Criminology Final CH 12-17

USA Patriot Act (2011)

The act grants federal agencies greater authority to track and intercept private communications, gives greater powers to the Treasury Department to combat corruption and prevent money laundering, and creates new crimes, penalties, and procedures for use against domestic and foreign terrorists

Does Drug Abuse Cause Crime

The data clearly indicate that illicit drug abuse is associated with criminal behavior, but the causal relationship is unclear There are three possible explanations: Drug use causes high rates of offending High rates of offending cause drug use There is no causal connection, with some other variable leading individuals to be predisposed to both crime and drug use A large body of research indicates that drug abuse does not appear to initiate a criminal career, although it does increase the extent and seriousness of one

Spree Murder

involves the killing of several people at different locations in rapid succession These killers make little effort to hide their activities or avoid detection Spree killing is rare, but spree-killing teams are even rarer Teams are typically composed of a dominant leader and submissive lover The most recent spree killer team was the sniper team of John Muhammad and Lee Malvo

Serial Murder

is the killing of three or more victims over an extended period of time, with a "cooling off" period in between kills Serial murders are less likely to involve guns, and more likely to involve "hands on" killing, often with torture Prevalence of Serial Killing: No one knows how many there are at any given time or how many murders per year are attributable to them

Honor Subcultures

"Communities in which young men are hypersensitive to insult, rushing to defend their reputation in dominance contests" Violence can be understood as adaptive when one considers the importance of dominance in protecting one's status before there was organized law enforcement, or in areas where law enforcement is ineffective in maintaining personal security Where legitimate opportunities are low, it may be a rational response to compete for the status and resources necessary for personal safety and reproductive success Still, understanding explanations of violence is not the same as morally condoning it

Types of Homicide

1. Aggravated (1st Degree) Murder 2. Felony Murder 3. Voluntary Manslaughter (2nd Degree Murder) 4. Involuntary Manslaughter 5. Negligent Manslaughter

6 Types of Corporate Crime

1. Illegal restraint of trade: conspiracy designed to stifle competition, create a monopoly, artificially maintain prices, or otherwise interfere with free market competition. 2. Manufacturing Violations 3. Environmental Violations 4. Labor Violations 5. Financial Crimes 6. Noncompliance with court orders

White Collar Crimes

A crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his/her occupation. Involves conspiracies by members of the wealthy class to use their position in commerce and industry for personal gain without regard for the law. Result in over 20 million serious injuries annually 110,000 people who become permanently disabled 30,000 deaths

Suicide Bombing

A person nurtured on the hatred spouted in the madrasa is ideal material for recruitment as a martyr to the cause Martyrdom brings with it the promise of immediate ascension into heaven, where he will find "rivers of milk and wine . . . lakes of honey, and the services of 72 virgins" In addition to the rewards offered to Islamic terrorists just described, for terrorist "wannabes," "terrorism can provide a route for advancement, an opportunity for glamour and excitement, a chance of world renown, a way of demonstrating one's courage, and even a way of accumulating wealth" (Reich, 1990, p. 271)

Subculture of Violence

A subculture in which the norms, values, and attitudes of its members legitimize the use of violence to resolve conflicts

Ideological Left-Wing Domestic Terrorist Groups

According to the FBI, left-wing groups "generally profess a revolutionary socialist doctrine and view themselves as protectors of the people against the 'dehumanizing effects' of capitalism and imperialism" They aim to bring about change in the United States and believe this change can be realized through revolution rather than through the established political process Leftist-oriented Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and the Earth Liberation Front (ELF) have emerged in the past several years as major domestic terror threats ELF has been declared by the FBI as America's number one domestic terrorist group, which seems like a gross exaggeration given the so-called "Americanization of al-Qaeda" noted earlier PETA in their extreme form belongs to this group

Al-Queda

Al-Qaeda is not a single terrorist group, but a base organization for a number of Sunni and Muslim terrorist groups (Al-Qaeda means "the base") The organization has cells operating in 100 countries around the world, including the U.S. The organization was formed by Osama bin Laden in the late 1980s, and expanded dramatically in the 1990s Bin Laden had fought the Russians during their invasion of Afghanistan throughout the 1980s, and opposed the stationing of non-Muslim troops in Saudi Arabia after the end of the first Gulf War in 1991 After being exiled from Saudi Arabia, bin Laden moved to Sudan, from where he funded his worldwide terrorist network with his vast personal fortune, the drug trade, and a variety of other criminal activities in a variety of countries After being ousted from Sudan, bin Laden and his henchmen moved to Afghanistan, where they found refuge and protection with the Taliban regime

Property Crimes

Although violent crime gets the most of media attention, 80.4% of the 11,266,737 offenses reported to the police in 2011 were property crimes Property crime involves either the illegal acquisition of money and goods or the malicious destruction of property Larceny-theft accounted for 68.0% percent of all property crimes in 2011 Burglary accounted for 24.1% Motor vehicle theft for 7.9%, and resulted in an estimated total loss of $15.6 billion Just about everyone will be a victim of a property crime some time in life and most have committed or will commit a property offense of some kind

Involuntary Manslaughter

An unintentional killing resulting from a reckless act in which the offender consciously disregarded the risk of their actions to the lives of others, as with drunk driving

Aggravated Assault

An unlawful attack by one person upon another for the purpose of inflicting severe or aggravated bodily injury Aggravated assault is differentiated from simple assault by the use of a weapon, though sometimes the use of hands and feet can result in a charge of aggravated assault. There were 751, 131 aggravated assaults reported in 2011 This rate of 241.1 per 100,000 is a 45.4% drop from all-time high of 441.8 in 1992 Slightly more than 21% percent of aggravated assaults were committed with firearms About 42% arrested for aggravated assault were under age of 25 77% were male 63.9% were white 33.6% were black 1.5% were other races. Each aggravated assault carries the risk of becoming a murder, though modern medicine has reduced the rate of assault fatalities

Arson

Any willful or malicious burning or attempting to burn, with or without intent to defraud, a dwelling house, public building, motor vehicle or aircraft, personal property of another, etc. It can be difficult to determine whether a "suspicious" fire should be counted as an arson Males account for 85.5% of arson arrests, whites for 72.3%, and juveniles for 43.5% in 2011 Arson can have a variety of instrumental motivations: Financial Gain Revenge Intimidation Expressive Motivations Juveniles comprise only about 6% of the American population but are arrested in more than 43% of arson cases

Economic-Compulsive Violence

Associated with efforts to obtain money to finance the high cost of illicit drugs

