerate the buildup of plaque on the heart's artery walls. Coronary heart disease, the number one cause of death in the US, has been linked to Type A personalities.
Philippe Pinel
French doctor who advocated for better treatment of the mentally ill.
Type A
Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people.
Type B
Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people
Type B personality
Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people. These people are usually calm and not upset by common everyday events.
Hippocrates
Greek physician who first decided to treat psychological disorders are actual illnesses with a biological cause. He rejected the idea of the intervention of gods and spirits in the development of disease and insisted that mental disorders had natural causes and required treatment like other diseases.
Raymond Cattell
He developed a table called Cattell's 16 PF (personality factors) which tried to measure the degree to which a person leaned toward one trait or another.
food aversions
Human beings tend to quickly learn food aversions (a learned avoidance of a particular food or beverage). Once a particular food or beverage is followed by sickness (especially nausea/vomiting), the association is usually quickly learned and those foods or drinks are avoided.
The Humanist perspective
Humanists psychologists assert that human beings are essentially good and that we can all exercise our own ability to make the best decisions about ourselves, our thinking, and our behavior. This is referred to as free will.
Glucose
Hunger is also influenced by this. This is the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for all body tissues. When these levels are low, we usually feel hungry. Hunger can also be felt when ghrelin is secreted by an empty stomach. This information is integrated by the hypothalamus, which regulates the bodys weight as it influences our feelings of hunger. The psychological aspect of hunger is our preference for certain tastes that are partly genetic and universal and partly learned through our cultural experiences.
stable or unstable attributions
If you think the cause of an event is regular and consistent, we can classify it as stable. If you think the cause is irregular or due to "chance," we can classify it as unstable. "She's always been an excellent student. I'm not surprised she did that well." - this would be a stable dispositional attribution. "She usually doesn't do that well; she must have really, really studied last night." - this would be an unstable dispositional attribution.
Profound
IQ below 20; comprises 1-2% of those with retardation-may reach 3 month old level-may not sit up or roll over, and require constant care
Severe
IQ of 20-34; comprises 3-4% of those with retardation-may learn to talk
Moderate
IQ of 35-49; comprises 10% of those with retardation-may get to 2nd grade level
Mildly retarded
IQ of 50-70; comprises 85% of those with retardation-may learn academic skills up to 6th grade level
Repression
If a thought or experience is unpleasant, we bury it in our unconscious mind. "My daughter has no conscious memory of almost drowning at the beach when she was four years old. Perhaps she has repressed that memory."
critical period
If language is not acquired by adolescence, he believes, it is not likely to happen in any meaningful way
tolerance
If the brain is being supplied by fake neurotransmitters ( EX:alcohol) frequently enough, it begins to consistently produce less of the neurotransmitter that originally inhabited the site
In vision...
In vision, the retina converts light waves into neural impulses; after these are coded, they manage to reach the brain's cortex via the optic nerve. The cortex interprets these impulses. For instance, the Young-Helmholtz and opponent process theories both suggest how the cortex might interpret color vision.
Dopamine
Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion (Undersupply = tremors and decreased mobility of Parkinson's disease) (Oversupply = schizophrenia)
The Reticular Formation
Inside the brainstem between your ears. "netlike" network of neurons
Zajonc; LeDoux
Instant, before cognitive appraisal EX: We automatically react to a sound in the forest before appraising it.
Sublimation
Involves the redirection of unacceptable actions or impulses into more socially acceptable outlets. Suppose you really like to hit people, but doing so is generally frowned upon in polite society, and could land you in jail. A career as a bouncer, a karate instructor, a football player, or a boxer might be the perfect outlet for you. 'Most productive' of all the defense mechanisms; someone who turns feelings of loneliness or anger into beautiful poetry has really harnessed the power of sublimation.
Jerome Kagan and Lev Vygotsky
Jerome Kagan researched children's temperament and its strong genetic basis and Lev Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social relationships in a child's cognitive development. Vygotsky described the zone of proximal development which refers to the difference between what a child can do with help and what the child can do without any help or guidance.
William Masters and Virginia Johnson
Lab studies on the sexual response cycle in men and women were done by them in the 1960s and 70s. They noted that the physiology of sex revolves around what they termed the sexual response cycle:
Undifferentiated schizophrenia
Many and varied symptoms; distorted thinking/perception of reality still present
Social Support
Many people who report having closer relationships with family and friends also report having lower levels of stress. Developing and maintaining close relationships may help people in several ways—from encouraging people to live healthier lifestyles to helping them overcome feelings of sadness or rejection.
Hypnosis
Many psychologists believe that this propensity to suggestion equates to our ability to be hypnotized. The majority of us are suggestible to a certain extent. Children are more suggestible than adults, and those with a rich fantasy life are, too. Power of suggestion
olfactory nerve
Millions of receptors for smell are located in the upper nasal cavity. The receptors send messages along the axons that comprise the olfactory nerve which routes them to the olfactory bulb found at the base of the brain. There they are routed to the temporal lobe as well as to parts of the limbic system involved in emotion and memory.This routing explains why smells are able to evoke memories and emotions in us.
Authoritative
Mix of other two stiles. Rules are clear and are reasonable; discussion about rules and consequences is encouraged. Both reward and punishment consistently and frequently used to shape the behavior of the children. Children tend to be the most well-adjusted and successful
Positive Punishment
Occurs when something unpleasant is added to a situation as a consequence or result of a behavior, Ex: You drive 20 miles per hour over the speed limit, so you receive a speeding ticket .As with any type of punishment, the behavior is weakened by the presentation of ________.
generalize
Once an organism has been conditioned, it can often generalize its conditioned responses to other, similar stimuli. For example, let's say Julie sneezes when she smells a rose. If she sneezes the next time she sees any kind of flower, she has learned to generalize her sneezing response to a similar stimulus.
salience
One final note to keep in mind is the _______ of a stimulus — generally speaking, how much it "sticks out" or becomes noticeable to us. Let's say that you are dining in a nice Italian restaurant and you order a very distinctive-tasting soup. You really enjoy that soup, but later you become very ill. Chances are you will learn a food aversion for that soup and will avoid it in the future because its very presence (and especially smell) will cause you to feel sick.
Observational Learning/Modeling
Organisms (animals and humans alike) learn by simply watching and imitating the behaviors of others
ingroup bias
People also strongly tend to judge members of their ingroup as being superior to members of the outgroup
Sleep Apnea
People stop breathing periodically during sleep. As the person tries to awaken to fill the lungs with air, additional strain is put on the heart, and heart disorders are common with this. They may have to wake up as many as 500 times per night, and may be oblivious (totally unaware) of the fact that they cannot breathe and sleep at the same time. Treatment includes surgery to enlarge airway passages, the use of devices to keep up a continuous positive airway flow, and medications.
Savant syndrome.
People suffer from one or more severe developmental handicaps but also demonstrate extreme mental abilities in one or more areas.
Obesity
People with diagnosed obesity are severely overweight, often 100 pounds, and the excess weight threatens their health. Obese people usually have unhealthy eating habits rather than the food obsessions.
Theory Of Mind
People's ideas about their own and others' mental sates-about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict
Narcissistic personality disorder
Person exaggerates their own importance, aided by success fantasies, and they find criticism hard to accept. They see themselves 'as the center of the world'.
Histrionic personality disorder
Person exhibits dramatic or impulsive behavior. Someone witnessing a person with this disorder might say, "I understand that she was upset, but such a tantrum for a 36 year old woman is pure histrionics!"
Schizoid personality disorder
Person expresses eccentric behaviors and social disengagement, but not serious enough to warrant a diagnosis of one of the actual schizophrenic disorders
Borderline personality disorder
Person has an unstable identity, relationships and emotions. They may fear abandonment.
Avoidant personality disorder
Person has anxiety such as a fearful sensitivity to rejection; tends to withdraw from social interactions
Dependent personality disorder
Person relies too much on others for help with daily activities.
Separated Twins Similarities
Personality, intelligence, abilities, attitudes, interests, fears, brain waves, heart rate
Neuroscience Perspective
Psychologists from this are more likely to rely on biologically-based methods of therapy, like the prescriptions of medications to influence mood and behavior
Parasympathetic division (calming)
Pupils contract, salivation increases, skin dries, respiration decreases, heart slows, digestion activates, adrenal glands decrease secretion of stress hormones, immune system functioning enhanced.
Sympathetic division (arousing)
Pupils dilate, Salivation decreases, kin perspires, respiration increases, heart accelerates, Digestion inhibits, Adrenal glands secrete stress hormones, reduced Immune system functioning
Levels of Processing Model
takes into account how 'much' or how 'deeply' we process information
continuous reinforcement
Reinforcements can be given every time a behavior occurs. Often used when training animals (every time Fido rolls over, he gets a treat!).
secondary reinforcers
Reinforcers that only have value because they represent something else or can be used for some function. Tokens and money are examples
information processing
Researchers, especially cognitive psychologists believe that our dreams help us to sort, process, and remember the events of the day.
Plateau phase
Respiration and heart rate continue at an elevated level, genitals secrete fluids in preparation for coitus.
Resolution phase
Respiration and heart rate return to normal resting states, men experience a refractory period - a time period when renewed arousal and orgasm are impossible (can be from a few minutes to a day or more); women do not have a similar refractory period and can repeat the cycle immediately
Orgasm
Rhythmic genital contractions that may help conception, respiration and heart rate increase further, males ejaculate; often accompanied by a pleasurable euphoria.
Ian Pavlov
Russian physiologist who led the field of behaviorism. Created classical conditioning
Reaction Formation
Saying the opposite of what we truly feel. We put on a bright smile and a friendly hello for the teacher whose test we just failed.
General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases--alarm, resistance, exhaustion
What is the difference between sensation and perception?
Sensation is the bottom-up process by which the physical sensory system receives and represents stimuli. Perception is the top-down mental process of organizing and interpreting sensory input.
Gender Identity
Society assigns each of us to a gender and this creates a strong gender identity (our sense of being male or female.)
reuptake inhibitors.
Some molecules prevent neurotransmitters from being reabsorbed back into a neuron. This action means there develops an abundance of that neurotransmitter in the synapse, which usually increases or enhances its function (similar to an agonist).
