Development and population geography summary
Rural-Urban Migration (RUM)
(internal) as of 2000, 2.9 billion people were living in urban areas, comprising 47% of the world's population
International Migration
(international) permanent migration, temporary and labour migration which may be from a year to long periods, even decades, as well as the movement of refugees and asylum seekers.
Bangladesh study
- Bangladesh has the 8th largest population in the world with 163 million or 2.11% of the Earth's inhabitants living there in 2019 89 per-cent of the population in Bangladesh is Muslim. Some Muslim leaders do not support the use of contraception meaning the birth-rate is high, leading to rapid population growth. - Bangladesh's birth rate has rapidly decreased over the past 20 years - In 1971, the average woman had 7 children, 25% of whom would die before 5 years. In 2015, the mortality rate declined drastically to 3.8% and the birth rate reduced to 2.2 children per woman. the population growth rate is around 1.04%. - GDP per capita is low in Bangladesh (USD 1,906), meaning people do not generally have a good standard of living. - under-employed, meaning they don't work full time. Wages are also low. 43% of the population (70 million people) live below the poverty line of USD 1.90 or less, per day an adult literacy rate of just 72.89%. While the male literacy rate is 75.7%, for females is 70.09%. ir Access to healthcare is also poor in Bangladesh resulting in a high death rate (5.5/1000) and infant mortality rate (25/1000). The main challenges the country will face include: - feeding the population - deforestation in the Himalayas leading to increased flooding + landslides - overcrowding and pollution in the capital, Dhaka - the increasing likelihood of stronger, more devastating monsoons due to climate change - the cost of repairs from flooding + monsoon means less money is invested in public services
Declining
- Developed countries - Low birth rates + low death rates = stable or slowing increase in population - Ageing population = very high life expectancy + majority of the population over the age of 50 years - Population pyramid shape = constrictive Challenges for stage 5 = facilities + personnel for aged care, diminishing workforce, taxation and maintenance of public goods, immigration policies for natural increase.
Early Expanding
- Developing countries / NICs (Newly Industrialised Countries) - Highly variable birth rate + falling death rate = rapid natural increase - Relatively young population - Factors such as improving medical technology, facilities, healthcare and policies to provide basic services for everyone, can combat most endemic diseases, however, limited highly technical treatments - Often have limited access to reproductive healthcare due to socio-cultural norms = religious beliefs about contraception and children, social status attached to family sizes / motherhood and son-preference - Infant mortality varies significantly between countries in this stage - Population pyramid shape = developed - Challenges for stage 2 = food security, competition for residential and agricultural land use, education provision + access, providing basic medical care, enough job opportunities, and infrastructure in cities.
Identify levels and rates of population growth
- Global population is currently growing at a rate of 1.07% per year In 2100, it should be only 0.09%, grow in the 21st century, but at a much slower rate compared to the recent past. average population increase is estimated at 82 million people per year. The major trends in global population growth since 1800 can be described in the following categories: -The rate of population increase is decreasing after a sharp increase - The total world population will continue to grow - Average life expectancy has increased - Population growth rate remains faster in developing countries than in developed
Developed
- High fertility rates - Low mortality rates - Higher life expectancy-large middle age population - dEveloped country
Singapore study
- The city has 5.31 million people, which increased from a population of about 1.9 million at independence in 1965. - The government aims to continue this increase to between 6.5 and 6.9 million by 2030 a population density of 8,136.7 people per square kilometre, making it the 3rd most densely populated country in the world. - . The competition for land means that Singapore only produces approx. 7% of its food locally, largely relying on imported goods to support its population - economy is heavily dependent on tertiary, quinary and quaternary industries (e.g., foreign investment, migrant workers, education), and has developed into one of the wealthiest countries in the world (GDP per capita stands at approx. USD103, 000, and adult literacy rate of 97%). - Singapore will be required to reclaim even more land including developing reserve land, speed up new developments and recycle brownfield sites, old industrial estates and some golf course - By 2030, 58% of land will be used for housing (17%), commerce, industry and greenspace. 700, 000 new homes are expected to be built in that time Singapore as the 6th most expensive city in the world to live in. - average life expectancy has grown to 83.6 years, and the population is ageing. - The number of over 65 year old is expected to double by 2030, and the dependency ratio (currently at 1 pensioner to every 3.8 workers) will further decrease to 1:2.3 in that same time. The government's plan is to supplement this imbalance with 30, 000 new permanent resident workers each year, also increasing the overall population - Fertility rates have fallen for the past 30 years and is currently 1.16 children per woman of child bearing age. - Most women complete tertiary education and enter high level jobs, meaning that marriage and family formation occur much later in life, leaving capacity to have fewer children - 1/3 of Singaporeans between the ages of 30-34 are not married, leading governments to also actively promote marriage stability, family planning and child care services Future problems facing Singapore include: - emigration of residents seeking better quality of life, affordable housing and resources - balancing population size with need to support labour market with foreign workers - reclaiming more land for residential use - elderly care facilities and funding providing enough services, job opportunities, and food security for growing population
Stationary
- high fertility rates - low mortality rates - long life expectancy-ageing population - population s not increasing or decreasing - developed country
Explain trends in population growth over time
- hundreds of thousands of years for the world population to grow to 1 billion then in just another 200 years or so, it grew sevenfold. - This is due to increasing numbers of people surviving to reproductive age, and has been accompanied by major changes in fertility rates, increasing urbanisation and accelerating migration
Constrictive
- low fertility rates-below replacement level - low mortality rates - long life expectancy developed country
Life Expectancy
- the average number of years a person is expected to live based on the mortality rate at the time of birth and assuming this remains constant in the future.
