Constructivist Learning: Theory, Problem Solving, and Transfer
Positive transfer
previous learning makes later learning easier
Self-regulation occurs when
a person generates and controls thoughts, feelings, and actions in an effort to achieve a learning goal
to achieve an optimal understanding of a problem, and individual needs two things:
high degree of knowledge of the subject matter and familiarity with the particular type of problem
A problem is said to exist when
one has a goal and has not yet identified a means for reaching that goal
environmental supports
modeling, hints, leading questions, and suggestions and then gradually removing them (scaffolding)
Ill-structured problems
more complex, vaguely stated, unclear solution procedures; vague evaluation standards
In addition to prior knowledge, construction of ideas is aided by
multiple perspectives, self-regulation, and authentic tasks
"Flipping" the classroom
students do their reading and practice exercises at home and use class time to discuss concepts, solve problems, or work on projects
Situated learning
students given learning tasks set in realistic contexts
Transfer of learning
students independently applying the knowledge and problem solving skills they learn in school to similar but new situations
Problem based learning
students learn a body of knowledge and then use that knowledge to solve problems
In an intentional learning environment,
students learn how to set goals, generate and interrelate new ideas, link new knowledge to old, negotiate meaning with peers, and relate what they learned to other tasks
Evaluate the solution (step 5)
ask whether the solution makes sense, use an alternative algorithm to check solution, ask basic questions, identify imperfections and complications, anticipate possible negative reactions, devise improvements
Guided discovery (and its close relative, inquiry-based learning)
means providing students with various forms support, such as explaining some aspect of the material, providing prompts, and feedback
Doctrine of formal discipline
A strong mind would learn things a weak mind would not
Good problem solvers
1. Realize that a problem exists 2. Understand the nature of the problem 3. Compile relevant information 4. Formulate and carry out a solution 5. Evaluate the solution
Two conditions need to be present for low-road transfer to occur
1. ample opportunities to practice using the target skills 2. Practice has to occur with different materials and in different settings
10 habits and skills that contribute to the ability to evaluate complex solutions and problems
1. being open-minded about opposing points of view. 2. selecting proper criteria of evaluation 3. understanding the essence of an argument 4. evaluating reliability of sources 5. Properly interpreting factual data 6. Testing credibility of hypotheses 7. Making important distinctions 8. Recognizing unstated assumptions 9. Evaluating validity and truthfulness of one's arguments 10. Recognize when evidence is insufficient
Characteristics of a Constructivist Classroom (there's 9)
1. determine what students already know 2. help students create realistic learning experiences 3. problem-based activities 4. opportunities for debate and discussion 5. indirect teaching (students think for themselves) 6. explaining ideas, interpreting, predicting, constructing arguments 7. write and present research projects 8. assess progress continually 9. revise processes and standards as needed
Constructivism's framework includes
1. prior knowledge 2. multiple perspectives 3. self-regulation 4. authentic learning
Teach several methods for formulating problem solutions
1. study worked examples 2. work on simpler version of problem 3. break problem into parts 4. work backward 5. use backward fading (scaffolding) 6. solve an analogous problem 7. create external representation
examples of well-structured problems
2+2=4
The theory of identical elements
Disciplines like Latin, Greek, and geometry were considered difficult to learn, so mastering them was expected to improve a student's ability to memorize, think, and reason and facilitate the learning of less difficult subjects
Tips for student's discussion
Emphasize contrast, stimulate informed guessing, encourage participation, stimulate awareness
Compile relevant information (step 3)
In the forms of lists, tables, pictures, graphs and diagrams, and seeking additional information from other sources
Discovery learning
Jerome Bruner's concept of how we discover new ideas relate to each other and to existing knowledge
Understand the nature of the problem (Step 2)
Perhaps the most critical step, where the learner has to create an optimal representation, or understanding, of the nature of a problem
Theory of identical elements
The greater the degree of similarity is between the tasks' stimulus and response elements
Experts sort problems
according to a common underlying principle, such as conservation of energy or Newton's third law
External representations on a problem
aids in problem framing, as many problems can be represented as pictures, equations, graphs, flowcharts, and concept maps
Limitations of constructivism
almost impossible to create detailed lesson plans, time consuming, places higher demands on learners, teacher-as-artist as modifying and adjusting on the fly
General transfer
also known as nonspecific transfer, due to the use of the same cognitive strategies rather than the similarities between two subjects
Jean Piaget says that learning is the result of
an intrinsic drive to resolve inconsistencies and contradictions
An individuals conception of the truth is
based on their ability, with guidance, to assimilate information effectively into existing schemes and develop new schemes.