Systematic Violence

Associated with the business of drug manufacturing and transportation

Binge Drinking

Binge drinkers are particularly more likely to define drinking as a time-out period Defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP) as four or more drinks for a woman or five or more for a man on a single occasion Binge drinkers are typically college-age single young adults who drink solely to get drunk The cultures among American college students, and in Russia within the population more generally, have a high tolerance for heavy drinking

Negligent Manslaughter

Causing a death through some negligent act that carries a substantial risk of death to others This crime involves failure to do something that should have been done, such as failing to fix an unsafe vehicle or comply with safety regulations

Law Enforcement Response to Corporate Crime

Corporate crime is monitored and responded to by a variety of criminal, administrative, and regulatory bodies, but very few corporate crooks have received truly meaningful sanctions In 2002, Congress passed the Sarbanes-Oxley Act: increased the penalties for corporate criminals increased the budget of agencies charged with investigating corporate criminals and made prosecution easier Sherman Anti-Trust Act: federal courts define the following acts as illegal regardless of corporate intenet: Division of markets, Tying arrangements, Group boycotts, Price-fixing

Sutherland's Definition of White Collar Crime

Crime "committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation"

Occupational Crime

Crimes committed by individuals in the course of their employment Crimes range from stealing pens and paper clips to the draining of company funds through sophisticated computer techniques It seems that every occupational category generates a considerable number of criminals, and the higher the prestige of the occupation, the more their crimes cost the general public For example, overall medical fraud is estimated to cost about $260 billion a year, or about 10% o the overall U.S. health care bill (FBI, 2009) Causes of Occupational Crime: Hirschi & Gottfredson (1987) suggest that occupational crime is different from street crime only in that it is committed by people in a position to do so The motives of occupational criminals are believed to be the same as those of street criminals (to obtain benefits quickly with minimal effort)

Corporate Crime

Criminal activity on behalf of a business organization committed during the course of fulfilling the legitimate role of the corporation, and in the name of corporate profit and growth During much of American history, the prevailing philosophy was laissez-faire Victims of defective products could not sue corporations due to the guiding principle of caveat emptor There are criminogenic corporations with a tradition of wrongdoing, where newcomers are socialized into the prevailing way of doing things A study of the nation's 70 largest corporations found that 98% were recidivists, with an average of 14 regulatory or criminal decisions against them (Sutherland, 1956) A study of 477 major U.S. corporations found that 13% of the firms with violations accounted for 52% of violations, with an average of 23.5 per company (Clinard & Yeager, 1980) A study of brokerage firms found that many of the biggest names in the business have had an average of two or more serious violations per year since 1981 (Wells, 1995) Appears that people who choose business careers tend to have lower ethical and moral standards than people who choose other legitimate careers Efforts to differentiate between offenders and non-offenders in the white-collar world have focused largely on locus of control, moral reasoning, and Machiavellianism The literature indicates that those who engage in corporate crime tend to have an external locus of control

Homeland Security

Department of Homeland Security and the USA Patriot Act Just 11 days after the 9/11 terrorist attacks, President George W. Bush appointed Pennsylvania governor Tom Ridge as the first director of the Department of Homeland Security, a new cabinet-level department According to the department's website (2013), their counterterrorism responsibilities focus on three goals: Prevent terrorist attacks Prevent the unauthorized acquisition, importation, movement, or use of chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear materials and capabilities within the United States Reduce the vulnerability of critical infrastructure and key resources, essential leadership, and major events to terrorist attacks and other hazards The mission of the Department of Homeland Security is to detect, prevent, prepare for, and recover from terrorist attacks within the United States Detection involves coordinated efforts on the part of federal, state, and local agencies to collect information in an attempt to identify terrorist activities within the United States Prevention relates to the investigation of identified threats; the denial of entry of suspected terrorists, terrorist materials, and supplies into the United States; and the arrest, detention, and deportation of individuals suspected of membership in foreign terrorist groups Preparedness refers to nationwide efforts to prepare for and lessen the impact of any terrorist attack Recovery refers to efforts to quickly restore critical infrastructure facilities (distribution systems, utilities, telecommunications), the provision of adequate medical facilities, and the removal of hazardous materials in the event of a successful terrorist attack

Enron Scandal

Did tremendous damage to the economy Crisis of investor confidence of a magnitude that hasn't been seen since the Great Depression Enron was a $100 billion corporate empire with over 200,000 employees in 40 countries Controlled about one-quarter of all trading in natural gas and electricity in the United States causes: use of accounting loopholes, special purpose entities, and poor financial reporting, were able to hide billions of dollars in debt from failed deals and projects. Chief Financial Officer Andrew Fastow and other executives not only misled Enron's board of directors and audit committee on high-risk accounting practices, but also pressured Andersen to ignore the issues.

Felony Murder

Does not require an intention to kill It requires an intention to commit some other felony such as robbery, during which the victim ends up getting killed

Explaining Corporate Crime

Drive for Profit, Industry variation, Structure of Organizations, Culture of organizations

Crimes of Guile and Deceit

Embezzlement, Fraud, Forgery/Counterfeiting These offenses are committed by a demographically broader range of people than burglary and motor vehicle theft Some people consider these to be "white collar offenses"

Individual Radicalization

Evidence suggests radicalization is not always a group process At the least - it involves individual reflection whether a group plays a role or not Research indicates individual psychological and sociological factors create the framework for interpreting reality The probability of individual radicalization increases when a relatively weak group feels that its existence is threatened, and that it has been victimized by a superior power

Prostitution and Commercialized Vice

For much of American history, prostitution was regarded as a "necessary evil" Term "hooker" is apparently derived from the women who serviced the Union troops commanded by General Joseph Hooker during the Civil War Prostitutes were highly active in the old west, where women were a rare commodity. The FBI's definition of prostitution covers those who sell their sexual services (prostitutes), those who recruit (procure) them, those who solicit clients (pander) for them, and those who house them. The common term for a procurer and panderer is a pimp The common term for the keeper of a bawdy house (a brothel) is a madam There were 44,174 arrests for prostitution and commercialized vice in 2011, with 68.8% of arrestees being female Although prostitution is the only crime for which more women than men are arrested, the activity is almost exclusively male driven since almost all customers of both female and male prostitutes are men This is often referred to as the "world's oldest profession" Prostitution has not always had a sordid reputation Many ancient societies employed prostitutes in temples of worship In ancient Greece, many women of high birth who had fallen on hard times became high-class courtesans

Sageman's Model

Radicalization is a six-step framework: Alienated young man Meets other alienated young men and form bond Groups gravitate toward religion Religion interpreted in militant terms Militant group meets terrorist contact Militants join terrorists as a group decision