The most common housing challenges are
- the shortage of adequate and affordable housing, - the unprecedented proliferation of slums, - overcrowding + high densities create health and other hazards - the use of unsafe and environmentally damaging material - poor quality and location of the housing - lack of accessibility and services - contribution to air, noise, light, thermal, water and land pollution
Expansionary
-High fertility raytes - high mortality rates - low lide expectancy- very young population -developing country
Migration can be classified in the following ways
1. Internal: population movements within a country. 2. International: population across national boundaries. 3. Voluntary: deliberate migration to improve economic or social wellbeing. 4. Forced: migration away from circumstances beyond a person's control such as war.
Labour Migration
: (internal and international) In developed countries, the relative decline in manufacturing employment (secondary) and the growth of employment in the services sector, have changed the distribution of the workforce into predominantly tertiary + quaternary workers
Non-Malthusian
A newer perspective supported by the relative technological and scientific advances which have allowed resources to be developed to cope with the increased population since Thomas Malthus' time (approx.. 1 billion people) to now (approx.. 7 billion). Argues that there are in fact enough resources on Earth to support all humans currently alive and sustainably into the future, however, these are not equitably distributed. Acknowledges role of both developed and developing countries in contributing to over population and their mutual need to combat the impacts. The limitations are: - technology may not be developed in time to sustainably maintain food supply and accommodate / counteract the potential impacts of climate changes - Global and national efforts to raise people out of poverty take significant amounts of time, money, and environmental resources, and may not occur fast enough to forestall / counteract rapid population growth in other regions
Replacement Level
A rate of 2 children per woman
The impacts of the Host country gaining people migration-Healthcare
Access healthcare that is culturally aware, appropriate and affordable · Increased demand on medical resources but also skilled and specialist migrant workers contribute to the labour market · Migrant families adapt over time to more developed social standards and have fewer children who survive infancy, creating little difference to the demand for infant health services. Standards of living increase for migrants in their host country, therefore contribute to ageing populations in developed countries and the demand for elderly services
Case study Australia
Australia Housing crisis To afford a home in Australia's most populated urban areas (Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane) it costs approximately 11 times the average annual income of working Australians. In the last decade, the average rent increased by 75.8% for houses and 91.8% for other dwellings (mostly flats/apartments), and house prices rose by 69%. Low income earners About 60% of low-income families nationally experience 'housing stress', spending more than 40% of their household disposable income on rent. Australia's housing affordability crisis affects poorer families the mos Government (social) housing The number of social housing applicants has increased by 8.7% since 2008 In NSW, there were over 52, 000 applicants (2017), which is a 12.6% decrease from the previous year. Habitat for Humanity (NGO) partners with low income families and have built over 220 homes through low-interest, market-price loan schemes and exchanging labour for discounts in the price Homelessness over 100, 000 people in Australia were homeless The main reasons for people seeking homelessness assistance were (nationally, 2018): · domestic and family violence / family breakdown (44%) · financial difficulties (38%) · housing affordability stress (25%) However, there are not always enough services available for the scale of demand Indigenous High frates of homelessness relatez to complex and interrelated factors; the lasting impacts of colonisation, exposure to family violence, substance disorders, unemployment, low education levels and poor health over the last 15 years home ownership and homelessness rates of First Nations Australians have improved. Home ownership There has been a steady rise nationally in Indigenous home ownershipHowever, dwellings in NSW including an Indigenous person were: · less likely to be owned · more likely to be private rentals · more likely to be social housing Social housing In 2016-17, of over 66,000 Indigenous households in social housing Wait times for both public housing and SOMIH programs reduced from 2014 to 2017. Overcrowding First Nations people are: 16 times more likely to live in overcrowded dwellings more likely to live in a house with 3 or more people more than twice as likely to live in a house with 6-8 people Homelessness Australia (NGO) revealed the shortage of 20,000+ properties across Australia the prevalence of overcrowding has decreased to a quarter of the rate in 2006 Homelessness First Nations people are 15 times more likely to be sleeping rough. More than 26,000 were homeless on census night. Over-representation is still an issue. Family violence is the primary cause of homelessness for First Nations people
Qualitative devlopment idicator
Bhutan gave panel discussions on their use of Gross National Happiness rather than gross domestic product (GDP) as a marker of success. In June 2016 the OECD, committed, "to redefin[ing] the growth narrative to put people's well-being at the centre of governments' efforts" created the World Happiness Report. While this report requires participants to rank their experiences on a scale from 0-10, it also incorporates significant qualitative evidence when factoring in elements like social support, freedom, decision making power and generosity in calculating happiness.
