CSET- Chapter 1 (additional terms)

Pragmatics:

(focuses on conversational implicature) A process in which the speaker implies and a listener infers. Pragmatics studies language that is not directly spoken. Instead, the speaker hints at or suggests a meaning, and the listener assumes the correct intention.

A semicolon (;) is used:

- To connect two independent clauses that are closely related to each other - To connect transitional words and phrases within a sentence - To keep items in a list that have internal punctuation separate

Vocabulary acquisition is the process of learning new words. The three steps to learning new words is:

1. Learn to pronounce the word correctly 2. Learn what the word means, the definition 3. Learn how to use the word in sentences. To teach step 1, you can have the students repeat the word. To teach step 2, you can provide a simple definition using accessible language for your students along with an example sentence and perhaps a picture or action. To teach step 3, you can have your students complete sentences and write new ones.

Dependent vs Independent clause:

A dependent clause contains a subject and verb, but cannot stand on its own as a complete sentence; an independent clause includes a subject and a verb, and expresses a complete thought.

What is a clause?

A group of related words containing both a subject and a verb -Subject is who/what? Verb is the action. -Every complete sentence is made up of at least one clause. Michael bought a new computer. (One sentence, one clause)

Verb phrase:

A group of words working together to create the verb. Ex: He has broken up with Nikky. (has broken up)

Participle:

A participle is formed from a verb and modifies a noun, noun phrase, verb, or verb phrase. Most often, a participle functions as an adjective. A participle most often ends in -ed or -ing (except for some irregular verbs). Ex. To rise (verb) the rising sun (the present participle) the risen sun (the past participle)

Verbal:

A verb that acts like a different part of speech. Example: Ben likes to ski. (To ski is the infinitive. It functions as a noun in the sentence, acting as a direct object.)

Absolute phrase:

An absolute phrase is a phrase that modifies a noun in a sentence, but it is not connected to the sentence by a conjunction. ... Examples of Absolute Phrase: Marshall held onto the ball, his fingers squeezing it tightly. I will be back tomorrow, weather permitting. Uses commas

How to find the subject?

Ex. The stubborn case had busted wide open again. When looking for the subject in a sentence, look for the verb first. Remember that a verb is a word that either helps a subject perform an action (ran, drank, fights, swims) or shows a state of being (is, was, are, were) that connects the subject to the action. In the sentence here, the main verb is 'busted.' What is the thing being busted? The case.

The reverse of an anapest is a dactyl:

It is a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed ones, such as FLUT-ter-ing or BLACK-ber-ry.

MLA stands for:

Modern Language Association, and MLA format refers to the format the association created that is commonly used in many areas of academic writing, particularly in the humanities. A properly-formatted MLA-style paper will be constructed as follows: - Typed on 8.5 X 11 inch paper with 12 pt. font - 1-inch margins on all sides - First line of each paragraph indented one half-inch from the left margin (pro tip: use the tab key instead of the space bar to ensure perfect indentation) - Body text of the paper should be double spaced - Only one space after periods or other punctuation marks - Number all of your pages in the upper right hand corner - your page numbers should be a half inch from the top of the paper and in line with your right margin

What is a progressive verb (past, present, future)?

Progressive verb tenses show action that is, was, or will be in progress/happening at some point in time. Example: I was working on my book report. I am designing a roller coaster for science. I will be eating lunch at Dana's house tonight. Past: was, were Present: am, is, are Future: will, be (include -ing)

Brackets [xyz]:

Similar to parentheses, brackets include clarifying information. Usually, you use parentheses if the information is more of an aside, which is an off-topic idea. On the other hand, if the information further explains the text, you use brackets. A second use for brackets is to change the wording of a quote. Sometimes when you quote someone, you need to change the wording in order for it to fit in your sentence.