Forgery/Counterfeiting

Forgery: The creation or alteration of documents to give them the appearance of legality and validity with the intention of gaining fraudulent benefit from them Uttering: the passing of that document to another with knowledge of its falsity with intent to defraud One can commit forgery without uttering & vice versa Counterfeiting: A special case of forgery which involves the creation or altering of currency There were 53,791 arrests for forgery and/or counterfeiting in 2011 62.5% were males By race, 65.5% were white and 32.9% black, with the remaining 1.5% other races

Extent of Terrorism (Freedom Fighters)

Freedom fighters are fighters in wars of national liberation against foreign occupiers or against oppressive domestic regimes they seek to overthrow guerrillas may occasionally use terrorist tactics against noncombatants widespread use of such tactics will deprive them of the popular support they need they tend to confine their activities to fighting enemy combatants Terrorists often have access to the system but spurn the ballot box in favor of the bullet and bomb

Violence and Inequality

Frequently noted that impulsivity and discounting the future are maladaptive , but Wilson and Daly (1997) suggest discounting the future "may be a 'rational' response to information that indicates an uncertain or low probability of surviving to reap delayed benefits, for example, and 'reckless' risk taking can be optimal when the expected profits from safer courses of action are negligible" Tested their assumption with homicide, income inequality, and life expectancy data from the 77 neighborhoods in Chicago for the years 1988 through 1995 Hypothesized that neighborhoods with lowest income levels and shortest life expectancies (excluding homicides) would have highest homicide rates Life expectancy (effects of homicide mortality statistically removed) ranged from 54.3 years in the poorest neighborhood to 77.4 years in the wealthiest, and the attending homicide rates ranged from 1.3 in the wealthiest to 156 per 100,000 in the poorest, a huge 120-fold difference

Funding Terrorism

Funding for terrorist activities comes from many sources, but most of it originates with common criminal activities: Drug Trafficking Extortion Bank Robbery OIL, Human trafficking [ISIS(L)] The money from these activities can corrupt Walsh suggests that Islamic fundamentalism may be an exception, with members often sacrificing more than is gained materially However, this is outdated given what we know about ISIS(L)

Hallucinogens

Hallucinogens are mind-altering drugs such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and peyote and classified by the DEA as Schedule I LSD is a clear, odorless, and tasteless liquid sold soaked in sugar cubes or on saturated blotting paper (microdots) Some classification systems include marijuana (Spanish for "Mary Jane") among the hallucinogens while others classify it separately under cannabis, which also includes hashish Marijuana is by far the most widely used illicit drug in the United States Despite its classification as a Schedule I substance, it is only mildly hallucinogenic and moderately addictive It is available in some states for the treatment of glaucoma and for ameliorating the effects of chemotherapy

Prison Recruitment

Recent reports suggest that groups are being radicalized in prison A leader often targets selected prisoners or dominate new inmates using intimidation to force intimidating them until they join the group Mark Hamm maintains recruitment is similar to procedures used by street gangs The Gang Problem Radicalization based on a prison gang model. Gang members now crossing racial lines to increase their numbers for protection, often using religious "call-outs" to meet and do gang business" Former rivals (e.g. Crips/Bloods) have joined forces under Islamic banners Exemplifies J.I.S. case (group based on Prison Islam) Religious group acts like a prison gang, with a hierarchy, secret communication system, code of conduct, and a collective identity Their shared purpose and camaraderie eventually led to forming a collective resistance against the U.S. government Definition of a "call out" =spoken order for prisoners to report to a service in the chapel Social networks played important role in recruitment Effect on behavior Overwhelming majority of converts to non-Judeo Christian faiths were more self-disciplined & had more positive peer and staff interaction Crowded, seriously gang-ridden, maximum security prisons with a shortage of rehabilitation programs and few chaplains for religious guidance were "more vulnerable to prisoner radicalization and terrorist groups that infiltrate, recruit and operate behind the walls" and had the potential for "ideologically inspired criminality" Radicalization tends to take place among two factions and three major groups The first faction involves various Muslim groups who use cut-and-paste versions of the Qur'an The second faction centers on white supremacy Islamic extremism Christian extremists White supremacists Mark Hamm found five common patterns of converting people to violent radical causes: Potential radical converts in prison. Crisis convert (going through personal crisis) Protection seeking convert (obvious) Searching converts (searching for meaning) Manipulating converts (controlled by a strong member of the group) Free world converts (recruited by outside clergy)

Combating Prisoner Radicalizations

Hire chaplains. Budgets for religious services in correctional facilities across the country have recently been slashed, thereby creating opportunities for radical prisoners to operate on their own, independent of the oversight of chaplains who might help ensure moderation. In California, there is one chaplain for every 2,000 inmates, and in some Texas prisons the ratio is one to 2,500.15 Colorado and Virginia have completely cut their state prison chaplain systems. It should be noted that the American Correctional Chaplains Association calls for one chaplain per 500 inmates. Diversify corrections personnel. Islam is currently the fastest-growing religion among prisoners in the U.S. Prisoners participating in the study reported that when there were not many Muslims on staff, Muslim inmates felt like "outsiders" and the conditions that support the growth of Prison Islam were strengthened. Hiring Muslim American guards, counselors, chaplains and especially wardens might help reduce this perceived outsider status. Provide training. Staff training on the recruitment activities of gangs and shifting power relations among prisoners should be provided. Increase our knowledge base. Agencies should continue to support research on the various facets of prison culture that lead to radicalization and terrorist recruitment,

Home Invasions

Home invasion is a type of breaking and entering into a residential home in which the express purpose is to catch occupants at home so that criminals can rob, rape, or assault the occupants as well as steal their property Being victimized by a home invasion is perhaps the most horrifying and potentially deadly experience a person can have The federal government and most other states do not have a separate statute for home invasion because although it is by definition a burglary, burglary is likely to be the least serious charge levied against anyone convicted of engaging in a home invasion

Gun Ownership and Violence

In United States in 2011, guns used in 67.7% of murders, 41.3% of robberies, and 21.2% of aggravated assaults US has the highest gun ownership rate in the world at 88.8 per 100 people The highest rates of firearm murders are in Honduras, El Salvador and Jamaica, countries which rank 88th, 92nd, and 74th, respectively, in terms of gun ownership per 100 people United States ranks 28th in terms of its firearms murder rate Assessment of public opinion and gun policy noted that it is the combination of mental illness and the availability of guns that is the real problem Americans do not favor a ban on gun ownership, just more sensible laws Violent crime rates go down when states pass concealed carry laws