The impacts of the Host country gaining people migration-Social
Chain migration leads migrants to settle in urban communities with members of their own family or ethnic group, creating enclaves or "ethnoburbs" (Wei Li, 1997) · Enclaves provide migrants with the social capital, food security, religious support, cultural accommodation and resources which are not always accessible through government institutions. · The intersection of many diverse cultures and people groups also results in tensions and disagreements in urban areas between different ethnic groups, between migrant and resident populations and even between multicultural urban and largely monocultural rural populations (International Organisation for Migration, 2015). · Migration prompts existing infrastructure (Gov't and NGO) to develop more inclusive programs for language, education, social welfare, healthcare and employment services.
Factors effecting low fertility and low motality in developed countries Social
Children perceived as an optional extra to a fulfilled adult life, a choice made when other goals (education, career, travel etc) are achieved · Social status attached to family planning (fewer children, deliberately planned = more loved) · Personal success now demonstrated in workplace not family size · Lower proportion of religious affiliation and secularisation of institutions - societies were quicker to embrace contraceptive methods · Later family formation + first child in late 20s / early 30s, fewer fertile years in which to have children Middle aged and ageing population contributes to older parents
Factors Developing countries High Fertility Rate, High Infant Mortality Rate Social
Children perceived as most valuable part of adult and family life · Social status attached to large families · Perceived connection between fertility and being successful / fortunate / wealthy · High proportion of religious affiliation - conservative approach to contraception, high value placed on children + community continuity · Early family formation + first child in late teens / early 20s, more fertile years to have more pregnancies · Very young age structure of population contributes to young parents · Variation occurs within developing countries where urban dwellers tend to have smaller families than rural dwellers
Why?
Chinese President Xi Jinping believes that "toxicity of religious extremism" can only be handled with the tools of "dictatorship" · Xinjiang's lack of terrorist attacks the camps have prevented violence. China uses these massive oil and gas reserves in Xinjiang for economic growth and modernisation, · China supports the international plan to maintain major Silk Road landmarks as UN World Heritage sites, however, Kashgar is omitted from this list The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) or "the New Silk Road" is a massive infrastructural undertaking involving 60 countries so far to create road, rail and shipping networks between Asia and Europe in order to open new trade options + economic development for China, and the camps are designed to detain people to protect these plans
Low Stationary
Developed countries Low birth rates + low death rates = stable or slowing increase in population Ageing population = median age in the late 30s or early 40s with increasing number of people over 60 Very high life expectancy averaging above 70 years of age Factors such as historical industrialisation, advanced medical care available to entire population, high literacy rates through public access to education, high levels of food and water security through developed infrastructure, stable economic and political systems. Population pyramid shape = constrictive Challenges for Stage 4 = potential declining population in future creates imbalanced dependency ratio, pressure on taxation and maintaining public goods, and health care services for ageing population.
1. High Stationary
Developing countries. High death rates + high birth rates = Slow or stable population growth overall. Very young populations - sometimes up to half the population under 15 years old. Factors such as high infant mortality rates, low life expectancies, outdated medical technology, inadequate access to medical facilities, malnutrition, and endemic diseases. Population pyramid shape = expansionary Challenges for stage 1= food security, providing medical care, educating a young population, and building communal resistance / awareness of diseases such as H.I.V or Ebola.
1. Define the meaning of development.
Development implies change and improvement for a population in economic, social, political, cultural, and environmental domains
Factors Developing countries High Fertility Rate, High Infant Mortality Rate Economic
Economic · Higher infant mortality rates due to lack of infant healthcare, affordable services, sanitation, nutrition of mother. · Families have more children to increase chances of survival · Many women have less than secondary education, therefore, have lower earning potential and less job options Cost of raising a child still expensive but also offset by their contribution to household earning potential in the future
Factors effecting low fertility and low motality in developed countries- Economic
Economic · Low infant mortality due to advanced medical care available for every individual · Women achieve higher levels of education, have more participation in workforce and higher incomes · Women more freely allowed to engage in university education + high tier, highly demanding occupations · Cost of raising a child is expensive (approx. AU$300, 000, 2016) and seen as a burden.