Idioms:

These are expressions that mean something other than their literal meaning. While many languages use them, the idiom itself may be different. For example, if you were speaking to a group of children from China on a stormy day, saying 'It's raining cats and dogs,' may conjure up images of house pets falling from the sky. Frightening! A speaker from Armenia, angered by a heckler in the audience, may say, 'Stop ironing my head!' What? Ironing what? Well, what the speaker really means is, 'Stop annoying me!' You get the idea. And it doesn't only have to be speakers of other languages. There are differences in the expressions used by people in different regions of the United States as well.

Faulty analogy:

This fallacy consists in assuming that because two things are alike in one or more respects, they are necessarily alike in some other respect. (Ex. People who cannot go without their 'caffeine fix' in the morning (whether that be from soft drinks or coffee) are no better than people who are alcoholics.)

Slang:

This is verbiage used by a particular group of people. For example, a teenager may say, 'You are getting all emo on me.' To the youngster, this means, 'creating drama.' To an older person, it makes no sense. The same goes for slang within a culture. Americans know exactly what 'supersize' means. It means 'upgrading my meal to include a large fries and soda.' In other cultures, this term may not mean a thing.

Imperative:

a command. Not a statement or a question. Ex. "Give me that cookie"

Finite:

a finite verb is a form of a verb that (a) shows agreement with a subject and (b) is marked for tense. Nonfinite verbs are not marked for tense and do not show agreement with a subject. If there is just one verb in a sentence, that verb is finite. Ex: He painted the fence. (In this example, "painted" is a finite verb. The subject is "He." The tense of the verb is the past tense.)

Phrase:

a group of two or more words that express a single idea but do not form a complete sentence. The group of words "out the door" in "they ran out the door" is a phrase.

Euphemism:

a mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing. (Ex. He has passed away. (Euphemism for He has died.) She is between jobs. (She is unemployed.)

Noun phrase:

a person, place, or thing and the modifiers that describe it. A noun phrase is a group of two or more words headed by a noun that includes modifiers (e.g., 'the,' 'a,' 'of them,' 'with her'). A noun phrase plays the role of a noun. In a noun phrase, the modifiers can come before or after the noun

Adjectival phrase:

a prepositional phrase that modifies a noun Ex: She had extremely menacing eyes.

Adverbial phrase:

a prepositional phrase that modifies a verb. Adverb phrases typically answer the questions how, where, why or when something was done, as you'll see in the adverb phrase examples below. Ex. I parked the car here.

An in-text citation is:

a source being cited within the body of a paper and requires the last name of the author and the year of publication. The reference page lists all of the sources used in alphabetical order by the author's last name. Journal article citations need: - the name of the author - the year the article was published - the name of the article - the name of the journal - the volume and issue number of the journal - the pages on which the article can be found - the DOI Authored book citations need: - the name of the author - the year of publication - the title of the book - the name of the publisher - the DOI

Gerund:

a type of verb that ends in -ing and is used like a noun Ex: chewing, writing, whispering

Subjunctive:

a wish or hypothetical and is contrary to reality (what if), we use the subjunctive when talking about events that somebody wants to happen. Ex. "I wish I had something to eat."

Homographs:

a word of the same spelling but different pronunciation and meaning (Ex. read and read)

Qualifier:

a word that attributes a certain quality to another word. A qualifier is a word or phrase that changed how absolute, certain or generalized a statement is. Qualifiers include: ... Qualifiers of time: occasionally, sometimes, now and again, usually, always, never, etc. Qualifiers of certainty: I guess, I think, I know, I am absolutely certain, etc.

Purpose:

and finally, ask yourself what the purpose of the information you are reading is. You'll want to distinguish between sources that offer factual information and opinion. Depending on the source, there could be a potential for bias or misinformation as well, so it's important to examine the reason why this information exists. If it turns out that the author of the article is a member of an organization that is on a particular side (for example, a member of the NRA writing an article on gun control), then it is more likely that the article is biased. This isn't to say that members of an organization can't write unbiased information, but your research is more credible if it comes from a source that has no clear leanings on one side of an issue. This is also true if you find the article on an organization's website.