SAD (Seasonal Affective Disorder)
Some people suffer from depression 'seasonally' in the fall and winter when there is less natural light. It is successfully treated with intensive natural light therapy or by increasing exposure to natural light during this time.
social loafing
Sometimes group membership can affect us in other ways—both positive and negative. When people are part of a team effort, they sometimes tend to sit back and let others "do all of the work"—
group polarization
Sometimes groups make stronger, more forceful decisions (or form stronger opinions) than the individuals within the group would make alone. Jonas "kind of" thinks animal testing is wrong, but after discussing the issue with several friends he really strongly opposes animal testing.
self-fulfilling prophecy,
Sometimes information we receive about others influences us and, in turn, influences others' behavior. EX:a "new kid in school" is told that Ms. Jones is the strictest, meanest teacher there. They interpret even her most well-meaning words, gestures, and behaviors as "mean" or "strict" ... they have become a victim of the self-fulfilling prophecy.
norms of reciprocity
Sometimes people feel inclined to do things for others because of what others have already done for them. Ever wonder why some businesses give out "free samples"? More than likely, those businesses are expecting an increase in sales due to norms of reciprocity—a customer is more likely to do business with them because they have already "done a little something" for the customer.
deindividuation.
Sometimes people who are part of a group begin to feel less responsibility for their own actions—as if the responsibility is diffused (shared or spread) evenly throughout the group. This can lead people to lose self-restraint and engage in behaviors they ordinarily would not think of
Hawthorne Effect
Sometimes simply selecting a group of participants to study changes their behavior - regardless of the variable being manipulated or tested. This highlights the importance of control groups and replication in psychological experiments
Perceptual Set
Sometimes, our preconceived opinions (schemas), culture, and previous experiences can color our perceptions. If you came into my bank wearing a red dress and robbed me, the next person in the door wearing a red dress might be perceived as being a threat. I might view that bulge in your pocket as being a weapon rather than as your cell phone. And I might vow to the detectives that, indeed, I saw a weapon in your pocket.
4 stages of sleep
Stage 1 provides us with a transition into deeper sleep, and initially lasts up to five minutes. Within about an hour of falling asleep we have descended through the other stages into Stage 4 sleep. Stage 4 (deep sleep) is our most physically restorative stage of sleep Those who have ingested too much alcohol do not reach this stage of sleep when they are "sleeping it off."
Structuralists vs. Gestalt psychologists
Structuralists might argue that a chocolate chip cookie is simply a composition that can be divided into its parts. Gestalt Psychologists would argue that the cookie is more than just its parts mixed together.
Terminal branches
Structures at the end of the neuron opposite the dendrites
Laboratory Studies
Studies in a lab. Laboratory research tends to allow for much more control in the study but, perhaps, at the cost of less valid results. The behaviors of a 6-year-old in a clinical lab, for example, are probably very different from his or her behaviors on the playground.
illusory overconfidence
Subjective interviews can lead to quickly formed impressions, but they also frequently foster an illusory overconfidence in an interviewer's ability to predict employee success.
Antagonists
Substances that block the effect of a neurotransmitter. Example: Now imagine a key that is similar enough to the original key to fit into the lock but not similar enough to open it. This is exactly how an antagonist works. It fits well enough into the receptor site of the neuron to block out other molecules, but not well enough to have the same effect as that molecule.
Agonists
Substances that mimic or replicate the effect of a neurotransmitter. Example: Think about a key that unlocks a specific door, like the front door of your home. An exact copy of that key is like an agonist - it can replace the original key and serves exactly the same purpose.
4 basic taste qualities
Sweet (energy source), Salty (sodium essential to physiological processes), Sour (potentially toxic acid) Bitter (potential poisons), and Umami (proteins to grow and repair tissue for monosodium glutamate found in much Asian cooking)
Amnesia
Temporary or permanent loss of a part or all of one's memory. When this is due to stress it is labeled psychogenic amnesia. The stress is most often associated with catastrophic events. Amnesia can also be biologic in cause—this is called organic amnesia.
Soma
The 'cell body' located at the 'top' of a neuron; contains the nucleus which acts as the life center of the cell
Conditioned Response (CR)
The 'learned' response in an organism (salivation)
What is natural selection?
The environment basically "chooses" what is best fit for the environment
Capabilities of the Eye
The eye receives light energy and transforms it into neural electrochemistry. Our visual system experiences color when pulses of electromagnetic energy strike our eye. The characteristics of light that help to determine our sensory experience are wavelength (determines its hue or color by measuring the distance from one wave peak to the next) and intensity (influences brightness by measuring the amount of light waves).
Two-factor theory
The most recent theory was devised by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer. This proposes that the cognitive labels we put on our states of arousal are an essential ingredient of emotion.Imagine, for example, that a wasp lands on your arm (and that you are, generally, terrified of wasp stings!). The two-factor theory says that you will experience the physiological 'feeling' of emotion but that the cognitive component (your mind actually interpreting and labeling the situation as fearful) is also crucial to the emotion experienced.
Relative Brightness (or light and shadow)
The nearer an object is to our eye, the more light is reflected onto our retina. Thus, if two objects are identical, one which is shaded to be dimmer will appear to be farther away.
Token economics
The operant conditioning technique of token economies—in which desired behaviors are rewarded with tokens that can later be exchanged for desired items—can reward depressed patients for getting out of bed and getting dressed, and delinquents for behaving appropriately. Of course, in behavior therapy, the goal is to remove the tokens (external rewards) as soon as possible and focus on the internal rewards of satisfaction. For example, if your parents potty trained you by praising you for using the toilet, they probably stopped doing so some time ago... but you're probably still potty trained!
How our ears convert sound waves into neural activity
The outer ear (also called pinna) channels sound waves through the auditory canal to the eardrum (also called tympanic membrane). Once inside the middle ear, the eardrum's vibrations are transmitted through the hammer, anvil, and stirrup (also called ossicles) to the cochlea. Inside this inner ear, the vibrations in the cochlea cause the membrane to vibrate the fluid inside the cochlea. This vibration triggers the basilar membrane to bend the tiny hairs there to trigger nerve impulses to the nerve fibers. These nerve fibers send the neural messages to the temporal lobe of the brain to the auditory cortex.
MMPI, or Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
The test is long—567 true/false items—and uses a validity scale to determine whether a person is lying. The patterns of a person's responses are compared to the normed group to help psychologists ascertain abnormalities. This test is used by many law enforcement agencies, for example, to determine whether applicants are emotionally stable enough to do the job. By comparing the personality profile of a job applicant with the profiles of the company's successful employees, companies determine whether the applicant is suited to the job available.
grammar.
The third building block. Provides us with a set of rules for combining phonemes, morphemes
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Forgetting 2
The three-box (information processing) theory explains the phenomenon of forgetting much like a computer technician would: as an error in one of the memory steps - encoding, storage, or retrieval. The levels of processing theory would assert that you could not remember Tiffany's phone number because you did not process it very deeply — that is, you failed to really think about or apply the information in an elaborate way. "Mentally dialing" her number could have helped you process it more deeply and helped improve your chances of retaining the information.q
The three-box model vs. levels of processing model
The three-box model might say that we 'forgot' a specific phone number because of some 'error' in either encoding (from sensory to short-term, or from short-term to long-term) or retrieval (from long-term back to short-term). The levels of processing model might say that we 'forgot' a specific phone number because we did NOT process the information deeply enough to really make it stick in the long-term memory
Deafness
The use of ASL (American Sign Language) is often an alternative to spoken communication, although many deaf children can learn spoken language as well.
What does theory of mind have to do with autism?
Theory of mind focuses on our ability to understand our own and others mental states. Those with autism struggle with this ability
Rationalization 2
There are two kinds of rationalization we use to justify our behavior, and to defend ourselves from disappointment.
psychodynamic therapy
These therapists are interested in trying to understand a person's problems by looking at early childhood experiences, the use of defense mechanisms, repressed conflicts, and unconscious drives, but they set a time limit of several months in which to get the work done.
Phi phenomenon
Think the lights of Las Vegas! How do we get lighted signs to appear to have moving light components? We simply have two adjacent lights blink on and off in rapid succession, and our eye will think it is seeing a single light moving back and forth between them
Phallic Stage
Third stage. Ages 3-5. When children first understand that there are physical differences between boys and girls, and body parts become a source of great interest.
Displacement
This defense mechanism is often associated with aggression. We redirect our anger toward a person or object less threatening than the original source which made us angry. "I'm angry at Dad for grounding me, but I can't hit him, so I'll kick the garage door!"
Relative Size
This distance cue is present when the closer of two same size objects casts a larger image on the retina that an object farther away.
unconditioned stimulus
This is a stimulus that naturally causes a response in the organism. In Pavlov's experiments, the US was the food that naturally caused the dogs to salivate. (US or UCS)
Antisocial personality disorder (formerly called a sociopath or psychopath)
This is generally thought of as the most troubling and severe of the personality disorders. A person with this disorder lacks a "conscience" for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family member and is typically male; may be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.
false-consensus effect
This is our simple tendency to believe that most people agree with our ideas or preferences. If you think violent video games are 'harmless' and a good way to blow off steam, you probably think others agree with you - without any real evidence that they do so.
Counterbalancing
This means conducting the study once using randomly assigned test and control groups and then redoing the study but switching the subjects assigned to the two groups and then comparing the results. This method consumes a great deal more time and resources but greatly helps reduce the effects of confounding variables on the results.
Fixed ratio
This occurs when a behavior is rewarded for a "fixed number" of responses. Ex:a rat presses the bar seven times and gets one food pellet. Another pellet is released every seven times the bar is pressed.
Variable Ratio
This occurs when a behavior is rewarded for a "variable number" of responses. Ex:the rat gets a pellet after pressing the bar five times, then two times, then nine times, etc. Slot machines are a good example of variable ratio reinforcement in humans.
Fixed Ratio
This occurs when a behavior is rewarded for a fixed number of responses
Fixed interval
This occurs when a behavior is rewarded the first time it occurs after a fixed interval of time has passed. The rat can press the bar all it wants, but it will only receive a food pellet the first time it presses the bar after, for example, three minutes. This type of reinforcement usually leads to behavior that declines shortly after the reinforcement because the person or animal soon learns that it must wait a fixed amount of time for more reinforcement.
Variable interval
This occurs when a behavior is rewarded the first time it occurs after a variable interval of time has passed. This could be compared to checking email: you never know how much time must pass before you receive a new email and, as a result, your "checking" behavior is strengthened.
outgroup
Those that we think of as not being members of our own group
Chromosome
Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes ;23 from mother, 23 from father, 46 total.
Klinefelters syndrome
Three chromosomes for gender: XXY, very little sexual development and unable to have children, some temperamental/personality differences
Nodes of Ranvier
Tiny gaps in the myelin sheaths of some neurons. Function is still primarily unknown
Terminal Buttons
Tiny nodules at the end of the terminal branches; these release molecules called neurotransmitters that communicate with the dendrites of the next neuron
Texture gradient
To provide the illusion of depth and to make objects appear to recede into the distance, paint in a gradual change the clarity of a surface in the foreground (very distinct) to a blurring at further distances in the background.