Developed Countries mortality rate factors Economic
Economic · Stable food security and nutrition for everyone: access to, amount, affordability, utilisation of foods · Advanced medical care available to everyone Larger proportion of people work in tertiary / quaternary / quinary job sectors meaning less physical strain and more safe conditions
Developing Countries mortality rate factors Economic
Economic · Usually characterised by poor food security or "insecurity" - poor diets, seasonal availability, natural hazards lead to under-nutrition (insufficient food) and malnutrition · Often lack access to safe or sufficient water sources Basic medical care available, with advanced care often for affluent or urban people
economic impact overpopulation
Economy · The main centres for global economic production in urban areas Increasingly urbanised populations promote development and diffusion of new ideas and technologies. These advances could help to improve resource use · create jobs in tertiary+ sectors, lower emissions from primary+secondary sectors and bridge global inequalities. · Depopulation of rural areas as people seek more secure, higher paying work in urban centres, creating strain on primary industries. · The global population simultaneously has the largest proportion of under 24 year olds and largest proportion of over 60 year olds ever in history - pressure on job creation for young, mobile, skilled people but also opportunities for countries to build their economic production (demographic dividend); and pressure on dependency ratios and gov't pension spending for elderly non-working people. · Income inequality leads to unsustainable resource use - the poorest in detrimental food or energy sourcing, and the wealthiest in disproportionately extensive consumption. · Surplus of workers will outstrip supply of jobs, lower wages and result in families having less capital to invest into the development of each child, and ultimately the national economy Less money available to invest per capita in overpopulated developing countries. This has the cyclical effect of diminishing the amount national gov'ts have available to support the education, training and employment of each person, therefore decreasing national productivity, therefore decreasing the amount of available capital even further
enviromental impact overpopulation
Environment · Over consumption of land, food, water, air, fossil fuels and minerals. · Waste products resulting from consumption like pollutants, toxic materials and greenhouse gases · Increase in intensive farming and deforestation for food production and higher demand · Deforestation reduces primary production of energy within ecosystems, and the natural processes of atmospheric carbon sequestration. D. contributes 25% of carbon released into the atmosphere. · Eutrophication from agricultural, textile, industrial and residential pollutants have cause 400+ global marine "dead zones" · Loss of biodiversity due to habitat fragmentation and destruction for agriculture and residential space · Water stress and scarcity due to access and availability of fresh water. In 2016, 15% of the world lived in water stressed regions which could reach 50% by 2030. As much as 2/3 of people will experience water shortages by 2025. · Climate Change is a direct consequence of population increase and the technological + agricultural advances heavily dependant on the use of fossil fuels which supported the growth of industrialised societies. Earth's "carrying capacity" - the actual number of humans that the Earth's resources can sustain
3. With the use of examples give reasons for the variations in the global pattern of development
Factors influencing development Climate: ability to grow food, access natural resources, disease Natural hazards: effect growth of country Landlocked: difficult to trade good, access tech Natural resources: improve Historical development: colosism hinders development Politcal: poor governance dose not help Economic: LEDC tend to sell primary produce, foreign investment helps Social: difficult investment in education poorer=worse refer to housing in Aus and Brazil
Quantitative developments indicator
GDP is a nation's overall economic activity, broadly measuring the monetary value of all finished goods and services produced within a country's borders per year. GDP per capita is the total value of the economic activity of a country in a year divided by its population. It shows the average money per person in the population. It is used to show a country's capacity to support and invest in its people, and therefore how developed they are. Life Expectancy is the calculated average years a person can expect to live based on the average age of death of people in their country at the time of their birth. This is used as an indicator of development because many other factors contribute to sustaining a person's life expectancy including health services, sanitation, food security, safety, education, wealth and political stability, therefore providing a somewhat comprehensive view of a country's level of development. Comparative data is utilised by countries themselves, multinational financial organisations, NGOs and development organisations to: · Track levels and the rate of development in different countries and regions, · Anticipate necessary resources or services in each stage of development according to what developed countries required at similar stages
Developing Countries mortality rate factors Political
Gov't programs (often sponsored by World Bank, IMF and UN) set up for education, immunisation, antibiotics, farming technology - however, dependant on foreign assistance
Developing Countries mortality rate Trend
High mortality rates Younger population
The impacts of the Host country gaining people migration- Housing
Impacts of Migration The impacts of the Home country losing people: The impacts of the Host country gaining people: Housing Almost all the cities reported a need for more affordable and social housing. · Average price of housing is higher in many developed cities, e.g., 11 average annual incomes are needed to afford a dwelling in Sydney, Australia.