Nouns:

are a person, place, thing, or idea. They can take on a myriad of roles in a sentence, from the subject of it all to the object of an action. They are capitalized when they're the official name of something or someone, called proper nouns in these cases. Examples: pirate, Caribbean, ship, freedom, Captain Jack Sparrow.

Verbs:

are action words that tell what happens in a sentence. They can also show a sentence subject's state of being (is, was). Verbs change form based on tense (present, past) and count distinction (singular or plural). Examples: sing, dance, believes, seemed, finish, eat, drink, be, became.

Interjections:

are expressions that can stand on their own or be contained within sentences. These words and phrases often carry strong emotions and convey reactions. Examples: ah, whoops, ouch, yabba dabba do!

Legends:

are grounded in reality, but aren't necessarily true.

Dashes (-):

are punctuation marks used to set off non-essential information, to loosely connect two thoughts, or to mark a break in the sentence.

Myths:

are stories told to explain the world around us, from the origin of the world, to why there are seasons.

Folktales:

are stories with people as main characters that sometimes include feats of strength. ???

Language families:

are the words that have similar traits and belong to a specific language. Many of our words in the English language have come from the Germanic families. However, some have evolved from Latin languages like French and Spanish. Once you have identified the language family, then you are on your way to learning the etymology of any word.

Z-scores:

are used frequently by statisticians and have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. A Z-score tells us how many standard deviations someone is above or below the mean. To calculate a Z-score, subtract the mean from the raw score and divide by the standard deviation. For example, if we have a raw score of 85, a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10, we will calculate a Z-score of 3.5.

Stanines:

are used to represent standardized test results by ranking student performance based on an equal interval scale of 1-9. A ranking of 5 is average, 6 is slightly above average and 4 is slightly below average. Stanines have a mean of 5 and a standard deviation of 2.

Interrogative:

asks a question (think of interrogation) "Can you please leave me alone?"

The chapbook:

became popular around the time that the middle class emerged more prominently. It was a small, saddle-stapled book that children could afford because of its inexpensive printing costs. (1800s)

An anapest:

consists of two unaccented syllables with an accented one right after it. Words such as "understand" and "contradict" are examples of anapest, because both of them have three syllables where the accent is on the final syllable.

Simple sentence:

contain a single independent clause Ex. I love my new pets.

Compound sentence:

contain only independent clauses - two or more of them Ex.I like coffee, and Mary likes tea.

The Chicago Manual of Style, also known as CMS:

covers manuscript preparation and publication, grammar, and documentation. It is a favored formatting style for those in the editing field. What makes CMS so unique is the use of notes, often referred to as footnotes or endnotes when citing sources in the text. A big part of CMS is the use of notes. The first thing you will include is note numbers. Note numbers should begin with '1' and follow consecutively throughout the paper. In the text, note numbers should be superscripted. Note numbers should be placed in the text directly following the information being cited. Note numbers should be placed after punctuation. In the notes section, numbers should be full-sized and followed by a period. The first line of a footnote is indented 0.5 inch from the left margin; subsequent lines within a footnote are left flushed.

Conditional:

depends on something else to happen under certain conditions (might, could, would) Ex: "He would look older with a beard."

Adjectives:

describe nouns and pronouns. They specify which one, how much, what kind, and more. Adjectives allow readers and listeners to use their senses to imagine something more clearly. Examples: hot, lazy, funny, unique, bright, beautiful, poor, smooth.

Preposition:

describe relationships (placing the soda ON the table, sipped FROM the can) (Ex. above, against, at, around, before, below, etc) Can not stand alone. The object of the preposition: ex: against equality. Against is the preposition and equality is the object which then makes it a prepositional phrase.

Adverbs:

describe verbs, adjectives, and even other adverbs. They specify when, where, how, and why something happened and to what extent or how often. Examples: softly, lazily, often, only, hopefully, softly, sometimes.