Projection
We believe our own thoughts or feelings actually originate from someone else and are directed toward us. We project our own feelings onto to them much as a film projector projects an image onto a screen. Afraid of our own immaturity, we might think "These kids are so immature!"
Denial
We refuse to accept a truth we find unpleasant. "When I picked up the paper on Saturday morning and read about the death in a horrible accident of the person I had just talked to yesterday, I couldn't believe it. I actually called her house to see if she was home!"
Regression
We return to behaviors appropriate to an earlier, less mature stage of development. When angry, for instance, we might be inclined to throw something like a six year old might do.
neutral stimulus
We then introduce this,it is paired with the US. The NS is presented just before the US, and the pairing usually must be repeated for learning to take place. In Pavlov's experiments, the NS was the bell or tone that was sounded just before the dogs were given the food. (NS)
Cataplexy
When they experience an intense emotion such as stress, laughter, surprise, or anger, their muscles get to a point of near paralysis lasting from 1- 20 minutes. Watching a comedy show on TV could land one of these people in the middle of the floor! Medications are the treatments of choice for these individuals.
self-serving bias
When things go our way, we tend to take more credit (and make personal attributions for ourselves) than when things go badly. When things don't turn out as we'd like, we tend to shift the attribution away from ourselves and on to the situation or other factors.
fundamental attribution error
When trying to determine the causes of other people's behavior, we have a strong tendency to overestimate personal (dispositional) factors and underestimate situational factors
situational attribution
When we believe that an event is caused by "the situation,"
personal (or dispositional) attribution
When we believe that an event is caused by a person or that person's positive or negative traits
Relative height or elevation
When we look at the horizon, objects there seem to be the farthest from us. The lower an object is in our field of vision, the closer it seems to be to us.
insight
When we really don't even have to think to solve a problem
Echoic
When you hear a sound, you form a similar split-second memory of the sound. This is called an echoic memory (and, like an echo, an echoic memory disappears quickly).
dopamine
While drinking, the alcohol molecules fill up the dopamine (one of the feel-good/no pain neurotransmitter) receptor sites, and, as some people say, the drinker is feeling no pain. When the drinker quits drinking, the alcohol molecules are metabolized and leave the dopamine receptor sites, and it takes a while for the brain to produce enough dopamine to fill up the receptor sites again.
Cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the thinner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses
flow
a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one's skills.
Split brain
a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them
split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum connecting them)
Systematic desensitization
a counter-conditioning technique that associates a relaxed state with increasingly anxiety producing stimuli. If you can be taught to relax while facing higher and higher levels of anxiety, you will learn to overcome your fears.
Achievement motivation
a desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard. This type of motivation should be occurring in this course
Cochlear Implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
hysteria
a disorder suffered by women; cause was thought to be not having children
Autism
a disorder that appears in childhood -marked by deficient communication, social interaction and understanding of others' states of mind
autism
a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind
Counter-conditioning
a general term that usually means learning a more desired response instead of an unpleasant response. For example, if little Tommy hates going to the dentist, his mother might take along his favorite toy every time they go to the dentist's office to try to make the experience more pleasant for the child.
Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.
Schizophrenia
a group of disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions. Schizophrenia means split mind but this refers to a split from reality and not a split personality.
attitude
a group of feelings and beliefs that are directed toward something specific—like an idea or a group of people or an experience.
Visual Cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
GABA
a major inhibitory neurotransmitter (Undersupply = seizures, tremors, and insomnia)
concepts
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
Continuous Reinforcement
can be given every time a behavior occues and is often used when training animals
Pitch
a tone's experienced highness of lowness; depends on frequency
conditioning
a type of associative learning in which some stimuli are associated with differing responses. Occurs in which women become conditioned to respond to the perception of pain in a reflexive and essentially non-thinking way.
Conduction deafness
a type of deafness caused by problems in the bones of the middle ear. It could be caused by a puncture in the middle ear which causes the bones in the middle ear to lose their ability to vibrate. Can also be caused when the tiny bones of the ear simply lose their ability to vibrate. Hearing aids are of great use here in amplifying vibrations where the loss is usually greatest-generally the higher frequencies.
Classical Conditioning
a type of learning where an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepare for the unconditioned stimulus. (Ringing a bell before food for dogs soon makes them get hungry at the sound of a bell)
PET Scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain preforms a given task
Post hypnotic suggestions
can be made that might also influence behavior without the person being consciously aware of the origin of the suggestion.
opiates or narcotics
act as agonists for endorphins;strong painkillers and mood elevators. Cause sleepiness and a sense of euphoria because endorphin levels have increased. Most physically addictive because of the way they change the brain's chemistry. Tolerance and withdrawal systems are almost certainly created, and dependence is common with uncontrolled use or abuse.
observational learning
a.k.a. modling Sometimes, organisms (animals and humans alike) learn by simply watching and imitating the behaviors of others EX: my cats
conform
accept or go along with others' views or behaviors
industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology
aims to match people to work, enhance satisfaction and productivity in the workplace, and explore effective workplace management. Divided into three areas.
hippocampus
alcohol affects this
Cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Coping
alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods
Predispositions
also an important factor in the study of conditioning. Some animals seem to be more predisposed (by biology or evolution) to learn some behaviors much more readily than others. Dangerous stimuli, for example, seem to cause much faster (and usually stronger) learning. Cattle quickly learn not to touch an electrified fence due to the painful shock that becomes associated with that behavior.
Identical
also called monozygotic, meaning "from one zygote"
Blank Slates
also called tabula rasa. Believed by John Locke (and Aristotle)
Polygraphs
also known as lie detectors—measure several physiological indicators of emotion. Although they detect lies at a rate better than chance, they are NOT accurate enough to justify their widespread use in business and government.
Motion Parallax
also known as relative motion. Images of an object that are at different distances from you move across your retina at different rates of speed. For instance, when riding a bike, the closer the object, the faster it appears to move
Discrimination
an act based on one's prejudices—can sometimes be more subtle; people sometimes discriminate based on appearance or socioeconomic status without even being aware of their doing so.
EEG
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
EEGs
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
Broca's Area
an area of the left frontal lobe that directs the muscle movements involved in speech; controls speech muscles by the motor cortex
Wernicke's Area
an area of the left temporal lobe involved in language compreension and experession
Structuralism
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind. Relied on introspection (looking within)
Bulimia nervosa
an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise
anorexia nervosa
an eating disorder in which a normal-weight person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly under weight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve
Sexual Orientation
an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex or the other sex. Connected with genetic influences, prenatal hormones, and certain brain structures
Double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
Pituitary gland
an important gland located at the base of the brain that is controlled by the activity of the hypothalamus-- serves as a sort of "master gland" - secreting hormones to help direct other glands and to direct other functions like body growth
Newborns (neonatal stage)
are not blank slates. They have innate abilities or reflexes for finding nourishment (rooting reflex), sucking (a feeding reflex), grasping, interacting with others, and avoiding harmful situations. (extends through the first month)
Pheromones
are same species odors that can be used as some form of chemical communication. They are probably best known for their role in attracting members of the opposite sex. They can provide animals with information regarding another's identity, stimulate ovulation, encourage or limit sexual maturation, and even limit aggression.
Contemporary psychologists...
are very interested in attitude formation because attitudes can be so influential. Advertisers are interest in attitude because they want people to form favorable attitudes towards their products and services. Research has suggested some general trends; for example, if messages are delivered by people who are seen as competent or attractive, people tend to form more favorable attitudes.
Sensory Cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations
Motor Cortex
area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements for specific parts of the body. Different body parts get differing amounts of motor cortex tissue dedicated to them, more allows more complex coordination of movements of the fingers
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
Emotions can also be explained in two dimensions
arousal (high versus low) and valence (pleasant, or positive, versus unpleasant, or negative)
Personality Disorder
as psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning.
Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)
as yet unproven health care treatments intended to supplement (complement) or serve as alternatives to conventional medicine, and which typically are not widely taught in medical schools, used in hospitals, or reimbursed by insurance companies. When research shows a therapy to be safe and effective, it usually then becomes part of accepted medical practice.
How do We Perceive Pitch?: Place Theory
asserts that we can detect different pitches because different sound waves excite different areas along the basilar membrane of the cochlea. The brain can then perceive a sound's pitch by zeroing in on the place on the membrane from which it receives neural signals. This theory may provide the best explanation for how we detect higher frequencies.
babbling stage
babies are producing phonemes, and are able to discriminate between the sounds made by others.
Baby Boomers
babies born in the period shortly after World War II
lucid dreaming
being 'aware' of your dreams as they happen and being able to change their outcomes
proximity
being located close to one another
Phrenology
belief that different portions of the brain were responsible for different functions
Neuroscience
believe that biological events strongly influence people's lives
Theory Y managers
believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motive. They believe that given enough freedom and challenges that employees will strive to demonstrate their competence and creativity.
Theory X managers
believe that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits and threatened with punishment. They believe workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and must be closely supervised.
Evolutionary Psychologists
believe that the traits passed on from parents to their children strongly influence people's lives
Carl Rogers
believed that human behavior was driven by the need to balance our actions with our self image. The greater the gap between the way you see yourself (ideal self), and the way you actually are (real self) creates tension and anxiety. Rogers would encourage us all to accept information about ourselves as realistically and honestly as possible. Genuineness, empathy, and unconditional positive regard for ourselves and others will go a long way in solidifying our self-concept.
Normal Curve
bell-shaped curve for which we can talk about percentages of area between standard deviation
Subliminal
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
Antagonist
blocks neurotransmitter
mesomorph
bold and active personality.
The events that tend to provoke stress responses are those that are perceived as
both negative and uncontrollable.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
branch 1 of 2 in the nervous system. This is the brain and the spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
branch 2 of 2 in the nervous system. The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body. Divides into the Somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system
Biological Psychology
branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior
The job of the psychoanalyst is to
breach the unconscious and to bring any troubling thoughts or memories to the surface for discussion and analysis
Refractory period
brief period of time in which a neuron cannot fire again. The refractory period of a neuron can be compared to the time it takes for a toilet to refill after being flushed. You cannot flush again until the tank is refilled!