Migration Destinations
In 2015, over 1 billion people migrated: 244 million went abroad and 763 million moved within their home country · 19% of the world's total migrants went to the USA (1/5) · 9.7% went to Germany and Russia (1/10) · Middle Eastern countries have the highest proportion their population who are migrants, e.g., 80%+ of UAE's population is foreign-born.
Dependency Theory
In combination with economic and social theories, with hints of Marxism, it attempts to highlight the causal relationship between concentrated wealth in some countries and the loss or lack of it in others. Namely that "resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped countries to a "core" of wealthy countries, enriching the latter at the expense of the former.
Ethnicity and development
In the developing world there are many attempts being made to foster development within countries. These attempts to bring change can have great impacts on people and places.The view that 'economic development' would provide the key to successful development was widely held by governments throughout the 1950's and 1960's; for developing countries to overcome problems of poverty, their economic, political and social structures needed to be transformed. They had to change from structures that were considered to be traditional or underdeveloped to those that were modern or developed (also usually more Western).Such a view is still held today by many nations, and has prompted the replacement of traditional cultural norms, identity, practices, and systems in favour of more modern and western ones.In the case of China, their process of development has incorporated many historical events and ideologies which shape its equity issues today
Developed Countries mortality rate factors Cultural
Individualistic cultures - elderly usually left in institutional care, therefore creating demand for the maintenance of these services Culturally larger boundaries of personal space limiting transmission of diseases (90cm - 1.5m)
Developed Countries mortality rate trends
Low mortality rates for infants and adults Ageing population
The impacts of the Host country gaining people migration-Employment
Migrants (usually involuntary, displaced persons or refugees) generally are often vulnerable and therefore more inclined to take on entry level, low paid, labour jobs in their host country. More typically, visa requirements and employment firms of the host country do not recognise prior qualifications gained in a different country, so migrants cannot access their fields of training or the career level they had obtained before emigrating First generation migrants are the most expensive for governments to house, resource and educate than the resident population. However, the second generation become the population's strongest economic and fiscal contributors. Over the long term, migrants have a net positive effect on government budgets
Migration barriers
Migration Destinations In 2015, over 1 billion people migrated: 244 million went abroad and 763 million moved within their home country · 19% of the world's total migrants went to the USA (1/5) · 9.7% went to Germany and Russia (1/10) · Middle Eastern countries have the highest proportion their population who are migrants, e.g., 80%+ of UAE's population is foreign-born. Migrants go to global cities: · Dubai (83%) and Brussels (62%) have the highest number of foreign-born population. · 20 US cities house to two-thirds (65%) of the country's immigrants. 36% of London's population are migrants (1 in 3 people Barriers Physical · Oceans, seas, large bodies of water · Mountain ranges · Tundra and deserts Distance between locations Economic · Poverty + unemployment Cost of moving + settling in a new place Socio - Cultural · Distance from family + friends · Language + communication difficulties Cultural accommodation - changing traditions / practices which conflict between home and host cultures Political · Immigration policies + Visas / passports / fees · Migrant detention centres National migration policies + rules
Late Expanding
NICs (Newly Industrialised Countries) Falling birth rates + falling death rates = gradual population increase More even spread of population across different age groups = median age is in the late 30s Life expectancy rises and becomes comparable to developed countries earlier in the last century Factors such as improved medical facilities and policies, reproductive health, economic stability, substantial opportunities for employment and education. Immigration also contributes to population growth in this category Population pyramid shape = stationary Challenges for stage 3 = medical care for ageing population, meeting future taxation and labour needs, immigration policies, and protecting companies from international competition to maintain economy.