Hierarchy in the Sex Trade

In the contemporary U.S., there is a hierarchy within the sex trade: Those working for escort services Those working in brothels Streetwalkers

Pharmacological Violence

Induced by the pharmacological properties of the drug itself

Voluntary Manslaughter (2nd Degree Murder)

Intentional killing without premeditation and deliberation. This might include: Murder with the mistaken belief that it was required for self defense; Murder in response to provocation that caused the suspect's state of emotional arousal to impede his or her rational facilities

Becoming a Prostitute

It has been estimated that prostitution is the primary source of income for over one million women in the U.S. Many brothel and streetwalker prostitutes progressed from casual promiscuity at an early age to reasoning that they could sell what they were giving away Pimps exploit the strong need for love and acceptance among vulnerable girls, and takes on the roles of father, protector, employer, lover, husband, and often drug supplier, rendering the girl totally dependent upon him The girls most vulnerable to pressures to enter prostitution are those who have experienced high rates of physical, sexual, and emotional abuse at home and who are drug users

Harm Reduction

Most countries have abandoned their own war on drugs and reverted to harm reduction policies (i.e., policies aimed solely at minimizing harm) The International Harm Reduction Association defines harm reduction as: Policies, programs and practices that aim to reduce the harms associated with the use of psychoactive drugs in people unable or unwilling to stop Focus on the prevention of harm, rather than on the prevention of drug use itself Focus on people who continue to use drugs The goal of the IHRA is not to reduce drug consumption, although it applauds efforts by others to do so, but rather to weigh the risks and harms caused by criminalizing drugs against the risks and harms associated with legalizing them

Ideological Right-Wing Domestic Terrorist Groups

Most right-wing American groups espouse radical libertarian views "get the government off my back" tend to be anti-Semites and white supremacists The KKK is one of the oldest terrorist groups in the world today it is a generic name for a number of autonomous groups that range from those that never go beyond rhetoric and cross burning to those who actively practiced terrorism against black churches and Jewish synagogues

Drugs Effects on the Brain

Narcotics: Reduce the sense of pain, tension, and anxiety, and produce a drowsy sense of euphoria Example: Heroin Stimulants: Keep the body in an extended state of arousal Examples: Cocaine and Methamphetamine Hallucinogenic: Hallucinogenic/mind-altering drugs Examples: Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and Peyote

Cressey on Embezzlement

Necessary Cause: A variable that is always present when the phenomena is present Sufficient Cause: The variable(s) you locate are enough for causing the phenomena - some other variable does not have to be present Causes of Embezzlement: Non-sharable financial problem Realize can solve the problem by violating the trust Apply verbalizations to the conduct to preserve self-concept as a trustworthy person Analytic Introduction: 1. Define the phenomenon 2. Formulate a tentative explanation/ hypothesis 3. Check the hypothesis on several cases 4. If find a negative case, start over at step 1 or 2 5. Examine more cases. If find a negative case, go back to 1 or 2 6. Check hypothesis on cases outside your scope Embezzlement: Violation of a financial trust by a person who has an accepted position of trust

General Theories of Serial Killing

No single cause of serial murder, but rather an interaction of several risk factors that interact over the course of time Stephen Leyton (1986) applied anomie/strain, suggesting that classes with high aspirations may be most susceptible Culturally, the increased emphasis on personal satisfaction and availability of pornography since the 1960s may be significant From the social control perspective, it is notable that many serial killers suffered neglect, abuse, and social isolation in their early years Sexual dysfunction may result in feelings of worthlessness and powerlessness, with some escaping into private fantasy worlds in which they escape their fears and exert control The diathesis-stress model attempts to integrate cultural, developmental, psychological, and biological concepts to explain serial killing

Alcohol and Crime

Of all the substances used to alter mood and consciousness, alcohol is the one most directly linked to crime, especially violent crime At least 70% of American prison inmates and 60% of British inmates are alcohol and/or drug addicted Alcohol is linked to far more deaths each year than other drugs Police officers spend more than half of their time on alcohol-related offenses

S&L Scandal of the 1980s

One of the most costly crime sprees in American history and is likely cost U.S. taxpayers up to $473 billion Government bailouts of these financial institutions dropped the country into recession and portended the much deeper recession of 2007 Of the 1,098 defendants charged in S&L cases, only 451 were sentenced to prison, with the majority (79%) sentenced to less than 5 years, and the average sentence was 3.4 years The close relationship between business and politicians for purposes of lining each other's pockets is commonly referred to as crony capitalism and sometimes as state-corporate crime cause:rising monetary inflation beginning in the late 1960s spurred by simultaneous domestic spending programs of President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" programs coupled with the military expenses of the continuing Vietnam War that continued into the late 1970s. The efforts to end rampant inflation of the late 1970s and early 1980s by raising interest rates brought on recession in the early 1980s and the beginning of the S&L crisis. Deregulation of the S&L industry, combined with regulatory forbearance, and fraud worsened the crisis.

Radicalization

One of the psychological and social issues surrounding terrorism is radicalization - the process that changes a person's socially acceptable behavior into terrorism Violent radicalization is the problem of terrorism Some researchers (e.g. Brian Jenkins) believe that since it is a process, people moving toward violent radicalization exhibit observable signs Many analysts began looking at radicalization in the first part of the 21st century, and their focus tended to be on individuals attracted to Islamic extremism Paths to radicalization developed differently for different causes and different types of groups Ethnic, nationalistic, political, and religious terrorists were radicalized in a multitude of ways

Theories of Violence

Our understanding of more common types of violence can benefit from multiple perspectives: Sociologists look at the overall social structure, or the norms of subcultures Psychologists look at personality features, situations, or developmental experiences Geneticists may look at a mix of genetic and environmental factors Neuroscientists focus on questions of brain structure and neurotransmitters They have found that consistent exposure to violence appears to shape neuronal circuitry in a manner expressed through impulsive behavior Evolutionary theorists will look at why humans have a propensity for violence in the first place They hold that violence appears linked to reproductive success in nearly all species due to its role in attaining status and dominance

Risk of Radicalization in U.S. Muslim Communities

Past 30 years has seen a tremendous growth in number and size of diaspora communities Members do not feel accepted by the host country and are often radicalized in Mosques Activities and groups in the homeland inspire or assist in radicalization of diaspora members One factor for fewer U.S. attacks than in Western Europe may be the U.S. emphasis on diversity But as U.S. intolerance of Muslims increase, resistance to radicalization may change Though there have been a few terrorist attacks on U.S. targets committed by Muslims living in the U.S. their number are far less than what has occurred in Western Europe. Therefore there must be other factors accounting for Europe's higher incidence of violent attacks by Muslims living in the host country. Examines first and second generation diaspora radicalization in host countries (compares U.S. and Western Europe) Compares diaspora populations in both, pointing out that the cultural climates in the U.S. (less radicalization) and Western Europe (more radical populations) are different In the U.S., our emphasis on cultural diversity may alleviate some of the alienation and possibly account for the lower prevalence of radicals Conclusion: What is needed to prevent radicalization is integrating diaspora communities with the host society while still respecting their culture