Modern day medicine for mental disorders
came about in the 1950s with the introduction of drugs which were able to alter the chemicals in the brain which controlled thinking, emotions, and behavior. These drugs are able to alter the neurotransmitters involved in the symptoms, and can cause temporary changes in disordered behaviors as long as the drugs are continued.
ingroup
can be based on a number of factors and can change quite easily; for example, if you are a female 10th grader you will probably feel like a member of the "female ingroup" if you are playing dodge ball and are divided girls against boys. If you are on a team of 10th graders—boys and girls—competing against freshmen, you will probably feel like a member of the "10th grade" ingroup.
Mood (or affective) disorders
can be described as psychological disorders in which mood is affected and normal thinking and/or behavior are impaired.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
can lead to mental retardation, low birth weight, underdeveloped brains, and attachment disorders. Newborns can be addicted to drugs when born and forced to go through painful withdrawal symptoms that can even be fatal. In addition, bacteria and viruses can get through the placental barrier and harm the fetus
Basic Psychological research
carried out to add to the general body of knowledge of the field
Applied Psychological research
carried out with a specific, practical application in mind.
Nervous System
carries out the complex tasks that allow us to function both physically and psychologically every day.
Efferent neurons
carry information away from the brain. Effort -- they move your muscles and and direct your efforts
Afferent neurons
carry information to the brain from other parts of the body. Things that affect your senses (like a hot stove or a block of ice)
Motor Neurons
carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands
Motor Neurons
carrying information from the CNS to muscles and glans
Myers-Briggs Personality Inventory
categorizes people into 16 different personality types which can be used to match them to a particular job.
Excitatory
category of neurotransmitters. They 'excite' the next neuron to fire. Substances that increase wakefulness and alertness, on the other hand, usually enhance the action of excitatory neurotransmitters
Stimulants
causes the body's process to speed up and a sense of euphoria. Heart rate increases, respiration rate goes up, and blood pressure goes up. All stimulants produce tolerance, withdrawal, disturbed sleep, increased anxiety, and heart problems. EX: nicotine, caffeine, amphetamines, and cocaine
Soma
cell body, contains nucleus,
Glial Cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
The practical domain
centers on self-management in areas such as personal care, job responsibilities, money management, recreation, and organizing school and work tasks.
Associative Learning
changes in an organism's behavior that are due to associating stimuli
associative learning
changes in behavior that are due to 'associating' stimuli and learning that certain events occur together. Breaks down into classical conditioning an Operant conditioning
anxiety disorder
characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety (feelings of worry or fear) or the maladaptive behaviors that accompany these feelings.
endomorph
cheerful, relaxed, and jolly.
Hormones
chemical messesngers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another
Robert Plutchik
classified emotions using a circle to position the eight basic categories of emotion: fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, anticipation, joy, and acceptance.
mnemonic devices
clever 'word plays' that help you recall things. For example, "My very eager mother just served us nine pizzas"
Cataract
clouding of the lens
Cognitive-behavior therapists combine
cognitive therapy (changing negative thoughts) with behavior therapy (changing maladaptive behaviors).
Sour grapes rationalization
comes from Aesop's fable about the fox and the grapes. When the fox was unable to reach the grapes he desired, he walked away saying, "I didn't want those grapes anyway. They were probably sour." In other words, he found a way to put down or negate that which he could not have.
Behaviorism
completely rejected any study of the "mind" or consciousness asserting instead that observable behaviors should be the sole focus of psychological study.
Approach-approach
conflict between two equally attractive options. (Do I eat ice cream or candy?)
Avoidance-avoidance
conflict between two equally unattractive or unpleasant choices. (Cleaning your room or doing your homework)
Approach-avoidance
conflict in which there are both negative and positive elements to the decision. (If I eat a double cheeseburger it will really taste good, but I am dieting and do not need the calories or fat)
Multiple approach-avoidance
conflicts have many pros and cons on each side and thus are more difficult decisions to make. (Which college to attend)
Placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent
Psychoanalytic therapy
consists of attempting to reconstruct repressed memories in order to work through painful experiences to achieve a psychologically healthy solution. The techniques of dream interpretation (remember he was looking for the latent content of dreams), free association, and analysis of a patient's resistance and transference during therapy are all used to provide a window into the patient's problems.
latent content
content is the underlying meaning of our dreams
Brocha's area
controls language expression--an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
Wernicke's area
controls language reception--a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.
Hypthalamus:
controls maintenance functions such as eating; helps govern endocrine system; linked to emotion and reward
Transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret
Sensorineural (or nerve) Hearing Loss
could have been caused by disease (rarely), aging, or prolonged exposure to extremely loud noises or music. In any case, damage is done to the cochlea's hair cells or to associated nerves. At this point, a cochlear implant is the only sure way to restore hearing for those with this problem.
Aversive conditioning
counter-conditioning technique that deliberately associates an unpleasant state such as nausea with an unwanted behavior such as the consumption of alcohol. A very common pairing for alcoholics is the administration of the drug, Anabuse, in the morning orange juice. If the patient drinks any alcohol later in the day or evening, they become violently and most unpleasantly sick. It might not be long before they associate the taste of alcohol with the feeling of nausea, and are cured of their addiction. Long term results report that after a year, 66% are still abstaining from alcohol, and after 3 years, 33% are still abstaining from alcohol. Remember, not all therapies work for everyone.
Behavioral Perspective
counters that the unconscious mind is only a theoretical concept and that it is difficult or impossible to prove its existence. Completely dismisses study of the mind, consciousness entirely. Psychologists should study only people's behaviors -- what we can actually see and change - a behaviorist might argue.
Binocular Cues
cues which require the use of both eyes. There are two major ones. Each eye gets a slightly different version of an image. Your brain will compare these images, and will make a decision regarding depth or distance. This concept is retinal (or binocular) disparity.
circadian rhythms
daily body rhythms, that help to control your sleep/wake cycles and temperature. ex: your body temperature goes down while you sleep
Habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation
Companionate love
deep, mutual affection for one another and concern for each other's well-being
defense mechanisms
defend yourself from negative thoughts about yourself would also be examined.
Allport
defined traits as those relatively enduring permanent qualities that a person shows in most situations.
Macular Degeneration
degeneration of the macula-the area around the fovea
Strength of a Correlation
depends on its absolute value - disregarding the positive or negative aspect of the coefficient; for example, a correlation of -0.7 (implying a strong negative correlation) is much stronger than a correlation of +0.2 (implying a weak positive correlation).
Depressants
depress the activity of the central nervous system, and body's systems slow down. Again, tolerance, withdrawal, and euphoria are present with depressants. Common depressants include alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, and anti-anxiety drugs.
Monocular cues
depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective available to either eye alone
Psychoanalytic personality theory
describes personality in terms of unconscious processes and defense mechanisms.
Projective tests
designed to help a person "project" elements of his or her unconscious mind into open, conscious awareness. Psychoanalysts in particular rely heavily on these tests for therapy and personality assessment.
Identical Twins
develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two. They are genetically identical. Although they have the same genes, they don't always have the same number of copies of those genes.
Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon
developed the first intelligence test to try to identify French students who would have difficulty in regular classes.
Carl Rodgers
developed the humanistic perspective. Based on free will and the belief that the individual can achieve self-actualization,
Embryo
developing human organism during the first eight weeks of conception. (2 weeks through 2nd month)
Harry Harlow
developmental psychologist. Studied the physical attachment of baby monkeys who were removed from their mothers. He concluded that contact comfort, stimulation, and reassurance derived from the physical touch of a caregiver is essential for normal development. This has also been confirmed in human newborns. Sometimes the lack of touch and comfort can result in a disorder known as failure to thrive in children. This results in lack of psychosocical development and weight gain. Recent studies confirm the benefits of touch and massage in hospital neonatal intensive care units. Newborns that were stroked and massaged gained weight faster and went home sooner than those who were not.
Mary Ainsworth
developmental psychologist;studied attachment by placing infants in novel situations and observing their reactions. She described three attachment styles.
Edward Thorndike
devised the "law of effect"; studied the effects of providing rewards for animal behavior in tasks
Albert Bandura
did the now-famous 'Bobo doll experiment' that demonstrated observational learning
Implicit
difficult to state outright
PYY
digestive tract hormone, sends "I'm not hungry" signals
Sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. EX: The student in front of you has a scent/smell which is driving you crazy. However, as the class progresses and you become engrossed in your teacher's lesson, you don't seem to notice the smell anymore
Positive Correlation
direct relationship between variables
Somatic
division of PNS. Controls "the body" by directing the movements of our voluntary muscles. As you walk down the hall at your school, you are using your somatic nervous system to move your legs and feet to get to your destination.
Autonomic
division of PNS. more "automatic" functions EX: organs like the heart and lungs don't require voluntary thought in order to function properly
Parasympathetic Nervous System
division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.
Psychedelics or hallucinogens
do not necessarily speed up or slow down the body. Instead, they can cause changes in our perceptions of reality, and can produce hallucinations.
Curiosity
driven behaviors suggest that too little as well as too much stimulation can motivate people to seek an optimum level of arousal. To escape boredom we seek stimulation or we can become thrill seekers, while our friends shy away from any risky behaviors.
Agonists
drug molecules that may resemble certain neurotransmitters in the brain by mimicking them and functioning as that neurotransmitter would naturally function.
Schedule 2
drugs with a high abuse risk but which also have safe and accepted medical uses in the US. Because they can cause severe physical or psychological dependence, their use is greatly controlled. These drugs include: morphine, oxycodone, Dexedrine, Ritalin, codeine, amphetamines, opium, laudanum, and cocaine used as an anesthetic.
Schedule 3,4,5
drugs with a risk for abuse lower than that of Schedule 2, but risk is still present, and which have safe and accepted medical uses in the U.S. Includes anabolic steroids, tranquilizers, anti-anxiety drugs are included as well as drugs such as Valium, paregoric, Vicodan, Darvon, acetaminophen with codeine (Tylenol #3), and Xanax
Schedule 1
drugs with the highest abuse risk, and are classified as having no safe and accepted medical use in the United States include: heroin, marijuana, LSD, PCP, Ecstacy, Quaaludes, China White, methamphetamines, and crack cocaine.
Glaucoma
due to pressure buildup inside the eyeball causing the nerve fibers in the optic nerve to degenerate.
Explicit
easy to state outright
Neural impulse
electrical signal traveling down the axon
Axon
elongated structure extending from the soma that conducts electrical impulses and ends in terminal branches/buttons
Social (or sociocultural)
emphases on social interaction
Evolutionary Perceptive
emphasizes nature
Arousal theory
emphasizes the urge for an optimum level of stimulation and asserts that each of us has a different need for excitement or arousal.