Uyghur people, China
Over time economic disparities and ethnic tensions have grown between the Uighur and Han populations and resulted in protests and other disturbances The Communist regime of China used these and mounting Islamophobia post 9/11, to claim that it too was under attack from internationally connected terrorist groups run by Muslim Uyghurs. Chinese authorities responded by cracking down on Uyghurs, including shootings, arrests, and long jail sentences until 2017, when the Chinese government initiated even greater security
Factors Developing countries High Fertility Rate, High Infant Mortality Rate Cultural
Patriarchal family dynamics where choices are not always made by women · Collectivist societies where women are expected to uphold community + family needs and expectations around child-bearing · Often son preference culture contributes to infanticide or more pregnancies Polygamy, widow-cleansing, child marriages - encourage more pregnancies
Percentages:
Percentage change = Difference (Year 2 - Year 1) × 100 Original (Year 1). 1
Factors Developing countries High Fertility Rate, High Infant Mortality Rate Political
Policies which aim to curb population growth - e.g., One Child Policy · Inadequate gov't funding to allow access to contraceptive methods, family planning and modern reproductive health care Conservative governments may restrict some health services altogether
Migration push and pull factors
Pull Factors More jobs Better jobs Higher wages The promise of a "better life" Principles of religious tolerance Attractive environments, such as mountains, seasides and warm climates Push Factors Overpopulation Few jobs Low wages Intolerance towards a certain cultural group Active religious persecution Natural disasters
Informal Settlements
RUM + hyperurbanisation Rapid urbanisation (hyper-urbanisation) in developing countries is resulting in a growing number of slum dwellers, inadequate and overburdened infrastructure and services, worsening air pollution and unplanned urban sprawl. slum dwellers is the result of both urbanisation and population growth that are outpacing the construction of new affordable homes The most common housing challenges are: - the shortage of adequate and affordable housing, - the unprecedented proliferation of slums, - overcrowding + high densities create health and other hazards - the use of unsafe and environmentally damaging material - poor quality and location of the housing - lack of accessibility and services - contribution to air, noise, light, thermal, water and land pollution Informal Settlements Informal settlements are also known as squatter settlements, shanty towns, or slums They are located on city edges, on unused land or inhospitable terrain such as steep mountain sides, lakes, swamps, canal banks and adjacent to train tracks. comprised of "self-help" housing made from scrounged materials arise as urban population growth in these cities overwhelms and is too rapid for administrative institutions to provide adequate housing
RUM + hyperurbanisation acess to shelter
Rapid urbanisation (hyper-urbanisation) in developing countries is resulting in a growing number of slum dwellers, inadequate and overburdened infrastructure and services, worsening air pollution and unplanned urban sprawl. slum dwellers is the result of both urbanisation and population growth that are outpacing the construction of new affordable homes
The difference between the BR & DR
Rate of Natural Increase in a population or Natural decrease (if death rates are higher).
Development
Refers to the improvement in standards of living community experiences
Case study Brazil
Rio de Janeiro is one of Brazil's largest settlements with a population of approximately 6.7 million people. population has led to severe crowding and a shortage of housing High class residential areas are found next to the CBD. Middle level residential areas have developed near the airport and highways. Whereas poorer people live inland. Favelas are found on the edges of Rio, close to industry where people look for work. Many are in the steep hills Rocinha is the largest favela in Brazi Favelas like Rocinha usually offer better standards of living than squatter camps as they have been improved by residents over time. problems as the squatter camps such as overcrowding, disease, malnutrition, and extreme poverty. In Rio, more than 1.2 million people live in the favelas on less than $1 per day the high infant mortality rates of 50/1000 in favelas compared to a national rate of 15/ 1000. Substantial crime rate and violence dominate life in the favelas, as conflicts between drug organisations, police and the government occur on the streets Unemployment rates are also high, and many people work in the informal sector; in low skilled, poorly paid jobs Favelas are also at risk of natural hazards
Types of Migration
Rural-Urban Migration (RUM): Labour Migration: International Migration:
Slum Evictions
Slum Evictions This is an urban renewal strategy to clear these dwellings in favour of public building projects, private property development contracts or expansion of infrastructure. Squatters are not the legal owners (insecure tenure) of the land or dwellings on/in which they live Therefore, urban planners often disregard their needs and they are vulnerable to heavy-handed evictions At least 6 homes were destroyed, and 30 people forcibly evicted each hour in India in 2017 The Delhi High Court recently ruled that forced and unannounced evictions of slum dwellers without consultations or resettlement plans are illegal (March 2019). The ruling was in response to a 2015 petition on the forced eviction of 5,000 slum dwellers at Shakur Basti
Re-education" camps
The CCP now refers to Uyghurs as "terrorists, separatists or fundamentalists" to justify the indefinite detention of up to 2 million Uyghurs Chinese officials maintain that their "vocational training centers" do not infringe on Uyghurs' rights Most people in the camps have never been charged with a crime and have no legal avenues to challenge their detentions Information on what actually happens in the camps is limited, but many detainees who have since fled China describe harsh condition
Net Migration.
The difference between numbers of immigration and emigration
emigration,
The movement of people out of an area
Slum statistics
The proportion of the urban population living in slums worldwide declined between 2000 and 2014 from 28% to 23% and remains at 23.5% in 2018. The absolute number of people living in slums or informal settlements grew to over 1 billion, with 80 per cent attributed to three regions: · 35.8% from Eastern and South- Eastern Asia (370 million), · 23% Sub-Saharan Africa (238 million) and 22% Central and Southern Asia (227 million). An estimated 3 billion people will require adequate and affordable housing by 2030 between 70% - 95% of all new housing in developing nations occurs in squatter settlements
Explain the issue of overpopulation
This occurs at a regional and national scale when there are too many people, relative to the amount of natural resources and technology available, to maintain an adequate standard of living. Progress in achieving economic growth is often outstripped by population growth