Offender profiling

Profiling is done by extensive interviewing and formal psychological testing of incarcerated killers Based on this information, a typology is developed based on personality and other offender characteristics Profiling is more of an art than a science, as sometimes profiles are incorrect

Public Order Crimes

Public order crimes are a collection of offenses, called: vice offenses, consensual offenses, victimless crimes, or even nuisance offenses These are the "moving target" type—legal in some places and at some times, and illegal at other times and in other places All public order offenses cause some social harm Debate regarding whether the harm is great enough to warrant the investment of criminal justice resources The notion that offenses categorized as public order offenses are "victimless" has been rejected by most criminologists today because there are always secondary victims i.e. children of parents who engage in these crimes?

Horgan's "Routes"

Routes are psychological and social factors that motivate people to join and remain in terrorist groups: Presence of some emotional vulnerability (e.g. anger, alienation, disenfranchisement) Dissatisfaction with current activity Identification with victims Belief that engaging in violence or its symbols is not inherently immoral (crucial) A sense of reward that the recruit holds about what being in the movement" represents Kinship or other social ties to those experiencing similar issues or already involved (also crucial)

Opiates

Schedule I substances have high abuse liability and no medical use in the U.S., such as heroin, peyote, and LSD All drugs in this category have the potential for physical and psychological dependence All produce tolerance (the tendency to require larger and larger doses to produce the same effects after the body adjusts to lower dosages) And induce withdrawal symptoms (adverse physical reactions that occur when the body is deprived of the drug) The brain produces its own pain-killing substances called endorphins (for "endogenous morphine like substances") that do for us naturally, if far less effectively, what heroin does artificially The presence of these naturally occurring analgesics provides clues to the addictive process

Stimulants

Schedule II substances have an equally high abuse liability, but have some approved medical usage, such as opium or cocaine Cocaine works by blocking the reuptake of excitatory neurotransmitters at the synaptic terminals (see Figure 10.2), thus keeping the brain in an extended state of arousal Smokeable cocaine (crack) produces intense craving and may be the most addictive substance known Crack is manufactured by combining cocaine, baking soda, and water, heating the mixture, which is then allowed to cool, and then breaking it into tiny pieces or "rocks" Methamphetamine is the strongest form of a class of stimulants called amphetamines, all of which accentuate and accelerate the visual, tactile, auditory, and olfactory impulses Amphetamines are chemically similar to epinephrine (adrenaline), the hormone that provides the body with its "fight or flight" energy

Sociological Theories Explaining Corporate Crime

See Textbook pg 320-322

Domestic Terrorism

Several organizations focus on domestic targets, such as the Oklahoma City bombing There has been an "Americanization" of al-Qaeda leadership Other domestic groups take many forms, including left-wing, right-wing, and special interest groups

White Collar Crime is also defined as

an illegal act or series of illegal acts committed by non-physical means and by concealment or guile, to obtain money or property, or to obtain business or personal advantage

Theories on What Causes Drug Abuse

Structural strain theory: drug abuse is a retreatist adaptation for those who have failed in both the legitimate and illegitimate worlds, and drug dealing is an innovative adaptation Social control theory: drug abusers lack social bonds Self-control theory: drug abuse is the hedonistic search for immediate pleasures Social learning theory: drug abuse reflects differential exposure to individuals and groups in which it is modeled and reinforce Goode (2005) favors conflict theory as an explanation As the rich get richer, the poor poorer, and economic opportunities shrink for the uneducated and the unskilled, drug dealers have taken firm root among the increasingly demoralized, disorganized, and politically powerless "underclass" Because only a small proportion of individuals who try illicit drugs become addicted, biosocial criminologists consider it imperative that we look at contribution of both genetic and environmental variables to the initiation to the use of drugs and to the transition from casual use to addiction

The Subprime Mortgage Scandal: The Road to Hell is Paved With Good Intentions

Subprime loans extend credit to people who would not otherwise have access to it Well-meaning attempt to spread the American Dream around Ultimately led to millions of foreclosures as economic reality set in Caused by: Housing and Urban Development (HUD) policies designed to make home buying "more affordable" led to millions of people taking on mortgages they could not afford, and many bought houses they subsequently lost or were saddled with homes worth much less than what they paid for them Moral hazard is the tendency to take unwarranted risks when costs are not borne by the party taking the risk

Sociological Studies on Corporate Crime

Sutherland's Study: 70 of largest firms between 1930-1940, 980 convictions overall, Averages to 14 convictions per corporation, Recidivists, 30 of the corporations began illegally due to illegal mergers or began violating the law immediately Clinard and Yeager: 582 of the largest corporations, 1,533 federal cases in 2 years time, 60% of corporations had at least one conviction, Average of 4.4 convictions per corporation Etzioni and Clinard: 62% of Fortune 500 Companies had been involved in corporate practices such as price-fixing, bribery and violation of environmental laws. Harvard Business Review Survey: 4 out of 5 executives believe that at least some generally accepted practices in their industry are unethical; 4 out of 7 said other executives would violate a code of ethics if they knew they wouldn't get caught

Terrorism Personality

Terrorists, like criminals in general, tend to be young unmarried males, although they do not fit the criminal profile in terms of being poorly educated relative to their peers or from single-parent families Terrorists self-select for membership in terrorist groups Study of terrorist psychology has not produced a psychological profile The majority of terrorist experts suspect there is no such thing as a "terrorist" personality Johnson and Feldman (1992) view terrorist groups as made up of three types of people: the charismatic leader, the antisocial personality, and the follower. Charismatic Leader: Alienated, narcissistic, arrogant, intelligent, has deep idealistic sense of right and wrong Antisocial Personality: Drawn to ability to use force or violence. These individuals have opportunities in terrorist groups to use force and violence to further their own personal goals, as well as the goals of the group Follower: The majority of terrorists. These individuals see the world as "us" and "them," and have deep needs for acceptance which makes them susceptible to all sorts of religious, ideological, and political propaganda