Cumulative percentages:

determine placement among a group of scores. - Cumulative percentages do not determine how much greater one score is than another or how much less it is than another. Cumulative percentages are ranked on an ordinal scale and are used to determine order or rank only. Specifically, this means that the highest scores in the group will be the top score no matter what that score is. - For example, let's take a test score of 85, the raw score. If 85 were the highest grade on this test, the cumulative percentage would be 100%. Since the student scored at the 100th percentile, she did better than or the same as everyone else in the class. That would mean that everyone else made either an 85 or lower on the test. Cumulative percentages and percentiles are ranked on a scale of 0%-100%. Changing raw scores to cumulative percentages is one way to standardize raw scores within a certain population.

Currency:

evaluating the currency of a source means looking at the timeliness of the information. You'll want to check to see when the information was published or posted. If you can't find a publication date on a website, check for a copyright date at the bottom of the site. A document is more likely to be a reliable source of information if it has been published within the past few years. There isn't a hard cutoff here, but generally, the more recent a source, the better. This is because information changes and evolves over time. Just like we know now that the Earth isn't flat, there's a lot of information that has been disproven and proven over time. However, older sources may be fine if you are researching history. Another way to check the currency of a source is to make sure all links are functional.

Fables:

feature animals given human characteristics and deliver a lesson or moral.

Articles and determiners:

function like adjectives by modifying nouns, but they are different than adjectives in that they are necessary for a sentence to have proper syntax. Articles and determiners specify and identify nouns, and there are indefinite and definite articles. Examples: articles: a, an, the; determiners: these, that, those, enough, much, few, which, what.

Complex sentence:

have both an independent and one or more dependent clauses Ex. Whenever prices goes up, customers buy less products.

Children's literature:

includes books, poems, and plays, and has seen a few different movements in the past few hundred years, as reflected in the transitions from the pre-golden age to contemporary trends. These transitions saw children's literature develop from a tradition focused on teaching moral principles to one focused on a variety of topics and modern concerns, though fantasy and fantastical worlds have almost always been a major component of the genre. What was once not even considered a proper genre has blossomed into a collection of works that value childhood and the development of a child's imagination!

Perfect verb tense:

is a category of verb tense used to describe completed actions. It covers the past perfect tense, the present perfect tense, and the future perfect tense. It is sometimes called the complete tense. Use has, had, or have For example: I have seen the movie that was nominated for an Academy Award.

Operant conditioning:

is a learning process whereby deliberate behaviors are reinforced through consequences. If the dog then gets better at sitting and staying in order to receive the treat, then this is an example of operant conditioning. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior.

A logical fallacy:

is a misconception or false assumption made in reasoning. Sometimes a logical fallacy can develop from a genuinely constructed argument of reasoning. Sometimes when you use reasoning, it can lead to a fallacy.

Normal distribution:

is a pattern of educational characteristics or scores in which most scores lie in the middle range and only a few lie at either extreme. To put it simply, some scores will be low and some will be high, but most scores will be moderate. The normal distribution shows two things: - The variability or spread of the scores. - The midpoint of the normal distribution. This midpoint is found by calculating a mean of all of the scores, or, in other words, the mathematical average of a set of scores.

An epigraph:

is a reference to another work that an author hopes will help readers understand her own work. (Examples of Epigraph: ... At the beginning of The Sun Also Rises, Ernest Hemingway quotes Gertrude Stein: "You are all a lost generation.")

Phonemic awareness:

is a specific type of phonological awareness that focuses on recognizing phonemes. Phonemes are, essentially, the smallest unit of language. For example, blends like 'sh-,' 'ph-,' and 'st-' are all phonemes.

Standard deviation:

is a useful measure of variability. It measures the average deviation from the mean in standard units. Deviation, in this case, is defined as the amount an assessment score differs from a fixed value, such as the mean. It tells you, on average, how far each score lies from the mean. To calculate the standard deviation of those numbers: 1. Work out the Mean (the simple average of the numbers) 2. Then for each number: subtract the Mean and square the result. 3. Then work out the mean of those squared differences. 4. Take the square root of that and we are done!