2. Outline problems that arise when measuring the level of development of countries.
Traditionally, development has only considered economic indicators of wealth development with the assumption that this would automatically improve health, sanitation, literacy rates, mortality rates as people also gained more personal wealth. However, the idea of development is continually becoming more nuanced with the introduction of more quantitative and broader scopes of measurement of development, including environmental management, sustainability, human happiness, and wellbeing.evelopment is a relative term: determining the extent to which a country may be developed is only possiblewhen comparing that country to other. Mesures
The impacts of the Host country gaining people migration-political
Transnationalism" - temporary and even more permanent labour migrants travel frequently back and forth between home and host countries, without feeling the need to wholly abandon or subsume their home/host identities and citizenship. · Transnational migrants also have the capacity to transform cities into World Cities and contribute to globalisation by exchanging ideas and information through individuals and companies. E.g., cities like Sydney, London, Dubai, Kuala Lumpur, New Dehli, New York and Toronto have large populations of transnational workers (International Organisation for Migration, 2015). · Increasingly isolationist immigration policies (e.g., Brexit) in developed countries restrict migration from developing countries.
The demographic transition model
attempts to explain the nature of population change experienced by nations
The Fertility Rate
calculated based the average number of children each women of child-bearing age (15-44 years) will have
Newly industrialised countries
countries who is economic is develops a stab sleep without experiencing much improvement in their social or political experience.
Mortality rate can be measured using different indicators
crude death rate and life expectancy
Development is a relative term
determining the extent to which a country may be developed is only possible when comparing that country to others. Be measured qunitively or qulitively
the five stages of the demographic transition model
high stationary early expanding late expanding low stationary declining
Brandt Line
is a simplistic visual representation, based on the GDP per capita and economic wealth of different countries
Migration
is the act or process of moving from one place to another with the intention of staying at the destination permanently or for a relatively long period of time.
Statistics migration
population increase will be absorbed by the urban areas of developing countries. In 2007, the number of urban dwellers exceeded that of rural dwellers for the first time in human history. In developing countries over the last 30 years, 35 million+ people have emigrated to developed countries in search of work and job security More countries are hosting larger migrant populations either as sizeable migrant populations (over 300,000) or where the migrant population represents a significant proportion of the total (above 15%).
Bottom-up development schemes
projects that are planned and controlled by local communities to help their local periphery area. They are not expensive because they use smaller, more appropriate technology which the local people will have to pay for. Because the project is on a smaller scale compared to a top-down project, the environmental damage is often much less.
Hyperurbanisation
rapid RUM in developing countries stretches the capacity of local and national governments to provide even the most basic of services such as water, electricity and sewerage.
Factors influencing devlopment
see summary
HDI
summary measure of average achievement in key dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life, being knowledgeable and have a decent standard of living.
Crude Death rate
the average annual number of deaths during a year per 1000 people in the population.
Death Rates
the average number of deaths in a year per 1000 people
Birth Rates
the average number of live births in a year per 1000 people
immigration.
the movement of people into an area
Infant Mortality rate
the number of infant deaths (0-12 months old) per 1000 live births.
Sinofication
the process of making the local language and culture more Chinese
Top-down Top-down development schemes
very expensive and a country often has to borrow money from large organisations like the World Bank, or from companies in developed countries. The decisions related to any top-down scheme will usually be made by the government and any external groups invol
Global trends development rate
· 34% of people lived in extreme poverty in 1990 but only 9.81% in 2020 (736 million people). · Child labour practices have been reduced by 40% between 2000 and 2016. · Child mortality rates have halved from 60/1000 in 1990 to 30/1000 in 2017. · Life expectancy increased from 35 years in 1900, to 65.3 in 1990, to 72.6 in 2019. · In 1850 only 5% of people lived in democracies, by 1900 12%, 30% in 1950 and 55% in 2015. · 9% of the global population had internet access in 2000, 45% in 2015, and 59% in 2020. Global average life expectancy has doubled since then, and increased by 5.5 years between 2000 and 2016, the fastest increase since the 1960s female and male life expectancy both increased by more than six years between 1990 and 2016 where average life expectancy doubled. In the African global region, a 10 year gain in life expectancy took 50 years to achieve in the 20th century, however, the same 10 year gain in life expectancy has been achieved in just 20 years so far this century
Developing Countries mortality rate factors Cultural
· Collectivist cultures - value of elderly people and often stay with a family unit, creating crowded living conditions Culturally smaller boundaries of personal space assisting transmission of diseases (up to 20 - 60cm)
Migrants go to global cities:
· Dubai (83%) and Brussels (62%) have the highest number of foreign-born population. · 20 US cities house to two-thirds (65%) of the country's immigrants. 36% of London's population are migrants (1 in 3 people
social impact overpopulation
· Inequality of living standards due to unequal control of global resources and capital - poverty cycles perpetuate. · As developing countries progress, birth and mortality rates will decline contributing to ageing populations. The regional and global pressure on elder care services will prompt migration and technological advances. · Social breakup of family and communal units through RUM and international migration - shifts in cultural and social norms which previously formed cohesive cultural / group identities. · Westernisation through globalisation, in approaches to women's emancipation, reproductive health, smaller family expectations and more workforce participation. · Overcrowding of urban areas (with or without the resulting hyperurbanisation and poor living standards) increases the transmission of diseases and accumulation of health-altering air, water, noise, light and thermal pollution
Factors effecting low fertility and low motality in developed countries Cultural
· Lateral family dynamics where choices tend to be made by women / the couple together / the family as a whole · Individualist societies where mothers make choices about child - bearing based on her own needs Generally wider acceptance of gender equality
Developing Countries mortality rate factors Social
· Less developed standards of personal hygiene either from lack of knowledge or accessible facilities · Inadequate sanitation, sewerage treatment and effluent disposal. Generally sickness / deaths occur from infectious diseases like cholera, and others like respiratory problems, malaria, tuberculosis, diarrheal diseases.