Sometimes people are unable to solve problems
because they were unable to identify there was a problem
Teach students how to compile relevant information
by guiding students towards viable resources (text, human, or experiential)
Teach students how to identify problems
by having students list different ways in which problems can be identified
Teach students the skill of evaluation
by using estimating or checking your routine for problem solving.
examples of issues
capital punishment, gun control, and nondenominational prayer in schools
Present a topic where there is no
clear answer, thereby stimulating debate
Performance goals provide
clear, easily specified outcomes (similar to well-structured problems)
Well-structured problems
clearly stated, known solution procedures (can be solved by recall with an algorithim); known evaluation standards
Conditions that foster Constructivist Learning
cognitive apprenticeship between student and teacher, use of realistic problems and conditions, and an emphasis on multiple perspectives
For well-structured problems that are simple and familiar
compiling relevant information occurs simultaneously with problem representation
Bruner believes teachers should
confront children with problems and help them seek solutions either independently or by engaging in group discussions
Constructivism
creating a personal interpretation of external ideas and experiences. Making meaningful learning through actively trying to make sense of the world by filtering new ideas and experiences through existing knowledge structures
CHAT
cultural-historical activity theory (how culture and history influence people's thoughts and actions
Specific transfer
learning is supported due to specific similarities between two tasks
Arrange the elements of a learning task and guide students actions so that students
discover, or construct, a personally meaningful conception of a problem or issue
Cognitive constructivism
emphasizes the role of cognitive processes in meaningful learning
Critical constructivism
emphasizes the role of cultural myths and how they influence learning environments
Social constructivism
emphasizes the role of culture and social interaction in meaningful learning
Inert knowledge hinders students by
failing to connect what they learn to a real-world setting because they don't see any relationship between the two
Bruner argues that true learning comes from
figuring out how to use what you already know in order to go beyond what you already think
Heuristics
general solution strategies that can be applied to all problems
Realize that a problem exists (Step 1)
good problem solvers are more sensitive to the existence of problems, using curiosity and dissatisfaction
learning multiple perspectives
helps students because most of life's problems are multifaceted and the knowledge base of experts is already a network of interrelated ideas
examples of ill-structured problems
how to identify and reward good teachers, how to increase voter turnout
Issues
ill-structured problems that arouse strong feelings
General transfer includes the use of
imagery, verbal elaboration, and mnemonic devices
Novices sort problems
into categories on the basis of some noticeable feature
Working backward
is a good strategy to use whenever the goal is clear but the beginning is not
Solve an analogous problem
is useful because you can think or a similar problem about a subject in which you are more knowledgeable
When students are presented with such highly structured materials as worksheets and other types of drill-and=practice exercises
learners become too dependent on other people and might learn just to earn a reward
Social interaction and the negotiation of understanding with others can help
learners construct knowledge
Engaging with others helps
learners develop their own views
As an constructivist observed,
learning is an act of both individual interpretation and negotiation with other individuals
Inert knowledge can be accessed
only under conditions that closely mimic the original learning context
Structure discussions by
posing specific question, presenting a provocative topic related issue, or asking students to choose topics or subtopics
Negative transfer
previous learning interferes with later learning
Far transfer
previously learned knowledge and skills used much later on dissimilar tasks and under different conditions
Near transfer
previously learned knowledge and skills used relatively soon on highly similar tasks
Low-road transfer
previously learned skill automatically applied to similar current task
Construction of ideas is strongly influenced by the student's
prior knowledge
Zero Transfer
prior learning has no effect on new learning
Authentic problems provide
realistic contexts that contribute to the construction and transfer of knowledge
Breaking problems into parts
reduces the amount of info you have to keep in short-term memory and the method used to solve one part of the problem can often be used to solve another part
Backward fading
scaffolds multiple step problems by helping students on all steps, then two steps, then one, then letting them do the problem on their own
Teach students how to represent problems
so that they can transform the words into an internal representation showing they understand the concepts embedded in the problem statement and the relationships among those concepts
Well-structured problems may only use
steps 2 (understand problem), 4 (Formulate, carry out solution) 5. (Evaluate solution)
Activating relevant schemes
the ability to activate relevant schemes from long-term memory when they are needed
Constructivists believe meaningful learning is
the active creation of knowledge structures from personal experience
with repeated applications of schemata, rules, strategies,
the behaviors become less conscious and more automatic. What was once a reflection of high-road transfer becomes low-road transfer.
Mindful abstraction
the deliberate, conscious, effortful formulating of a general principle, or schemata that can be applied to a variety of different-looking but fundamentally similar tasks
Problem solving
the identification and application of knowledge and skills that result in goal attainment
negotiated meaning
the result of open-ended discussions with peers and teachers
Problem representation (or problem framing)
the way we represent a problem determines the amount and type of solution-relevant information we recall from long-term memory, some representations are better than others
Solve the simpler version of a problem first
then transfer the process to a harder problem
Formulate and Carry out a solution (step 4)
think of possible solutions and alternatives; 1. study worked examples, 2. work on a simpler version of the problem, 3. break the problem into parts, 4. work backwards, 5. backward fading, 6. solve an analogous problem, 7. create an external representation of the problem
Learning goals are more similar
to ill-structured problems
Discovery is
too inefficient a process to be used with everything
Inert knowledge
traditional classrooms, drill-and-practice and taking tests
High-road transfer
transferring prior knowledge and skills over longer time periods to new situations that look rather different than the original task
Low-road and high-road transfer produced by
varied practice at applying skills, rules, memory retrieval cues
Positive transfer occurs
when a new learning task calls for essentially the same response that was made to a similar, earlier learned task
Primary grade children experience negative transfer
when they encounter words that are spelled alike but sound different "read" and "read"
Negative transfer occurs
when two tasks are highly similar but require different responses
Zero transfer occurs
when two tasks have different stimuli and different responses