MCAT- Psych, Social, Biological Foundations of Behavior

what is race

a social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people

what is gender

a social construct that corresponds to the behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with a biological sex.

what is relearning?

another way of demonstrating that info has been stored in long-term memory.

the endocrine system uses chemical messengers called ____________-

hormones

The CNS Is composed of what?

brain and spinal cord

What are the 3 layers of the meninges?

dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater

explain ghettos and slums

ghettos are areas where specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities are concentrated, usually due to social or economic inequities. In the most extreme cases, slums may be formed. A slum is an extremely densely populated area of a city with low-quality, often informal housing and poor sanitation.

what is the just-world hypothesis?

good things happen to good people, bad things happen to bad people

urban renewal

rebuilding of the poor areas of a city. often fueled by gentrification

what are thermoreceptors?

respond to changes in temperature (thermosensation)

motor skills are classified into 2 classes:

gross motor skills and fine motor skills

Explain Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. (8 stages). Explain the basis of this theory

based on a series of crises that derive from conflicts between needs and social demands. As such, this theory emphasizes emotional development and interactions with the social environment. According to Erikson, it is possible to fail at resolving the conflict central to any given stage of development, but this does not mean that the mastery of each stage is required to move on to the next. Instead, he viewed successful resolution of a stage, marked by answering an essential existential question, to imbue an individual with skills and traits that are carried through subsequent stages. First conflict: Trust vs Mistrust (0-1 year). If resolved successfully, the child will come to trust his environment as well as himself. Is mistrust wins out, the child will often be suspicious of the world. Second conflict: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt. (1 to 3 years). The favorable outcome here is feeling able to exert control over the world and to exercise choice as well as self-restraint. the unfavorable outcome is a sense of doubt and a persistent external locus of control. Third Conflict: Initiative vs Guilt (3 to 6 years). Favorable outcomes include a sense of purpose, the ability to initiate activities, and the ability to enjoy accomplishment. If guilt wins out, the child will be so overcome by the fear of punishment that the child may either unduly restrict himself or may overcompensate by showing off. Fourth Conflict: Industry vs Inferiority (6 to 12 years). If this conflict is resolved favorably, the child will feel competent, be able to exercise his or her abilities and intelligence in the world, and be able to affect the world in the way that the child desires. Unfavorable outcomes are confusion about one's identity and an amorphous personality that shifts from day to day. Fifth Conflict: Identity vs Role Confusion (12 to 20 years). This stage encompasses what Erikson termed physiological revolution. The favorable outcome is fidelity, the ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties. Unfavorable outcomes are confusion about one's identity and an amorphous personality that shifts from day to day. Sixth Conflict: Intimacy vs Isolation (20 to 40 years). Favorable outcomes are love, the ability to have intimate relationships with others, and the ability to commit oneself to another person and to one's own goals. If this crisis is not favorably resolved, there will be an avoidance of commitment, alienation, and distancing of oneself from others and one's ideals. Isolated individuals are either withdrawn or capable of only superficial relationships with others. Seventh Conflict: Generativity vs Stagnation (40 to 65 years). The successful resolution of this conflict results in an individual capable of being a productive, caring, and contributing member of society. If this crisis is not overcome, one acquires a sense of stagnation and may become self-indulgent, bored, and self-centered with little care for others. Eighth Conflict: Integrity vs Despair (above 65 tears). If favorably resolved, we will see wisdom, which Erikson defined as detached concern with life itself, with assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and an acceptance of the fact that one's life has been worthwhile, along with a readiness to face death. If not resolved favorably, there will be feelings of bitterness about one's life, a feeling that life has been worthless, and at the same time, fear over one's own impending death.

structural poverty

based on the concept of "holes" in the structure of society rather than poverty due to the actions of the individual. proponents of structural poverty argue that the same individuals do not by necessity occupy these "holes" from year to year, but the percentage of a society that falls under the poverty line stays relatively constant due to their existence.

How are people motivated to sexual behavior, biologically?

based on the secretion of estrogens, progesterone, and androgens. There is a strong correlation between hormone [ ] and sexual desire. Smell-certain odors have been shown to increase sexual desire and activity.

gross motor skills

incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion, such as sitting, crawling, and walking

What are biological markers associated with bipolar disorder?

increased norepi and serotonin (monoamine theory), higher risk if parent has BP disorder, and higher risk for persons with multiple sclerosis.

What is interaction process analysis? What about system for multiple level observation of groups (SYMLOG).

interaction process analysis is a technique for observing, classifying, and measuring the interactions within small groups. It was revised to SYMLOG, which is based on the belief that there are 3 fundamental dimensions of interaction: dominance vs submission, friendliness vs unfriendliness, and instrumentally controlled vs emotionally expressive.

Explain peer pressure. Who are peers?

peer pressure refers to the social influence placed on an individual by a group of people or another individual. peers are considered individuals who are equals within a social group.

urban decay

previously functional portion of a city deteriorates and becomes decrepit over time

serotonin plays roles in what 4 things

regulating mood, eating ,sleeping, and dreaming. thought to play roles in depression and mania.

what are consistency cues?

relate to the consistent behavior of a person over time.

what are consensus cues?

relate to the extent to which a person's behavior differs from others

what is power?

the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite any obstacles, and their ability to control resources

what is power

the ability to affect others' behavior through real or perceived rewards and punishments, and is based on the unequal distribution of vlaued resources.