Acetylcholine (ACh)
enables muscle action, learning, and memory (undersupply = Alzheimer's disease) A neurotransmitter that triggers muscle contraction
Long-term Memory's Subdivisions
episodic, procedural, and semantic memories
environment
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
anecdotal evidence
evidence based on people's personal reports
Long-Term memory can be described as...
explicit (easy to state outright) or implicit (difficult to state outright).Remember someone's birthday is an explicit memory, while remembering how to play a piece of classical music on the piano would be an implicit memory. Some psychologists classify repressed memories as implicit.
Downs syndrome
extra chromosome on pair 21; causes varying degree of mental retardation in addition to differences in appearance
Outliers
extremely high or low scores on the mean of a set of scores.
Replication is testing the same people over and over again
false
Delusions
false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders ("I am the president")
Hyperopia
farsightedness: faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina.
Abraham Maslow
father of humanistic psychology in America. Believed that all humans have needs and that these needs must be met for a person to truly live up to his or her fullest potential.
Myelin Sheath
fatty covering on some axons that speed up neural (or electrical impulses). In people with multiple sclerosis, these become damaged
physical response
fear, anger, joy
Field Studies
field in a real-world setting. Field studies, conversely, are done in much less controlled environments but, perhaps, yield more valid results because of their more natural setting.
Closure
filling in missing information by mentally closing the gaps
Genital stage
final stage. Starts puberty, ends at death. Adolescents develop warm feelings and relationships with others, sexual attraction matures, and group activities, vocational planning, and intimate relationships do, too.
If enough neurotransmitters from one neuron are sent to another, the neuron...
fires. Positively charged ions rush into the cell and the electrical current travels along the axon.
Humanistic therapies
focus on helping people understand and accept themselves. Can also help people develop self-esteem and a more positive self-image as they strive toward self-actualization.
Abraham Maslow
focused on how mentally healthy people managed to evolve, develop, and stay that way. Humanists wanted a personality theory that emphasized free will, conscious experience, and creativity. Maslow proposed the Hierarchy of Needs because he felt we must meet basic needs before we could become concerned with satisfying higher needs.
bio-psycho-social model
focuses on how biological, psychological, and social factors interact to contribute to specific psychological disorders. This perspective asserts that mind and body are inseparable and must be treated as such to effectively deal with psychological disorders.
Levels of Processing Theory
focuses on how deeply information is processed
Cognitive perspective
focuses on how we think and believes that the way we think affects the way we feel.
humanistic perspective
focuses on the 'goodness' of the individual and his or her ability to make the best decisions about the course of their lives. Sometimes referred to as free will, and stands in direct contrast to the idea of determinism (the notion that our behaviors and thoughts are not our choice but are 'determined' by past experiences).
Humanistic Psychology
focuses on the inherent 'goodness' of each human being and that healthy people will choose what is best for themselves to reach their fullest potential.
cognitive distortions
focusing on negative and ignoring the positive; blowing things out of proportion; blaming yourself for something you weren't entirely responsible for
Lewis Terman
followed with a revision of their test he called the Stanford-Binet (named after the university where he worked.)
ego
follows the reality principle, and acts as the negotiator between the id and the superego. The ego would consider, "I might hit you back, but first I'm going to look around and see who's watching so I don't get in trouble." Part of the job of the ego is to protect the conscious mind from disturbing thoughts that might be present in the unconscious mind. For instance, if you are three, and I am 16, and I do hit you back, I might rationalize my behavior by saying, "I had to stop you from hurting the other children on the playground."
melancholia (depression)
for therapy, Hippocrates prescribed a regular, tranquil life of sobriety and abstinence from all excesses, a vegetable diet, exercise, and bleeding if indicated.
Electroconvulsive therapy
formerly called shock therapy, was a popular treatment for all kinds of psychological disorders, and then fell into disrepute because of the memory lapses suffered by patients. Today, however, the process has been updated—medications are often given to relax the patient and ease anxiety. Still, ECT is often used only as a last resort in the treatment of severe, chronic depression.
Parietal Lobes
found directly behind the frontal lobes. Includes the sensory cortex--which receives the sensation of touch from the various parts of the body. Different parts of the body get different amounts of this
Frontal lobes
found directly behind your forehead; contains control centers for general thought and the control (not 'experience') of emotion; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. The limbic system helps us experience emotions; the frontal lobe helps us process it and control it. Broca's area- area in the frontal lobe that controls ability to produce speech. Stroke victims who have damage in this area suffer disability to produce spoken language
Neurotransmitters
found in the terminal branches/buttons, these are chemical messenger molecules that allow communication between neurons
Temporal Lobes
found near the ears and include the auditory areas. Includes Wernicke's area which affects our ability to understand written and spoken words
positive psychology
founder Martin Seligman, suggest that how we stand on the optimism/pessimism scale has an enormous impact on our lives. Seligmans research points out that optimists tend to outlive pessimists, and go through life with fewer illnesses.
state of altered consciousness
fully aware of surroundings and of the tosses and tumbles of the baby inside. But patients reported being more totally relaxed than they had been all week, and after the doctor's post hypnotic suggestion that they would feel energized when they got home, they were.
Serotonin
functions in mood control; lack of serotonin is associated with depression. Drugs like Prozac and Zoloft are used to raise serotonin levels in people with depression.
Dopamine
functions in motor control and mental alertness; lack of dopamine is associated with Parkinson's disease (muscle tremors); too much is associated with schizophrenia; strongly associated with feelings of pleasure in the brain's reward centers
Acetylcholine
functions in motor movement and muscle control; plays a role in memory/learning; Alzheimer's disease is associated with a lack of it
B.F. Skinner
further studied the law of effect and closely studied animals in specially-constructed boxes
Abstract Learning
generally refers to the learning of ideas and concepts
Nature
genetic and biological factors
Reinforcers
good consequences
Similarity
grouping similar objects together
proximity
grouping things based on how near they are to each other
Visual Capture
hearing is developed well before birth and later vision will take over and become the dominant sense.A newborn's range of vision is about one foot.
Family therapists
help family members to see the roles they play in a family. They try to promote more positive relationships, and healthier communication in the family unit. One person's behavior in a family often impacts the entire family, and so it is useful to pull in all of those concerned for therapy
Descriptive statistics
help psychologists describe sets of data. Helps to manage large amounts of data in an easy-to-process manner
Norepinephrine
helps control alertness and arousal (Undersupply = depress mood)
Pons
helps coordinate movement
Parathyroids
helps regulate the level of calcium in the blood
Rehearsal
helps us retain information in short-term memory. This is simply consciously repeating the information to ourselves.
Relative clarity
helps us to view closer objects as being sharper and more distinct, and more distant objects as being viewed in a haze.
Retinitis Pigmentosa
hereditary disease that causes the degeneration of the retina
Humanistic psychology
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth
humanistic psychology
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth
Schemas
mental construct or a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
Aphasia
imapirment of language, usualy caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)
Negative Correlation
implies an "inverse" relationship between variables
Place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
Frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense pitch
Embodied Cognition
in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments
Perceptual Adaptation
in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
Sensory memory
includes iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memories. The mind receives many iconic and echoic memories practically all the time. If you are attending to (paying attention to) a stimulus, however, it will be encoded into the next stage - the short-term (working) memory.
The conceptual domain
includes skills in language, reading, writing, math, reasoning, knowledge, and memory.
Psychosurgery
is another biological intervention that is sometimes used in the treatment of epilepsy, OCD, depression, and bi-polar disorders. Because the effects of psychosurgery are generally irreversible, it is often employed as a last resort of treatment.
Hunger
is both physiological and psychological. The physiological aspect of hunger is body chemistry, including hormones that heighten or reduce our hunger
Genome
is the set of complete instructions for making an organism Containing all the genes in that organism. Thus human genome makes us human and the genome for drosophila makes it a common house fly
Lithium
is usually the drug of choice for the treatment of bipolar disorder to help stabilize mood. The drug therapy of choice for treating this illness is lithium—usually in the form of lithium carbonate. Although the mechanism of action is not fully understood, lithium seems to help 'level' or regulate the moods of people living with bipolar disorder. Depending on the psychological problem, sometimes the addition of a drug regimen to a therapeutic situation is a good thing.
The neuron itself has a protective membrane that is selectively permeable
it allows some ions to enter or leave while blocking others
Personal space
it's the distance that people maintain between themselves and others; varies by culture and the nature of the activity. Closer than is normal can indicate either anger or affection and further away can indicate fear or dislike.
delta waves
large, slow brain waves
representativeness heuristic
leads us to judge situations based on how similar its aspects are to our prototypes.
Chaining
learning of several linked behaviors necessary to either receive a reinforcer or avoid a punishment
Blindness
legally blind if, after glasses, vision acuity is 20/200 or less or little peripheral vision.
lobotomy
lesioning or removal of a portion of a patient's frontal lobe—when they hear 'psychosurgery.' The field has advanced a great deal, however, and now includes a number of highly effective techniques.
Cyclothymic Disorder
less disabling than bipolar disorder but is marked by alternating between periods of dysthymia (low-intensity depressed state) and hypomania (low-intensity manic state)
Dysthymic Disorder
less disabling than major depression but is marked by chronic low energy and poor self-esteem.
preconscious
level that contains memories or feelings of which you are presently unaware, but which you could recall at a moment's notice if the need arose.
seasonal affective disorder (S.A.D)
light therapy. We know that about 25% of the population has a negative depressive reaction to the amount of reduced light in the winter, and sitting in front of full spectrum lights—lamps that recreate the spectrum of actual sunlight—for a specified amount of time each day seems to be able to help them.
Collectivist cultures
like Japan and other 'Eastern' or Asian societies—generally focus on ties to groups more than the uniqueness or ability of the individual. People from collectivist cultures tend to value tradition, norms and expected roles more than independence and individuality.
Individualist cultures
like the United States and other 'Western' societies—generally focus on the uniqueness and abilities of the individual over society as a whole. People from individualist cultures tend to value creativity and independent thinking more than group membership.
hippocampus
linked to memory
Psychophysiological illness
literally "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches
Occipital Lobes
located behind the parietal lobes at the very back of the head. Includes the visual cortex--the area of the brain that receives/processes visual sensation information form the eyes. The left occipital lobe processes visual input from the right eye; the right occipital lobe processes visual input from the left eye (this is much like how the brain's hemispheres control movement and sensation from the opposite sides of the body.)
Peripheral nervous system (or PNS)
made up of all nerves in the body besides the brain and spinal cord. Divided into the somatic and the autonomic systems.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
made up of the brain and the spinal cord
Biofeedback/relaxation
many people can significantly reduce the harmful effects of stress by meditating or relaxing in a very focused manner. A biofeedback device notifies a person of his or her heart rate and breathing—allowing the person to learn how to control them and reduce feelings of stress and anxiety.
