Constructivist Learning: Theory, Problem Solving, and Transfer

Positive transfer

previous learning makes later learning easier

Self-regulation occurs when

a person generates and controls thoughts, feelings, and actions in an effort to achieve a learning goal

to achieve an optimal understanding of a problem, and individual needs two things:

high degree of knowledge of the subject matter and familiarity with the particular type of problem

A problem is said to exist when

one has a goal and has not yet identified a means for reaching that goal

environmental supports

modeling, hints, leading questions, and suggestions and then gradually removing them (scaffolding)

Ill-structured problems

more complex, vaguely stated, unclear solution procedures; vague evaluation standards

In addition to prior knowledge, construction of ideas is aided by

multiple perspectives, self-regulation, and authentic tasks

"Flipping" the classroom

students do their reading and practice exercises at home and use class time to discuss concepts, solve problems, or work on projects

Situated learning

students given learning tasks set in realistic contexts

Transfer of learning

students independently applying the knowledge and problem solving skills they learn in school to similar but new situations

Problem based learning

students learn a body of knowledge and then use that knowledge to solve problems

In an intentional learning environment,

students learn how to set goals, generate and interrelate new ideas, link new knowledge to old, negotiate meaning with peers, and relate what they learned to other tasks

Evaluate the solution (step 5)

ask whether the solution makes sense, use an alternative algorithm to check solution, ask basic questions, identify imperfections and complications, anticipate possible negative reactions, devise improvements

Guided discovery (and its close relative, inquiry-based learning)

means providing students with various forms support, such as explaining some aspect of the material, providing prompts, and feedback

Doctrine of formal discipline

A strong mind would learn things a weak mind would not

Good problem solvers

1. Realize that a problem exists 2. Understand the nature of the problem 3. Compile relevant information 4. Formulate and carry out a solution 5. Evaluate the solution

Two conditions need to be present for low-road transfer to occur

1. ample opportunities to practice using the target skills 2. Practice has to occur with different materials and in different settings

10 habits and skills that contribute to the ability to evaluate complex solutions and problems

1. being open-minded about opposing points of view. 2. selecting proper criteria of evaluation 3. understanding the essence of an argument 4. evaluating reliability of sources 5. Properly interpreting factual data 6. Testing credibility of hypotheses 7. Making important distinctions 8. Recognizing unstated assumptions 9. Evaluating validity and truthfulness of one's arguments 10. Recognize when evidence is insufficient

Characteristics of a Constructivist Classroom (there's 9)

1. determine what students already know 2. help students create realistic learning experiences 3. problem-based activities 4. opportunities for debate and discussion 5. indirect teaching (students think for themselves) 6. explaining ideas, interpreting, predicting, constructing arguments 7. write and present research projects 8. assess progress continually 9. revise processes and standards as needed

Constructivism's framework includes

1. prior knowledge 2. multiple perspectives 3. self-regulation 4. authentic learning

Teach several methods for formulating problem solutions

1. study worked examples 2. work on simpler version of problem 3. break problem into parts 4. work backward 5. use backward fading (scaffolding) 6. solve an analogous problem 7. create external representation

examples of well-structured problems

2+2=4

The theory of identical elements

Disciplines like Latin, Greek, and geometry were considered difficult to learn, so mastering them was expected to improve a student's ability to memorize, think, and reason and facilitate the learning of less difficult subjects

Tips for student's discussion

Emphasize contrast, stimulate informed guessing, encourage participation, stimulate awareness

Compile relevant information (step 3)

In the forms of lists, tables, pictures, graphs and diagrams, and seeking additional information from other sources

Discovery learning

Jerome Bruner's concept of how we discover new ideas relate to each other and to existing knowledge

Understand the nature of the problem (Step 2)

Perhaps the most critical step, where the learner has to create an optimal representation, or understanding, of the nature of a problem

Theory of identical elements

The greater the degree of similarity is between the tasks' stimulus and response elements

Experts sort problems

according to a common underlying principle, such as conservation of energy or Newton's third law

External representations on a problem

aids in problem framing, as many problems can be represented as pictures, equations, graphs, flowcharts, and concept maps

Limitations of constructivism

almost impossible to create detailed lesson plans, time consuming, places higher demands on learners, teacher-as-artist as modifying and adjusting on the fly

General transfer

also known as nonspecific transfer, due to the use of the same cognitive strategies rather than the similarities between two subjects

Jean Piaget says that learning is the result of

an intrinsic drive to resolve inconsistencies and contradictions

An individuals conception of the truth is

based on their ability, with guidance, to assimilate information effectively into existing schemes and develop new schemes.