Illegal Drugs and Crime

The Extent of the Illicit Drug Problem Up until 1914, drugs now considered illicit were legally and widely used in the United States for medicinal purposes Because people were not fully aware of the dangers of addiction, many substances were openly advertised and sold as cures for all sorts of ailments and for refreshing "pick-me-ups" Most famous was Coca-Cola, which until 1903 was made from coca leaf (used to process cocaine) and kola nuts (hence the name) Many patented medicines—such as Cocaine Toothache Drops and Mother Barley's Quieting Syrup, used to "soothe" infants and young children—contained cocaine, morphine, or heroin Considerable variation in the legality of certain drugs across cultures and time In the U.S., legality of a drug often linked to sensationalism in the media Moral panics (scares) "Reefer Madness" (1930's) "Meth mouth" Public concern over drug problem does not correlate with actual drug usage Up until 1914, drugs now considered illicit were legally and widely used in the United States for medicinal purposes The Harrison Narcotic Act of 1914: This Act was the benchmark for changing America's concept of drugs and their use The Act reduced the number of addicts, but also spawned a criminal black market Drug use peaks between the ages of 18 and 20 The use of illicit drugs by most adolescents probably reflects experimentation (adolescent limited use) Their continued use in adulthood (life-persistent use) may indicate a more serious antisocial situation

Effects of Alcohol

The effects of alcohol (or any other drug) on behavior is a function of the interactions of: The pharmacological properties of the substance The individual's physiology and personality The social and cultural context in which the substance is ingested, in other words... Intoxication level does not translate to an identical pattern of behavior Physiological effects of alcohol: While alcohol is a depressant, at low dosages it serves as a stimulant by raising dopamine levels Reduces inhibition by affecting a neurotransmitter called GABA Decreases serotonin, reduces impulse control, and increases the likelihood of aggression Alcohol is a releaser of behaviors that we normally keep under control but which we may be prone to exhibit when control is weakened If one's culture defines alcohol as a good time elixir, then one is granted cultural "permission" to do just that There is debate surrounding whether antisocial tendencies lead to alcohol abuse, or whether alcohol consumption leads to antisocial behavior (chicken or the egg argument) It is unclear whether heavy drinking causes antisocial behavior, or whether antisocial individuals are more prone to drink heavily Heavy alcohol intake has a disinhibiting effect on behavior The social context surrounding drinking can also play a role At the same time, there may be individual traits that lead individuals to both consume alcohol and engage in antisocial acts

Theories of Rape

The feminist theory of rape asserts that rape is learned and motivated by power rather than sexual desire; they view all men as capable of rape Social learning theorists agree with the assumptions of feminists, but view rapists as psychologically unhealthy (not as "normal men") Therapists tend to agree that rape is sexually motivated Evolutionary psychologists also contend that rape is sexually motivated and that it is a maladaptive consequence of a generally adaptive behavior (males seeking as many sexual partners as possible)

Criticisms of Radicalization Research

The idea that research in radicalization and alienation will produce valuable knowledge is debated No general consensus about the definition of radicalization Term is utilized in a variety of different contexts Suggested that more beneficial results would be gained through the examination of militant ideology and concepts that attract followers

Aggravated (1st Degree) Murder

The intentional unlawful killing of one human by another with "premeditation and deliberation" This is the only kind of murder for which offenders can be executed in states with the death penalty

Embezzlement

The misappropriation or misapplication of money entrusted to the embezzler's care, custody, or control This is the rarest of all property crimes Females (49.6%) were arrested almost as often as males for this crime in 2011 Whites constituted 65.5% of arrestees Computers make embezzlement easier & more lucrative "Salami" Technique: Embezzlers open accounts in their own name, and slice off a few cents from a large number of accounts

Rape

The penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim Rates have fallen significantly over last 40 years Rapes of males are classified as either assault or other sex offenses According to the 2012 UCR, 83,425 rapes were reported in 2011 Rate of 26.8, down 37.4% since peak year of 1992 Poor, young, unmarried, non-white females are disproportionately likely to be victimized Poor, young, unmarried, non-white males are disproportionately likely to be perpetrators Statistics from 20 years of victimization surveys indicate that: About half of all rapes are committed by someone known to the victim The offender is armed in about 20% of all cases; stranger rapists are more likely to be armed (29%) than those known to the victim In cases where victims fight their attackers or yell or scream, more reported that it helped the situation rather than made it worse Slightly more than half of victims report the assault to the police Difficult to compare statistics internationally Different reporting practices and definitions of rape

Patterns Associated with Robbery

The rate of robbery in 2012 was 113.7 per 100,000, down almost 57% from the peak rate of 263 in 1992 Most robbers were under the age of 25 (60.1%) and male (89%) 55.6% were black, 43% white, and 1.4% were other races In 2012, average dollar amount per reported robbery was $1,153 banks having the highest average at $4,704 per offense Among robberies for which weapon information is available: Strong-arm tactics were used in 42.3% Firearms in 41.3% Knives and cutting instruments in 7.8% This crime is risky due to the potential for victim resistance, and the penalties attached to the crime

Robbery

The taking or attempted taking of anything of value from the care, custody, or control of a person or persons by force or threat of force or violence and/or putting the victim in fear Robbery is the perfect crime for those with a pressing and constant need for fast cash to feed a hedonistic lifestyle and who enjoy the rush that the crime affords them Robbery setting provides ideal opportunity to construct an "essential" toughness and "maleness" With the exception of rape, robbery is the most "male" of all crimes Females seldom rob males without an accomplice One strategy is to appear sexually available to a male victim through prostitution or otherwise, and then rob him once he is alone

Motor Vehicle Theft

The theft or attempted theft of a motor vehicle Can include: Snowmobiles Motorcycles Buses The rate of victimization in 2011 was 229.6 per 100,000 82.8% of those arrested for MV theft were males; 64.0% were white Most MV thefts are committed by juveniles for fun Of those vehicles that are stolen for profit, most are taken to "chop shops" Jockeys: Professional auto thieves who steal particularly high-value vehicles "to order" for specific customers Carjacking: The theft or attempted theft of a motor vehicle from its occupant by force or threat of force Carjackers are mostly male (93%) and African American (56%), and more closely resemble robbers than other car thieves Carjacking: The bump The attacker bumps the victim's vehicle from behind. The victim gets out to assess the damage and exchange information. The victim's vehicle is taken. The good Samaritan The attacker(s) stage what appears to be an accident. They may simulate an injury. The victim stops to assist, and the vehicle is taken. The ruse The vehicle behind the victim flashes its lights or the driver waves to get the victim's attention. The attacker tries to indicate that there is a problem with the victim's car. The victim pulls over and the vehicle is taken. The trap Carjackers use surveillance to follow the victim home. When the victim pulls into his or her driveway waiting for the gate or garage door to open, the attacker pulls up behind and blocks the victim's car.