Colon (:) :

is a way of letting the reader know there's more to come to further illustrate a thought after the main clause.

Indicative:

is defined as a grammar term for a verb or a sentence that either makes a statement or asks a question. An example of the indicative is the sentence, "The birds are singing." - state factuality/happening in reality. Can also include words "might" or "may"

Jargon:

is like slang but includes language that is used by a group that is also difficult to understand, like doctors, lawyers, and law enforcement. If you were speaking to a group of kids about careers in business, you might want to avoid 'using due diligence in decision making,' when you can simply say, 'doing the research before making a decision.' The kids may relate better to the latter.

Phonetics vs Phonology

is that phonology is more focused on how speech sounds change and behave when in a syllable, word, or sentence, as opposed to when spoken in isolation.

Phonological awareness:

is the ability to recognize that words are made up of a variety of sound units.

Reading comprehension:

is the ability to understand the meaning of a text, and reading assessment is the evaluation of an individual's ability to understand text. Reading assessment can be a daunting task; however, there are many skills you can look for in order to evaluate a student's ability. You can have students: 1. Predict - use clues from titles, pictures, or other parts of the story to make an educated guess about what might happen next 2. Identify - indicate important elements of a reading like the author's purpose and themes 3. Visualize - use the descriptive words from the text to see the details from the reading in one's mind 4. Connect - relate information from the reading selection to other aspects of a student's life 5. Evaluate - use information from the reading to form an opinion or make a judgment on the selection or the author's ideas

A false cause:

is the faulty assumption that a certain agent is causing the act. (Ex: MaryKay used to eat Cheerios cereal for breakfast every day before work. Then one Friday morning she decided to eat Lucky Charms cereal for breakfast before work, and immediately following, she suffered a kidney stone attack. MaryKay has gone back to eating Cheerios cereal for breakfast every day before work ever since.)

Interactionist perspective:

is the interactions of society, which is to say how people behave with each other. Emphasizes the interactions between innate ability and environmental influences.

Causal reasoning:

is the process of identifying causality: the relationship between a cause and its effect. It is the relationship between two premises to develop a conclusion, can result in the logical fallacy false cause, which is the faulty assumption that a certain agent is causing the act.

A standard score:

is the score that indicates how far a student's performance is from the mean with respect to standard deviation units. The standard score is calculated by subtracting the mean from the raw score and dividing by standard deviation.

Morpheme:

is the smallest linguistic part of a word that can have a meaning. In other words, it is the smallest meaningful part of a word. Examples of morphemes would be the parts "un-", "break", and "-able" in the word "unbreakable".

Phonetics:

is the study of speech sounds as they stand in isolation.

Etymology:

is the study of the origin of words and how their meanings have changed throughout history.

Conjunctions:

join words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence. There are coordinating, subordinating, and correlative conjunctions. Examples: and, but, or, so, yet, with.

Authority:

make sure the source of the information, regardless of whether it's a person, publisher, or organization, is credible. First, you can determine the credibility of an article if you can find the author's credentials somewhere in the article. If you can't find this information, then try researching the author. If the author has credentials in the field of the article, then you know that your research is credible. If the author has no credentials or they are in a field that doesn't relate to the article, then it is recommended that you use a different piece of research for your speech. Another way to check the authority of a source is to look at the website's URL. If a website ends with .edu, you'll know it's affiliated with an educational organization, while a .gov website means it is a governmental site.

Accuracy:

make sure you evaluate the accuracy of a source by checking the truthfulness of the content. The information should always be supported by evidence and free of bias. If anything you read sounds questionable, you might want to do a quick search to see if the information can be verified. Can you find the same information confirmed in other sources? Does the information make sense? Are there many other sources that contradict the information in your article? If you can find the information confirmed in other sources or even the article is used as a reference in other sources, then you know your research can be verified.