Brain anatomy
may also take part in causing schizophrenic disorders. Many schizophrenics have enlarged, fluid-filled areas or sacs in certain parts of the brain. Schizophrenics may also have other brain irregularities. Genetics and family history of schizophrenia may increase one's likelihood of developing the disorder. A midpregnancy viral infection that impairs fetal brain development is another possible culprit. Certainly multiple factors can converge to create schizophrenia.
Williams Syndrome (The Smart Talk Syndrome)
may provide children with above average social and verbal skills, but below average spatial and other intellectual skills—sometimes labeled as language without thought.
Measure of Central Tendency
mean, median, and mode. Help us to to see the "center" of the data set quickly and easily.
Psychological addiction
means that a person has a great desire for the drug, and feels they need it in order to function or feel the way they want to feel.
Equity
means that people like to develop relationships in which they are on equal footing with their partners; both partners share and make decisions together.
Single-blind
means that research subjects are not made aware of which group they are assigned to (test or control group). Single-blind studies tend to lessen the effect of participants' expectations on the study
Physical addiction
means that the person has developed a tolerance for the drug, would experience withdrawal symptoms without it, and needs the drug to avoid the withdrawal symptoms that will occur.
Extraversion
measures how we re-charge our psychological batteries--with or without other people around us.
Psychoticism
measures the degree to which we are hostile, ruthless, or insensitive
Neuroticism
measures the degree to which we are moody, anxious, or unreliable.
State-dependent memory
memories that depend on a particular mental state, like intoxication or a drug-induced state of consciousness. People frequently form state-dependent memories just before falling asleep. If you happen to remember something important while drifting off to sleep, it's a good idea to get out of bed and jot it down ... the next time you naturally 'remember' it will probably be when you are drifting off to sleep again!
Mnemonic Devices
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organized devices
Recall
memory involves retrieving information in the absence of any type of cue. Teachers test this type of memory with fill-in-the-blank questions.
Recognition
memory involves retrieving information with some sort of cue. Teachers test this type of memory with multiple-choice questions.
Telepathy
mental communication between individuals--"reading another's thoughts," for example.
Lamaze and hypnosis
methods of pain control during labor and delivery accomplishes the same distraction. These two techniques teach methods of relaxation, breathing, and reacting to pain signals that allow women to manage their pain rather than to be managed by it. Much anecdotal evidence exists to support these cutting-edge pain management techniques
evolutionary psychologist...
might argue that being aggressive has historically "helped people survive," so the aggressive traits were passed along to offspring.
A humanist
might offer you genuine empathy and unconditional positive regard while helping you to explore your feelings about the problem
A psychoanalyst
might want to talk to you about the past associations that caused your problem;
Agonists
mimics neurotransmitter
Mood-congruent memory
mood seems to have a strong impact on memory; this can be detrimental (depressed people more often recall other 'sad times' which can heighten the depression) or beneficial (happy people tend to recall similar 'good times').
Mood-congruent Memory
mood seems to have a strong impact on memory; this can be happy or sad
Insomnia
most common parasomnia. Iinability to fall asleep, to stay asleep, or to feel adequately refreshed upon awaking. Only considered to be chronic when someone experiences this most nights for 3 to 4 weeks. Causes include anxiety, depression, stress, stimulus overload, drugs such as those in caffeinated drinks, medications, or restless legs syndrome.
Behavior therapy
name given to several different techniques including exposure therapy, aversion therapy, behavior modification techniques, and modeling. These methods are all based on that we are driven by our past experiences and our present environment and that these factors determine our thoughts and behaviors.
Neuroscientific psychologists also emphasize...
nature, in particular the brain, the nervous system, and blood chemistry -- in terms of human thought and behavior
Latent learning
occurs when an organism learns a behavior but the learned behavior is not really evident. For example, some rats may not seem to 'learn' a maze very well until a specific type of reinforcer (say, a grain-based food pellet) is presented. In this instance, the learning is said to be latent (it was present but not demonstrated until later).
Operant conditioning
occurs when an organism learns to associate its own actions with the consequences of those actions in a given environment. Good consequences (also called reinforcers) tend to make the given behavior more likely to occur while unpleasant consequences (also called punishments or punishers) tend to make the given behavior less likely to occur.
Discrimination
occurs when an organism only demonstrates a response to one specific stimulus
The "Tip of the Tongue" Phenomenon
occurs when information is in long-term memory but simply is not 'available' at the moment
Central Route Persuasion
occurs when interested people focus on the argument and respond with favorable thoughts.
Retroactive Interference
occurs when new information makes it difficult to recall older information
Retroactive interference
occurs when new information makes it difficult to recall older information
Proactive Interference
occurs when older information makes it difficult to recall newer information
Proactive interference
occurs when older information makes it difficult to recall newer information.
Operant Conditioning
occurs when organisms learn to associate their actions with the consequences of those actions
belief bias
occurs when our preconceived beliefs distort our logical reasoning making us arrive at inaccurate conclusions. EX: An elderly man believes that all 'young people' are disrespectful of their elders. When he sees polite behavior from a teen, he may misinterpret the behavior (thinking the teen has unseen motives for the politeness, etc.).
Peripheral Rout Persuasion
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness.
Resistance
occurs when people become uncomfortable talking about worrisome or embarrassing feelings or by being unable or unwilling to talk about certain memories in order to protect yourself from the pain of remembering them.
transference
occurs when people's repressed feelings become applied to the therapist
Positive Reinforcement
occurs when something pleasant is added to a situation
Insight Learning
occurs when we suddenly "realize" the solution to a problem or challenge.
Eastern Virginia Medical School in Norfolk
offers a two-year Master's Degree program in art therapy. Combining an interest in psychology with some basic expertise in art, therapists use patient produced art to help diagnose problems, mirror improvements, and teach methods of relaxation and focus.
Humanistic therapists
often employ a technique called active listening to help their clients. Carl Rogers worked extensively in this area, helping to refine ways to better listen to, and communicate with clients.
Interneurons
often found between other cells and help relay messages from the other two types of neurons
Sleep walking
often occurs when people are sleep deprived, and is more common in children between the ages of 2 - 12. This parasomnia is often outgrown as people mature. It generally occurs during stage 3 or 4 of sleep.
Instrumental aggression
on the other hand, involves intentional hurting that does have a purpose or goal; for example, Jackie wants to steal Sue's lunch money so she pushes her down and takes it.
Non-tasters
on the other hand, may be oblivious to the bitterness of coffee, love highly spiced foods, and may even tolerate the consumption of alcohol more easily than a supertaster who may find it bitter and unpalatable. This link to the possibility of alcoholism being linked to papillae is currently under study.
just-world phenomenon
our tendency to believe that the world is basically a 'fair place' and that people usually get what they deserve. Many people, for example, have little pity for jobless or homeless people because it is so easy to simply blame them for their problems as though "the world" is treating them fairly. These same people, however, generally do not feel the same way if misfortune happens to themselves.
Serial-Position Effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first times in a list; can be divided into the primacy effect and recency effect
Self concept
our understanding and evaluation of who we are
Your skin can only detect four basic sensations
pain, warmth, cold, and pressure. All other touch sensations are essentially combinations of these four.
Permissive
parents do not have clear rules/expectations and generally do not have clear 'consequences'. Children are more free to do as they please. Children can be very sociable, but may have emotional needs that remain unmet and may have emotional problems later in life (including problems with responsibility)
Classical Conditioning
part of associative learning; occurs when an organism associates two separate stimuli; also called Pavlion conditioning
partial reinforcement
partial reinforcement EX: like getting an allowance every five times you clean your room. Branches to Fixed Ratio, Variable ratio, Fixed Interval, and Variable interval
token economy
participants are rewarded (or reinforced) with tokens when they demonstrate desired behaviors. After a period of time, tokens can be traded in for specific items (like candy or toys).
Spinal cord
pathway for nerual fibers traveling to and from brain; controls simple reflexes
Ellis' rational emotive therapy
patients are taught to identify, confront and remove irrational thoughts. For instance, does part of your problem stem from the fact that you think you have to be perfect? Do you think you were dumped by a girlfriend/boyfriend because you're a bad person? Cognitive therapists want to try to teach you to think constructively rather than destructively.
Narcolepsy
patients may feel sleepy all the time, and may fall asleep without realizing it. They can fall asleep anywhere, anytime, doing anything. They may be driving, walking, scuba diving, or climbing a ladder. Many people who have narcolepsy also suffer from cataplexy.
The unconscious mind
people cope with painful or anxiety-causing thoughts and impulses by stuffing them down into the unconscious where they can do no harm
psychosexual stages of development
people progress through these stages as they mature
general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
people tend to respond to perceived threats by first becoming alarmed and 'energizing' the body's resources to respond to the threat or stressor. Following this phase, people then enter the resistance phase in which they deal with the stressor. Finally, if the stressor is not resolved, people enter an exhaustion phase in which the body's resources are depleted and must be restored.
Spirituality/Faith
people who report having a well-developed spiritual life also tend to report less stress than those who do not. Psychologists theorize that developing one's faith can help by widening the social support network and by helping people engage in more positive, life-affirming behaviors.
Feel-good, do-good phenomenon
people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood.
active listening skills
practiced here include restating or reflecting, echoing, and asking for further clarification. These skills are also quite useful, by the way, in helping to keep an argument under control.
Hierarchy of Needs
predicts which needs we will be motivated to satisfy first. Maslow believed that the biological needs are satisfied first to ensure our survival and safety and then we will act to satisfy our emotional needs like love and self-esteem. Finally we will want to reach our life goals like satisfaction and self-actualization. Also that the more basic needs must be met before moving on to the next level.
simultaneous conditioning
presenting both the NS and US at exactly the same time
Stimultaneous Conditioning
presenting both the neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus at exactly the same time
backward conditioning
presenting the US first and then the NS after a brief delay
Backward Conditioning
presenting the unconditioned stimulus first and then the neutral stimulus after a brief delay
Cognitive psychologists
primarily interested in how we encode, store, process and retrieve information.
Sensation
process by which we are able to receive information (stimuli) from the world around us.The task of each sense (sight, hearing, touch - including pressure, pain, warmth, and cold - smell, and taste) is to detect and receive those stimuli and retransmit them into neural signals that are sent to the brain. Involves the coordination of receptors, neural pathways, and sensory processes.