Sometimes people are unable to solve problems

because they were unable to identify there was a problem

Teach students how to compile relevant information

by guiding students towards viable resources (text, human, or experiential)

Teach students how to identify problems

by having students list different ways in which problems can be identified

Teach students the skill of evaluation

by using estimating or checking your routine for problem solving.

examples of issues

capital punishment, gun control, and nondenominational prayer in schools

Present a topic where there is no

clear answer, thereby stimulating debate

Performance goals provide

clear, easily specified outcomes (similar to well-structured problems)

Well-structured problems

clearly stated, known solution procedures (can be solved by recall with an algorithim); known evaluation standards

Conditions that foster Constructivist Learning

cognitive apprenticeship between student and teacher, use of realistic problems and conditions, and an emphasis on multiple perspectives

For well-structured problems that are simple and familiar

compiling relevant information occurs simultaneously with problem representation

Bruner believes teachers should

confront children with problems and help them seek solutions either independently or by engaging in group discussions

Constructivism

creating a personal interpretation of external ideas and experiences. Making meaningful learning through actively trying to make sense of the world by filtering new ideas and experiences through existing knowledge structures

CHAT

cultural-historical activity theory (how culture and history influence people's thoughts and actions

Specific transfer

learning is supported due to specific similarities between two tasks

Arrange the elements of a learning task and guide students actions so that students

discover, or construct, a personally meaningful conception of a problem or issue

Cognitive constructivism

emphasizes the role of cognitive processes in meaningful learning

Critical constructivism

emphasizes the role of cultural myths and how they influence learning environments

Social constructivism

emphasizes the role of culture and social interaction in meaningful learning

Inert knowledge hinders students by

failing to connect what they learn to a real-world setting because they don't see any relationship between the two

Bruner argues that true learning comes from

figuring out how to use what you already know in order to go beyond what you already think

Heuristics

general solution strategies that can be applied to all problems

Realize that a problem exists (Step 1)

good problem solvers are more sensitive to the existence of problems, using curiosity and dissatisfaction

learning multiple perspectives

helps students because most of life's problems are multifaceted and the knowledge base of experts is already a network of interrelated ideas

examples of ill-structured problems

how to identify and reward good teachers, how to increase voter turnout

Issues

ill-structured problems that arouse strong feelings

General transfer includes the use of

imagery, verbal elaboration, and mnemonic devices

Novices sort problems

into categories on the basis of some noticeable feature

Working backward

is a good strategy to use whenever the goal is clear but the beginning is not

Solve an analogous problem

is useful because you can think or a similar problem about a subject in which you are more knowledgeable

When students are presented with such highly structured materials as worksheets and other types of drill-and=practice exercises

learners become too dependent on other people and might learn just to earn a reward

Social interaction and the negotiation of understanding with others can help

learners construct knowledge

Engaging with others helps

learners develop their own views

As an constructivist observed,

learning is an act of both individual interpretation and negotiation with other individuals

Inert knowledge can be accessed

only under conditions that closely mimic the original learning context

Structure discussions by

posing specific question, presenting a provocative topic related issue, or asking students to choose topics or subtopics

Negative transfer

previous learning interferes with later learning

Far transfer

previously learned knowledge and skills used much later on dissimilar tasks and under different conditions

Near transfer

previously learned knowledge and skills used relatively soon on highly similar tasks

Low-road transfer

previously learned skill automatically applied to similar current task

Construction of ideas is strongly influenced by the student's

prior knowledge

Zero Transfer

prior learning has no effect on new learning

Authentic problems provide

realistic contexts that contribute to the construction and transfer of knowledge

Breaking problems into parts

reduces the amount of info you have to keep in short-term memory and the method used to solve one part of the problem can often be used to solve another part

Backward fading

scaffolds multiple step problems by helping students on all steps, then two steps, then one, then letting them do the problem on their own

Teach students how to represent problems

so that they can transform the words into an internal representation showing they understand the concepts embedded in the problem statement and the relationships among those concepts

Well-structured problems may only use

steps 2 (understand problem), 4 (Formulate, carry out solution) 5. (Evaluate solution)

Activating relevant schemes

the ability to activate relevant schemes from long-term memory when they are needed

Constructivists believe meaningful learning is

the active creation of knowledge structures from personal experience

with repeated applications of schemata, rules, strategies,

the behaviors become less conscious and more automatic. What was once a reflection of high-road transfer becomes low-road transfer.

Mindful abstraction

the deliberate, conscious, effortful formulating of a general principle, or schemata that can be applied to a variety of different-looking but fundamentally similar tasks

Problem solving

the identification and application of knowledge and skills that result in goal attainment

negotiated meaning

the result of open-ended discussions with peers and teachers

Problem representation (or problem framing)

the way we represent a problem determines the amount and type of solution-relevant information we recall from long-term memory, some representations are better than others

Solve the simpler version of a problem first

then transfer the process to a harder problem

Formulate and Carry out a solution (step 4)

think of possible solutions and alternatives; 1. study worked examples, 2. work on a simpler version of the problem, 3. break the problem into parts, 4. work backwards, 5. backward fading, 6. solve an analogous problem, 7. create an external representation of the problem

Learning goals are more similar

to ill-structured problems

Discovery is

too inefficient a process to be used with everything

Inert knowledge

traditional classrooms, drill-and-practice and taking tests

High-road transfer

transferring prior knowledge and skills over longer time periods to new situations that look rather different than the original task

Low-road and high-road transfer produced by

varied practice at applying skills, rules, memory retrieval cues

Positive transfer occurs

when a new learning task calls for essentially the same response that was made to a similar, earlier learned task

Primary grade children experience negative transfer

when they encounter words that are spelled alike but sound different "read" and "read"

Negative transfer occurs

when two tasks are highly similar but require different responses

Zero transfer occurs

when two tasks have different stimuli and different responses