Parentheses (xyz).

mark off a part of the sentence that is grammatically non-essential and less important than the rest. In other words, whatever's inside the parentheses, you could take it out completely and the sentence would still be grammatically complete and make sense.

Literary devices:

narrative techniques that add texture, energy, and excitement to the narrative, grip the reader's imagination, and convey information.

Adaptive testing:

occurs when a computer is used. Adaptive testing is when the students' performance on items at the beginning of the test determines the next items to be presented.

Parallelism:

parallelism (also called parallel structure or parallel construction) is the repetition of the same grammatical form in two or more parts of a sentence. (ex. I like to jog, bake, paint, and watch movies. Ex. He likes baseball and running.)

Prepositional phrase:

provide more information about a noun or verb

Diction:

refers to an author's choice of words. When describing the events of her story, an author never has just one word at her disposal.

Couplet:

refers to two lines of poetry that follow each other and rhyme. Couplets also sometimes have the same meter, meaning the same number of beats or the same rhythm. (Ex. The sheep's in the meadow, the cow in the corn.)

Percentile rank:

scores indicate the percentage of peers in the norm group with raw scores less than or equal to a specific student's raw score. In this lesson, 'norm group' is defined as a reference group that is used to compare one score against similar others' scores.

Prepositions:

show spacial, temporal, and role relations between a noun or pronoun and the other words in a sentence. They come at the start of a prepositional phrase, which contains a preposition and its object. Examples: up, over, against, by, for, into, close to, out of, apart from.

Homophones:

sound exactly alike, but have different spellings and meanings. (Ex. two, to, too)

Pronouns:

stand in for nouns in a sentence. They are more generic versions of nouns that refer only to people. Examples:​ I, you, he, she, it, ours, them, who, which, anybody, ourselves.

Infinitive:

the basic form of a verb, without an inflection binding it to a particular subject or tense (e.g. see in we came to see, let him see

Raw score:

the score based solely on the number of correctly answered items on the assessment. For example, let's say you took a test in class and scored 85. This is a raw score, an unaltered measurement of how you did.

Phonemes:

the smallest units of grammar recognizable by sound. For example, cat has the three sounds: /c/ /a/ and /t/.

Graphemes:

the smallest units of written language. Grapheme is a letter or a number of letters that represent a sound (phoneme) in a word. Another way to explain it is to say that a grapheme is a letter or letters that spell a sound in a word. ... Here is an example of a 2 letter grapheme: l ea f. The sound /ee/ is represented by the letters 'e a'.

Homonyms:

the spelling or the pronunciation remains the same, but the words have different meanings. (Ex. rose and rose - to rise up & a flower) (accept & except)

Using inductive reasoning, reasoning where the premises support the conclusion, can result in hasty generalization, which is:

the use of specific instances to create an incorrect generalization of a population or scenario. For example, many of the stereotypes that exist are based on hasty generalizations that are not true for many members of a particular population. Ex: If Travis was researching a debate case about youth violence and found that a few of the cases of youth violence happened between youths that are of ages 10 - 13, then Travis may make the hasty generalization that youths between the ages of 10 and 13 are violent.

CRAAP test:

to check your source for currency, relevance, authority, accuracy, and purpose.

An allusion is:

when an author refers to the events or characters from another story in her own story with the hopes that those events will add context or depth to the story she's trying to tell. Ex. She felt like she had a golden ticket.

Relevance:

when you evaluate the relevance of a source, you are looking at how well the information relates to your topic. An extremely interesting peer-reviewed article on the positive effects of coffee written by a well-respected researcher may be both current and reliable, but it won't be very relevant to you if you are researching mortgage rates.

Using analogical reasoning:

which is the comparison of two things assuming that all of the characteristics are the same, can result in faulty analogy, the faulty assumption that when two things are similar, all of the characteristics are the same. (Ex. Travis found interesting research on twin studies and youth violence. There are cases where both twins demonstrated violent tendencies, but not all twins will always fit this mold.)