Terrorism

The unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social goals Terrorism is a tactic used to influence the behavior of others through intimidation Victims are incidental to broader aims : Publicizing a cause Instilling fear in the general public Provoking government response Terrorism is immoral, but not "senseless" as it does have an ultimate purpose Although terrorism has ancient roots, it is far more prevalent today Of the 74 terrorist groups listed by the U.S. Department of State in 2003, only three of them were active prior to 1960: The Irish Republican Army (IRA) Euskadi Tia Askatasuna (Basque Homeland and Freedom or ETA) The Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood Of the 74 terrorist groups: 39 are Islamic 18 are Marxist/Maoist 17 are hybrids of Marxist/Islamic groups or national groups Traditionally, terrorists have employed six major tactics: bombing, hijacking, arson, assault, kidnapping, and taking hostages In recent years emerging tactics have included threats of chemical and biological weapons, as well as weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear weapons The disruption of services through electronic hacking (cyberterrorism) could be added as another emerging threat Terrorist groups and incidents have risen dramatically since the 1960s, due to: Conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union Technological advancements: The Internet (especially social media), e-mail, and cell phones Modern transportation Cheaper and more easily concealable weaponry Everyday technology that can be commandeered for terrorists' purposes (such as airplanes) Military-grade weapons sold on black market or captured/obtained through other means

Murder

The willful (non-negligent) killings of one human being by another The U.S. murder rate in 2011 was 4.7 per 100,000—almost half the 1980 rate of 10.2 Some individual cities had higher murder rates than medieval Europe. New Orleans, Louisiana: 57.6 per 100,000 Detroit, Michigan: 48.2 per 100,000 St. Louis, Missouri: 35.3 per 100,000 The vast majority of murders were committed by males (89.3%) The race of offenders varied among black (51.6%), white (44.5% - includes most Hispanics), and other races (3.5%) Most murders are intraracial and intrasexual Politically stable and wealthy democracies tend to have lower murder rates Countries with high murder rates tend to be third-world or developing, or experiencing rapid social and economic changes Murder is most common among offenders and victims between 18 and 24 years of age Males are far more likely to commit murder than females Female/female homicide is extremely rare, accounting for only 2.5% of murders When females kill males it is typically a spouse, ex-spouse, or boyfriend in a self-defense situation

Fraud

Theft by trick; i.e., obtaining the money or property of another through deceptive practices such as false advertising and impersonation In 2011, 59.1% of arrests for fraud were males, and 66.5% were white Examples: Dishonest Telemarketing Quack Medical Cures Phony Faith Healers Price Gouging "Diploma Mills"

Legalizing or Decriminalizing Prostitution

There are harms associated with prostitution, such as the spread of sexually transmitted infections and concerns about the exploitation of women While prostitution cannot be entirely prevented, AIDS has reduced prostitution A 1989 study found that about 40% of streetwalkers and 20% of call girls were HIV positive. If we can't stop it, should we legalize it to try to make it safer through regulation? Ancient Athens viewed prostitution as functional, but that attitude ignores the important role of the morality of society Legalizing prostitution means: It becomes a legitimate occupation The state can regulate it by licensing brothels and prostitutes, determining where they can be located, and requiring regular health check-ups Holland is a country that has legalized prostitution All parties—the prostitutes, pimps, procurers, and customers—are legally sanctioned as long as they remain in prescribed areas Decriminalization simply means the removal of laws against prostitution without imposing regulatory controls on it The United Kingdom has decriminalized the selling of sexual favors However, pimping, procuring, or otherwise living off "immoral earnings" is criminalized

Theories of Terrorism

There are many causes of terrorism, but all terrorist groups respond to perceived injustice If terrorists are moral crusaders, theorists must account for their commission of brutal acts Miller (2011) presents four cognitive stages: Stage 1: "It's Not Right" Stage 2: "It's Not Fair" Stage 3: "It's Not Your Fault" Stage 4: "You're Evil" While Miller focused on group formation, other research focuses on radicalization of individuals Differential association theory is consistent with the recruiting of Islamic terrorists from madrasas Suicide bombing may be consistent with rational choice theory: Islamic suicide bombers are promised access to heaven and 72 virgins Others see themselves as altruists, saints and heroes Martyrs are afforded status within their communities, and their families sometimes given money (others mention that payment, care, and glory to relatives is frequent) Rational choice would suggest that we need to look at what terrorist groups have to offer in order to understand why people join them Immigrants feeling alienated in their host country may be particularly vulnerable to the rewards of martyrdom The need to belong appears to be particularly important for Muslim immigrants to Europe or the children of immigrants Often feel alienated from the host country, which they see as decadent and godless Feel their differences in religion, language, dress, and culture very acutely, and their humiliation and alienation turns into hatred Exactly the kinds of people who can be turned into terrorists by the rhetoric spouted by radical imams in their mosques

Drug Classifications

There are several drug classification schemes The DEA scheme identifies five categories (schedules) of drugs: Schedule I: High abuse liability and no medical use in the U.S. Schedule II: High abuse liability, but some approved medical uses Schedule III and IV: Moderate to moderately high abuse liability, and are legally available with prescription Schedule V: Can be purchased without a prescription CATEGORY I: not legally available, felony for possession CATEGORY II: not legally available, MISDEMEANOR for possession CATEGORY III: available by prescription, felony for possession CATEGORY IV: available by prescription, MISDEMEANOR for possession CATEGORY V: available over the counter, no crime for possession

Policy against terrorism

Ways a democracy can respond to terrorism range from making concessions to military intervention Concessions are likely only when there is moral substance to the terrorist cause and when such concessions are reasonable Military intervention may be used when the terrorist threat is too big for civilian authorities to handle But besides being distasteful to the democratic spirit, military intervention, even though successful in the short term, may be detrimental in the long term, as recent military interventions have aptly demonstrated The United States has a clear-cut policy to combat terrorism (U.S. Department of State, 1995, p. iv): Do not make deals with terrorists or submit to blackmail. We have found over the years that this policy works Treat terrorists as criminals and apply the rule of law Bring maximum pressure on states that sponsor and support terrorists by imposing economic, diplomatic, and political sanctions and urging other states to do likewise

De-raticalization

Western Programs Most are "risk reduction" programs in that the focus on reducing the risk of engaging or re-engaging in terrorism rather than changing the ideology, or reversing the radicalization process Example: U.S. policy is to incarcerate and segregate Saudi and Yemeni Programs Erode support for extremist ideologies Teach about "mistake" made in interpreting Islam - re-educate if there's intellectual basis for involvement then intellectual for controlling it Family engagement: they take some responsibility - mothers, wives, & girlfriends Financial incentives & supports - support family through stipends - relocation perhaps but that is expensive