Developed Countries mortality rate factors Social
· More awareness and practice of personal and public health maintenance · Substantial sanitation infrastructure ensures public safety · Generally sickness / deaths occur from more lifestyle problems: heart disease, cancers, diabetes, mental health issues.
Developed Countries mortality rate factors Political
· National and state funding for the provision of retirement / aged care facilities Funding and legislation about medical research / technologies / facilities / services
Developing overpopulation
· Newly Industrialised or economically developing · Occurs mainly in urban areas · Rapid population growth through high fertility rates and higher life expectancy · Pressure on land resources for primary industry jobs displaces rural people = Rural to urban migration · Hyperurbanisation occurs when millions of people arrive in urban areas which are not resourced with the requisite infrastructure to house them - results in slum areas which develop on the fringes of urban areas (e.g., Favelas in Rio de Janeiro) or in disused / industrial areas of the city (e.g., Daaravi slum, Mumbai) · Food security, water resources and sanitation either very basic or not accommodated by government infrastructure, so informal, self-constructed systems tap into existing networks · Workforce participation is largely from men in urban areas sending money back to rural, regional or international families · Informal sector can contribute up to 1/3 of employment opportunities in developing country's cities - create low paying jobs + contribute to GDP.
Factors effecting low fertility and low motality in developed countries Political
· Policies which aim to encourage stable population growth - e.g., Baby Bonuses Public promotion and legislated access to / regulation of family planning services Factors Developing countries High Fertility Rate, High Infant Mortality Rate
Developed overpopulation
· Post Industrial, Green and technological Revolutions = highly developed economy + services · Occurs mainly in urban areas · Large, but mostly controlled growth through international, skilled, voluntary migration and high life expectancy · Pressure on land resources, where up to 70% of land is used for residential housing · Creates pressure on food security - production of food often outsourced to international companies, and unequal distribution of foods + class enclaves within cities create food deserts + obesogenic environments · Urban decay in inner city areas in favour of urban sprawl into greenfield areas and consolidation of brownfield areas to cope with burgeoning populations (e.g., Battersea, London; South West sprawl in Sydney) · Government funds and resources are planned but over-stretched providing transport systems, hospitals, schools, water supplies and sewerage systems (e.g., high rates of congestion, homelessness and privatised services). Tertiary + sectors attract rural and international workers, creating transitory workforce but also economic gains.
Global trends development spatial varation
· The number of people in the world living in extreme poverty has halved since 1990 · Child mortality rates have also more than halved since 1990 · In 2008, developing and emerging economies tipped over 50% of global economic production · The world average life expectancy reached over 70 years in 2015 · World homicide rates are below 10 per 100, 000 people · Approximately 55% of the world's population lived in democratic countries in 2015 · 45% of people have access to the internet in 2015 · Global literacy rates reached 85% in 2015
Neo-Malthusianism
· Theorised that the Earth's population would rapidly increase beyond the Earth's agricultural capacity to provide food for all those people · Neo-Malthusians believe we are still headed toward a global population catastrophe generated by pressure on food + other finite resources and advocate for strict population controls · Created this theory out of a fear that the lower, poorer classes were increasing too rapidly with the no. of children per woman · Predicted disastrous outcomes like famine and conflict over food shortage and ultimate collapse of society · Disaster could only be avoided by adopting drastic population control measures ·
There are problems which exist with all top-down development projects
· the country will more than likely go into debt from the loans borrowed to fund the scheme · the loan may also have some conditions attached, leaving the country to be under some external control over the economy or other development aspects of the country · jobs are not provided for the local people, instead a lot of machinery and technology i