Shaping
process of using reinforcers or rewards and/or punishers to gradually shape behaviors
Linear perspective
promotes the appearance of depth by the seeming convergence of parallel lines at a distance. Boston's Museum of Science has a wonderful on-line look at linear perspective called "Leonardo's Window" based upon the genius art work of Leonardo da Vinci. Da Vinci was a master at perception.
id
propelled by the pleasure principle and wants immediate gratification, is driven by our basic or baser instincts. "You hit me, so I hit you back!"
Charles Spearman
proposed the g factor or general intelligence factor that tends to underlie all of our intelligence. According to Spearman, we might have special abilities in one or two areas, but we have a general level of intelligence.`
Cannon-Bard theory
proposes that we experience a physiological change and feel the emotion at precisely the same time.
Leptin
protein secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger
Karen Horney
psychoanalyst believe biology determined personality development, but that social variables did. She also suggested that a child's sense of helplessness created their need for love and interaction.
physiological
relating to body function
psychological
relating to mental function
Thalamus
relays messages between lower brain centeres and cerebral cortex
Replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations , to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.
conversion disorders
report serious physical problems like blindness or paralysis for which no biological reason exists. Sometimes conversion disorders are brought on by extreme emotional stress - a person who loses several close family members in a tragic accident, for example, might experience blindness for an indefinite period of time following the tragedy.
defense mechanisms
repression, regression, denial, displacement, projection, reaction formation,rationalization
Monocular cues
require the use of only one eye: motion parallax, texture gradient, interposition and overlap, linear perspective, relative size, relative clarity, relative height or elevation, relative brightness
case studies
research that focuses on one individual or a group of individuals
A positive charged neuron
rest just outside the neuron at all times
Freudian slips
slips of the tongue which might give a clue as to what is really bothering the patient (exposing the unconscious)
reinforcement
rewarding their movements with food pellets until they appeared to be dancing, so, too, can schizophrenics be encouraged to socialize and communicate. By being rewarded for approaching situations they fear, phobics can learn to manage their fears, and people with dependent personality disorder can be taught to be more assertive.
Intrinsic
rewards that we get 'internally'—like personal enjoyment or satisfaction
Extrinsic
rewards that we get from 'outside ourselves'—like grades in a class or salary at work.
Thirds Rule
roughly 1/3 of schizophrenics recover, 1/3 need medication and outpatient therapy, and 1/3 need medication and continual inpatient care for life.
DSM-IV-TR (Diagnostic and Statistic Manual of Mental Disorders)
s the book that classifies psychological disorders and lists their symptoms. It 'helps' psychologists and psychiatrists diagnose patients, but has many drawbacks. These include reliability, consistency of use, broad definition of disorders, and looking only at symptoms and not causes or treatments.
Hans Selye
saw the stress mechanism as a three stage response called the general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
free association
saying whatever comes to mind regardless of how silly or irrelevant you think it might be
How do We Perceive Pitch?: The frequency theory
says that we detect differences in pitch because of the rate of neural impulses which travel up the auditory canal, triggering neural impulses to travel at the sound wave's rate. So the rate of travel is a match for the frequency of a tone. This theory may provide the best explanation for how we detect lower frequencies
convergence
second major cue. The closer an object is to your eye, the more your eye turns inward-convergence. Try to look at the tip of your nose with both eyes and you will actually feel your eyes converge.
Pituitary gland
secretes many different hormones, some of which affect other glands
attention deficit disorder
seen move frequently in boys than in girls and deals with development skills and difficulty focusing and paying attention
Sociocultural
sees social/cultural issues at the heart of psychological disorders. Issues of sexism, poverty, unemployment, social conflict, etc. are explored. Example: Dante has always lived in poverty, but now is more deeply depressed after losing his home in a natural disaster and being relocated.
Subject well-being
self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.
Memes
self-replicating ideas, fashions, and innovations passed from person to person
gate control theory
sensation of pain, as it travels up the spinal cord, can sometimes be blocked at certain hypothetical points called pain gates. One way to close a pain gate is to provide alternate stimulation such as relaxation, cognitive imagery, and distraction. For instance, sports injuries may go unnoticed until after a competition.
ectomorph
sensitive, high strung, and more of an introvert.
Eclectic
ses combination of the above approaches. This is the most common method used in psychology today, as modern psychologists try to focus on the "best fit" for each individual client/patient. Example: Though Dr. Hastings generally subscribes to the psychodynamic perspective, he chooses to prescribe medications (in addition to his psychoanalytic talk-therapy methods) for many of his patients.
Behavior geneticists study the effects of
shared and unique environments on total or partial genetic makeup
TAT, or thematic apperception test
shows people a series of cards with various situational images that the person can then interpret. People are asked to tell what is going on in the picture, what caused it, how people are feeling, and how the situation turned out.
MRI
shows the visual cortex activated as the subject looks at faces
shadow
similar to Freud's id that represented a darker, more primitive part of ourselves; a persona that is a public image we create for the world (or a mask which we present to the world
Solomon Asch's conformity study
simple but revealed a great deal about the human tendency to conform. Asch asked people to participate in a study that would allegedly test their visual perception. He then put subjects in a room with confederates (other participants who were "in on" the study) and asked them simple questions that usually had a straight-forward answer based on an image that was shown—for example, "Which line is the longest?" The confederates answered first—incorrectly—and Solomon observed the behavior and response of the true test subject. About 30% of the time, the test subject conformed to the group's (obviously incorrect) response, in spite of their own accurate perceptions about the lines. Solomon deduced, then, that people are sometimes willing to override their own perceptions or judgments to maintain harmony within a group. Asch found that conformity rates were highest when the group decision was unanimous (all confederates answered the same way). He also found that increasing the number of confederates (beyond three) did not cause any difference in levels of conformity.
Stanley Milgram's obedience study
simple in design but revolutionized the field of social psychology. Milgram wanted to explore how much people would obey when told to do something by an authority figure. In his experiment, subjects were told that they were participating in an experiment to see if punishment helped people learn. The subjects were asked to call out a list of paired words via microphone to a 'learner' (in reality a confederate in the experiment) who was stationed in the next room and hooked to electrodes to deliver electric shock. When the learner answered incorrectly, the 'teacher' (the subject) was instructed to give an increasingly powerful level of shock to punish the learner's mistake. Though the researcher assured the subject that the shocks were not harmful, the "shocking apparatus" showed very high levels of voltage and displayed strong warning signs. As more and more incorrect answers were given—and shocks were administered—the 'learner' began to protest vocally and finally to cry out in agony. At a certain point, the 'learner' was instructed to remain totally silent (simulating unconsciousness or death). While no actual shocks were being administered, the 'teacher' (subject) was made to think that he was actually shocking the learner. While many subjects protested, about two-thirds of them actually did deliver the highest (lethal) levels of shock when the authority figure (the researcher in charge) took full responsibility and told the subject to "please continue the experiment."
superordinate goals
simply a goal that requires the different groups to work together for a solution that will be good for all in the end. Sometimes naturally occurring emergencies (like natural disasters) bring groups of people together with the common goal of survival. Superordinate goals can also be simpler; imagine high-school freshmen and seniors working together to raise money for the school to build a new stadium.
parasomnia
sleep disorder
Individualism
suggests that it is our own individual effort that will determine whether or not our goals are achieved.
attribution theory
suggests that we all try to determine causes for the things we observe/experience. Most people want to know the causes of the events we learn about - but how we attribute these events depends a great deal on whether we think they are due to the person or the situation.
availability heuristic
suggests that we judge a situation based on examples of similar situations that initially come to mind.
manifest content
suggests that we may remember the story line of a dream, the characters, and the events- its manifest content. Manifest content is what the dream is all about.
Evolutionary psychologists
support the concept that our shared evolutionary history may have contributed to some universal behavior tendencies or actions.
dancing manias
supposed disorder that swept across Europe in the Middle Ages.
Positive symptoms
symptoms that seem to be 'in additions' to normal behavior—like hallucinations.
microcultures
systems of thinking/behaving that develop within other cultures. In the United States, for example, the 'hippies' of the 1960s could be considered a microculture. Ironically, psychologists now ask if members of a microculture are really trying to 'stand out' from the norm ... or if they are conforming to other members of the microculture.
Positive Punishment
take away a positive thing
Interpersonal therapists
take this a step further by focusing on present relationships rather than past hurts. Perhaps a patient's social skills need improving. Perhaps they need help in figuring out how to better resolve disputes, or how to express their own opinions and emotions in a healthier fashion.
Julian Rotter's social learning theory
teaches that those with an internal locus of control believe we control our own destiny, for the most part. People with a strong internal locus of control appear to be better leaders and lead more psychologically healthy lives than do externals.
Survey
technique for ascertaining the self- reported attitudes or behaviors of people; usually by questioning a representative, random sample of people
free association
techniques to expose the unconscious where the patient says the first thing that comes to mind after a prompt by the therapist
Rooting Reflex
tendency to open mouth, and search nipple when touched on the cheek
False Consensus Effect
tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
psychoanalytic theory
that one's personality was set in early childhood.
Humanists believe...
that people influence their own lives by making choices and exercising free will
cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brain stem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance; also helps us judge time, modulate our emotions, and discriminate sounds and textures.
latent content
the 'real meaning' of the dream; often involves interpretation of symbolic images.
Pinel
the French reformer who insisted that madness was not demon possession who called for humane treatment of patients
cognitive dissonance
the conflict that occurs when our behaviors do not seem to match our supposed attitudes. Though many people assume that we tend to change our behaviors to match our attitudes, research on dissonance has shown that the opposite is frequently the case. EX: Cassandra, a six-foot-two-inch tall college sophomore, does not look favorably on "shorter guys" and refuses to date them. She later meets Steve, a five-foot-nine-inch tall college junior whom she finds funny and attractive. When they do go out together, she changes her unfavorable attitude towards 'shorter guys' to ease her cognitive dissonance.
Rehearsal
the conscious repetition of information either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
Extrasensory Perception (ESP)
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
social clock
the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement. This can increase pressure to meet certain 'social standards' like marriage, moving out of your parents' home, having children, and being successful in your career.
valid
the degree to which a test accurately measures what it is supposed to
Fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
levels of analysis
the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.
Hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth
Wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission
Nurture
the environment
dependent variable
the experimental factor -- in psychology, the behavior or mental process--that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
independent variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
Freud proposed that our personality consists of three parts
the id, the ego, and the superego.
Drive Reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. (ie, the thirst drive builds until we reduce it by drinking). Helps explain primary drives-which relate to survival behaviors/biological needs like eating and drinking-as well as secondary drives (learned drives, like a desire for money that can get us food and water to satisfy our primary drives).