White Collar v Street Crimes

White Collar Crimes: 31,218 adults died in 1997 due to occupational diseases. 3,600,000 adults were physically injured in the course of their occupation. The numbers do not include the thousands of deaths caused annually by cancers linked to corporate pollution, deaths from defective products, tainted foods, or other corporate-related causes. $338 billion annually (Chamber of Commerce estimate) Some argue this is a conservative estimate health care fraud alone costs $100 billion annually (General Accounting Office) $250 billion antitrust or trade violations(General Accounting Office) $60 billion (cost for investors, pensioners and employers from Enron) 2 people are murdered in America every hour. 3 Americans die every hour as a result of unhealthy or unsafe conditions in the workplace. Street Crimes: 9,500 adults died in 1997 as a result of street crimes. 500,000 adults were physically harmed as a result of street crimes. $18 billion annuallyloss from robbery, burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson

Alcoholism

a chronic disease condition marked by progressive incapacity to control alcohol consumption despite psychological, spiritual, social, or physiological disruptions It is a state of altered cellular physiology caused by chronic consumption of alcohol that manifests in physical disturbances (withdrawal symptoms) when alcohol use is suspended Most alcoholics do not get into serious trouble with the law

Type I Alcoholism

characterized by a mild abuse, minimal criminality, and a passive-dependent personality Start drinking later in life than Type II's and progress slowly to alcoholism Typically have families and careers, and if they have character defects, these are induced by their alcohol problem and are not permanent

Type II Alcoholism

characterized by early onset, violence, and criminality, and is largely limited to males Start drinking at an early age and rapidly become addicted Have many character disorders and behavioral problems that precede their alcoholism Heritability estimates for Type II alcoholism are about 0.90 and about 0.40 for Type I alcoholism indicating that environmental factors are more important to Type I than Type II alcoholism

Patterns with violent crime

decline from staggering rates in the 13th and 14th centuries. Seemed to correlate with habit of bearing arms, alcohol-induced quarrels, inept medical care to treat injuries, and a trust in justice.

hedonistic serial killer

driven by the pure thrill and joy of killing; the majority of serial killers are hedonistic serial killers

Visionary Serial Killer

driven by visions or hearing voices

Drug Addiction

entails compulsive drug-seeking behavior where acquiring and using a drug becomes the most important activity in the user's life Physical dependence refers to changes to the body that occur after repeated drug use, necessitating its continued administration to avoid withdrawal symptoms Psychological dependence is the deep craving for the drug and the feeling that one cannot function without it; synonymous with addiction About 55% of today's youth have used some form of illegal substance, but few descend into the hell of addiction

mission-orientated serial killer

feels a mission in life to kill certain kinds of people, such as prostitutes or homosexuals

power/control serial killer

gains satisfaction from exercising complete power over victims Sexual activity is almost always involved

Hezbollah

the best contemporary example of a state-sponsored terrorist organization Directed and financed by Iran, Hezbollah is headquartered in Lebanon and has established cells in Europe, North and South America, and Africa (USSD, 2013) The Charlotte, NC cell was busted a few years ago Hezbollah ultimately owes its existence to the religious split between Sunni Muslims, who believe in the legitimacy of the secular state, and Shi'ite Muslims, who do not Hezbollah has a sense of engaging in a sacred mission that transcends the confines of Lebanon

Mass Murder

the killing of several people at one location within a few minutes or hours There are two types of mass murderers: Those who choose specific targets who the offender believes has caused them stress (as in the case of disgruntled workers) Those who attack targets to whom they have no personal connection, based on the victims' membership in a group the killer dislikes Mass murderers are rarely people who just "snap" and kill people at random; the tensions with their targets have often built over long periods of time

Larceny-Theft

the most common property crime committed in the United States Defined as "the unlawful taking, leading, or riding away from the possession or constructive possession of another" Note: Stealing money or property through deceitful tactics (i.e. embezzlement, forgery, con games, bad checks, fraud) is not counted in FBI definition of larceny theft Constituted 68.0% of property crimes in 2011, with a rate of 1,976.9 per 100,000 residents. Most offenders were male (56.7%) and white (68.6%) Includes: Shoplifting Pocket-Picking Purse Snatching Thefts from Motor Vehicles (most common) Grand Theft (a felony) is distinguished from petty theft (a misdemeanor) based on the value of the asset stolen

Burglary

the unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or theft There were an estimated 2,188,005 burglaries in 2011, representing an increase of 0.9 percent from the number in 2010 Burglaries of residential properties accounted for 74.5 percent of all burglaries, with victims suffered an estimated $4.8 billion in lost property in 2011, with an average dollar loss per burglary of $2,185 Most offenders were male (84.8%) and white (66.7%) Burglary statutes are a hodgepodge of laws covering a variety of conduct Unlawful entry element enables some states to define shoplifting as burglary if it can be shown that a suspect entered a store with the intention of stealing, thereby making the entry unlawful Typical burglar: a young male firmly embedded in the street culture The basic motive for committing burglary is to gain resources at little or no cost to oneself; burglary may offer the greatest chance of success with the least amount of risk Burglars come from poor run-down socially disorganized neighborhoods with high unemployment; they were poorly educated, unreliable, resistant to taking orders, and often from single-parent households Many burglars give up jobs to concentrate on burglary In 2011, 15.2% of the arrestees for burglary were female It is overwhelmingly in mixed gender teams Some are coerced against their will In 2013, 16.7% of arrestees for burglary were females (up 1.5% from 2011), which makes female arrests for burglary proportionately greater than for any other Part I index crime except larceny Because females overwhelmingly commit burglaries in mixed-gender teams, it follows that they share most of the demographic characteristics of their male partners Mullins and Wright (2003) also found that, in common with female robbers, female burglars capitalized on their sexuality to locate potential targets and gain access to homes they and their partners would burglarize later Choosing Targets: Target Exposure Guardianship Target Attractiveness Proximity The majority of burglars are low- to mid-level opportunists Guardianship is the most important consideration for this level of burglar Disposing of the Loot: Fence: A person who regularly buys stolen property and who often has a legitimate business to cover his activities Fences provide burglars with a way of disposing of "hot" property Pawnshops are not very popular outlets for burglars, as most ask for identification Drug dealers are popular, as they can provide uncomplicated drugs-for-merchandise barters Relatives, friends, and acquaintances

Machiavellianism

the unprincipled and uncaring manipulation of others for personal gain