Empiricism
the idea that all knowledge should come from the senses and that science can only flourish through observation and experimentation
Stage theories
the idea that human development occurs in discrete, continuous, and measurable phases
serial-position effect
the idea that the location of information in a list influences memory
social exchange theory
the idea that we view our social behaviors as one big "account balance" and that we try to do good when we think the potential reward outweighs the potential cost. If Joni decides to volunteer at the homeless shelter's soup kitchen in part because she thinks her volunteering will look good on her resume or college applications, she is demonstrating social exchange theory.
Egocentrism
the inability of the preoperational child to take another's point of view
Secure attachment
the infant explores the new situation while parent is present, gets upset when the parent leaves, and readily comes to the parent when he/she returns
Avoidant Attachment
the infant resists being held at all by the parent in a new situation and explores willingly. They do NOT go to the parent when he/she returns from being absent
Short-term Memory
the information that can be processed at one time (like the 7 digits of phone number)
Nucleus
the inner area of a cell that houses chromosomes and genes
Inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
Cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
lymphocytes
the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.
Jean Piaget
theorized that our mind develops by forming schemas that help us assimilate. Developed four well-defined stages of development
Opponent Process Theory
theory of color vision that says that opposing retinal processes enable color vision (red-green) (yellow-blue) (black-white). ◦This theory helps explain afterimages, because it asserts that as one member of the pair "grows tired," the other member "takes over." ◦For example, if you stare at a red image for 60 seconds or so, then look at a blank or white screen, you will briefly see a green afterimage.
group therapy
therapists can help more people in less time; sessions are usually less expensive; patients realize that others share their problems; and the group meetings promote a sense of community among the patients.( ex psychodrama)
Semantic memories
these involve remembering facts, concepts, and meanings. If you can 'define' a word, you are recalling your semantic memory of that word.
somatoform disorders
those that cause a physiological (bodily) symptom or symptoms
unconscious (sometimes called subconscious)
thoughts and feelings that are not readily available in memory, and if some of those memories are uncomfortable to our conscious, we bury them deep in our unconscious. EX: Memories of childhood traumas, hurtful experiences, and memories which we might want to repress in our unconscious. Many contemporary psychologists agree that we process most information outside of our conscious awareness
Eardrum
tightly stretched membrane located at the end of the ear canal that vibrates when struck by sound waves
Nodes Of Ranvier
tiny gaps in the myelin sheath, purpose is still unknown
factor analysis approach
to IQ testing lets researchers identify clusters of test items that measure a common ability. This approach to analysis is used with the AP Psychology Exam when questions are clustered by chapter or concept. On an IQ test there might be a cluster that measured verbal comprehension, spatial ability, or problem solving.
addicted
to be either physically or psychologically dependent on a drug
memory
to recall. Memory is thought of as a cognitive (or mental) process. acquiring new knowledge/information, encoding it, storing it, and retrieving it when needed.
Angular gyrus
transforms visual representations into an auditory code
mental set
type of fixation when we repeat those solutions that have worked for us in the past. We often tell ourselves, "It worked before, why shouldn't it work again!"
Operate Conditioning
type of learning where behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
Behavioral
views disorders as a conditioned (learned) response to the general environment or to specific situations/stimuli. Example: Pedro felt reinforced for his depressed thinking because it allowed him to avoid uncomfortable situations (missing school/work, etc.). As a result, his depression was strengthened.
Psychodynamic/psychoanalytic
views disorders as being rooted in 'internal conflicts' within the unconscious mind. Early childhood trauma, anxiety and possibly repression as a 'defense mechanism' are all important to the psychodynamic perspective on disorders Example: Kim does not remember seeing the snake in the barn when she was three years old but this repressed memory causes her snake phobia.
Cognitive
views disorders as maladjusted or improper ways of thinking. Example: Even though she did not do anything wrong, Tiffany blames herself for her team's loss and now feels depressed. This is a negative 'self-interpretation' of the loss and changing her thinking would help her depression.
Humanistic
views disorders as rooted in a person's self-concept or self-esteem. Example: Brandon's fear of crowds is related to his own low self-esteem and self-image; being around/comparing himself to others causes discomfort.
Neuroscience
views disorders as strictly 'scientific' in nature; caused by neurotransmitter imbalance in the brain, genetic defects, hormonal fluctuations, etc. Example: Valerie is depressed and an antidepressant drug is prescribed to increase the serotonin in her brain chemistry.
visual capture
visual capture refers to the finding that vision is the dominant sense in human beings and that visual information often outweighs other sensory information
Laudanum
was a drug used widely during the Victorian era, it was a combination of alcohol and opium. Laudanum and paregoric were used essentially to suppress coughs, pain, and to quiet fussy babies.
James-Lange theory
was developed by pioneering psychologists William James and Carl Lange. It proposes that we first experience physiological responses (ie, racing heartbeat) and feel emotion just AFTER we notice the physiological response.
'Mesmerism', or 'hypnotism'
was not studied again until the 1880's by Freud.
external locus of control
we believe that outside forces control our lives. As such, we must guard against learned helplessness, for if we 'rage against the machine' to no avail, we begin to feel that our own efforts have no impact. It has been suggested that learned helplessness may account, in part, for why the victims of battered women's syndrome hesitate to leave their batterers. They have learned to be helpless in the face of adversity—they have developed a victim mentality.
confirmation bias
we look for evidence that supports our beliefs and ignore evidence that might contradict what we think to be true
Preconventional stage
we make moral decisions based on the consequences.Tommy chooses to share his toy, for example, because he fears punishment from his parents if he does not.
Conventional stage
we make moral decisions based on what others expect from us. As a high-school student, Tommy chooses to work for a local charity because it "looks good" on his college applications.
Post-conventional stage
we make moral decisions based on what we perceive as "right." As an adult, Tommy chooses not to report a man who steals a loaf of bread because he perceives that the man's personal need is greater than society's demand for law and order.
Nightmares
we remember. They may wake us from a sound sleep terrified with our hearts pounding. When asked, we can usually recount all the details.
adaptation level phenomenon
we tend to judge a new experience based on those from the past, and eventually they 'even out' (for example, the amount of income from a raise soon becomes taken for granted as 'normal').
reliable
we would get the same score regardless of when, where, or how many times we take it. The results are consistent.
Deductive reasoning
when we draw inferences and implications from a set of assumptions and apply them to specific cases, or reasoning from the general to the specific. Jack knows that an auto company named Chevroyota makes reliable cars. He chooses to buy one specific model of Chevroyota because he thinks that it will be a reliable car. Jack has used deductive reasoning—he has applied his general knowledge of the Chevroyota company to his specific purchase.
theta waves
when you are falling more completely asleep
Iconic
when you look at an image, your form a brief, split-second memory of the image in your mind. This is an iconic memory.
Halo Effect
where the interviewer generalizes a favorable impression about one aspect of a person to unrelated dimensions of the personality. "She looks good, so she must be a good, conscientious worker."
talk therapy
where the patient simply talks extensively, and listening for the patient's use of defense mechanisms. (exposing the unconscious)
functional fixedness
where we have a tendency to see the functions of objects as unchanging. EX: Using a newspaper to shield you from the rain; when you think of a use for an object beyond its ordinary function.
Organizational psychology
which considers how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity. -Developing organizations -Enhancing quality of work life
Human psychology and engineering
which explores how machines and environments can be optimally designed to fit human abilities and expectations. -Design work environments -Optimize person-machine interactions -Develop systems technologies
conversion disorder
which occurs when a physiological (bodily) symptom or condition cannot be attributed to any obvious physical cause (for example, some people report temporary blindness in times of extreme emotional distress).
Personal Unconscious
which resembles Freud's preconscious and unconscious, and which might hold our complexes, which are those threatening or painful memories which we do not want to confront; and the ego, which is our conscious mind
frustration-aggression principle
which simply states that we are more likely to engage in aggressive behavior when we are already frustrated by another, sometimes completely unrelated, event.
door-in-the-face strategy.
which someone refuses a 'big request' and then gives in to a smaller one EX:if you really want your parents to allow you to go to a concert on Friday night, you might ask for something bigger or more expensive. When your parents flatly refuse, you then follow up with a request like "Well can I at least go to that concert on Friday night?" Because people tend to look more favorably on a 'smaller request' when it follows a larger one that they have refused, you may succeed in getting your way.
challenge
which usually provokes a more constructive, focused response
threat
which usually provokes alarm and a stress reaction
Anal Expulsive
which would later translate into being excessively messy and with little concern for control and order.
Supertasters
who have more papillae may eat fewer vegetables because they find them especially bitter. They may find coffee bitter, and highly spiced food to be too much to handle.
behaviorist
would apply classical and operant conditioning methods to helping you get rid of unwanted behaviors. A behavioral therapist doesn't really care why you have a problem, they just believe that it can be corrected with the appropriate behavioral techniques.
rationalization
would be a defense mechanism to protect you from thinking you are a bad person for hitting a three year old.
Corneal injury or disease
would decrease transparency of cornea, a blurred image would appear on the retina
Behavioral psychologists...
would say that aggression is learned—that people feel reinforced or rewarded when they get their way by aggression and, thus, are more apt to repeat the behavior.
When sound waves reach your ear
you know you've heard a soft sound or a loud sound. The sound passes through the outer ear and is funneled into the middle ear, where it bounces off the ear drum and is amplified through three tiny bones: the hammer, anvil, and stirrup. These are the smallest bones in your body. Together they are smaller than an orange seed. It then travels into the inner ear, which is filled with fluid, through the cochlea, and passes the vibration of the sound through the hair cells to your brain.
pre-conscious
zone between the conscious and unconscious mind which would contain those thoughts which are not presently in our conscious mind, but which we could pull into our conscious from our memories fairly easily.
Synesthesia
◦Two or more sensations co-mingle ◦"I see the most brilliant blue after I eat a salty pretzel." ◦Synesthetes at times were viewed as mentally defective, and at other times as gifted. They also feel pain in color. When jumping from a rock and tearing a ligament, one said all she saw was orange. This condition is more common in women than in men ( 1 in 2000 females outnumbering males 6 to 1), and tends to run in families.
Young Helmholtz Theory
◦a theory of color vision that says the retina contains 3 types of cones. ◦Each is sensitive to one of the three primary colors of red, green and blue which are produced by the wavelength.
Color Constancy Theory
◦theory that says that we can perceive color even when our ambient light (the lighting around us) changes because we know that an object is supposed to be a certain color. ◦For example, a bright red apple may look brown or purple in dim light, but we continue to perceive it as a "red" apple.