What is elaborative rehearsal?

A memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered, as opposed to simply repeating the word to yourself over and over. one of the ways that info is consolidated into long-term memory.

what is the crude rate

A rate that is generalized to an entire population, ie death rate in the US in 2000

Explain role conflict, role strain, and role exit.

Role conflict is difficulty in satisfying multiple expectations of multiple roles. Role strain is difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the same role. Role exit is the dropping of one identity for another.

What are the symptoms of a major depressive episode?

SIG E. CAPS Sadness + Sleep Interest Guilt Energy Concentration Appetite Psychomotor symptoms Suicidal thoughts

continuous schedule

Every instance of a behavior is reinforced. Produces most rapid learning. every time you brush your teeth you get a sticker

Explain the difference between secularism and fundamentalism

For many religious groups, there is a shift toward modernization within the religion and relaxing historical practices. For others, there is a shift away from religion as society secularizes, or moves from a world dominated by religion toward rationality and scientific thinking. For other groups, maintenance of strict adherence to religious code, or fundamentalism, predominates.

when activated, the sympathetic nervous system (7 bullet points)

- inc HR - redistributes blood to muscles of locomotion - inc blood glucose conc. - relaxes the bronchi - decreases digestion and peristalsis - dilates the eyes to maximize light intake - releases epi into the bloodstream

Hermann von Helmholtz

-first to measure the speed of a nerve impulse -credited with the transition of psychology into a field of the natural sciences

What is retrograde amnesia?

Inability to remember events that occurred before the incidence of trauma or the onset of the disease that caused the amnesia

How would someone create a cortical map and why would they do it?

You can electrically stimulate a patient's cortex with a small electrode, causing individual neurons to fire, activating the behavioral or perceptual processes associated with those neurons. Ex: if the electrode stimulates neurons in the motor cortex, it leads to specific muscle movements. This requires the assistance of the patient, who is awake and alert.

what is the limbic system

a group of neural structures primarily associated with emotion and memory (aggression, fear, pleasure and pain are all related to the limbic system)

What is a rCBF? (Regional cerebral blood flow) How would you measure it?

a noninvasive mapping procedure of the brain which detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain. (relies on assumption that when a specific cognitive function activates certain regions of the brain, the blood flow to those regions increases). To measure blood flow, the patient inhales a harmless radioactive gas; a special device that can detect radioactivity in the bloodstream can then correlate radioactivity level with regional cerebral blood flow.

is the primary motor cortex an association or projection area?

a projection area.

what is a PET (positron emission tomography) scan?

a radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed into the body, and its dispersion and uptake throughout the target tissue is imaged

Functionalism- who developed and what is it?

a system of thought that studies how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments. William James.

what is an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)?

a technique that uses a magnetic field to interact w/ hydrogen and map out hydrogen dense regions of the body

what is the neurotransmitter responsible for parasympathetic responses in the body

acetylcholine

what is the somatosensory cortex the destination for?

all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temp, and pain

what is an association area?

an area that integrates input from diverse brain regions

What hormones are released from the posterior pituitary?

antidiuretic hormone (ADH/vasopressin) and oxytocin.

the hindbrain (rhombencephalon) controls what things? In short, the hindbrain manages what?

balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes such as sleeping and waking. In short, the hindbrain manages vital functions necessary for survival.

the brain structures associated with basic survival are located (general location of the brain) and the brain structures associated with more complex functions are located (general location of the brain)

basic survival- base of the brain complex functions- higher up

what are the bumps and folds of the cerebral cortex called?

bumps-gyri folds-sulci

what are the most principal structures (3) of the hindbrain

cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and reticular formation

what does melatonin regulate?

circadian rhythm

the main role of the parasympathetic nervous system is to

conserve energy. it is associated with sleeping and resting states and acts to reduce HR and constrict the bronchi. It is also responsible for managing digestion by increasing peristalsis and exocrine secretions.

Paul Broca

examined behavioral deficits of people w/ brain damage. First person to demonstrate that specific functional impairments could be linked with specific brain lesions.

William James

father of American psychology. Formed functionalism- a system of thought that studies how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments

Franz Gall

father of phrenology. he believed you could measure psychological attributes by feeling or measuring the skull. Impetus for the work of other psychologists.

Pierre Flourens

first person to study the functions of major sections of the brain. He did this by extirpation (ablation)- where various parts of the brain are surgically removed and the behavioral consequences are observed. His work led to his assertion that the brain had specific parts for specific functions, and that the removal of one part weakens the whole brain.

cerebral cortex- in what part of the brain is it found and what are its functions.

forebrain. complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes. The Cerebrum/cerebral cortex is opposite to the primitive brain (cerebellum, brainstem, midbrain).

basal ganglia- in what part of the brain is it found and what are its functions

forebrain. coordinates muscle movement as they receive info from the cortex and relays this info(via the extrapyramidal motor system) to the brain and spinal cord. makes movements smooth and posture steady. (Parkinson's disease is associated w/ destruction of the basal ganglia)

limbic system-in what part of the brain is it found and what are its functions

forebrain. emotion and memory

hypothalamus-in what part of the brain is it found and what are its functions

forebrain. hunger, thirst, emotion. also controls the autonomic nervous system.

thalamus-in what part of the brain is it found and what are its functions

forebrain. sensory relay station (inc all senses except smell) after receiving incoming sensory impulses, the thalamus sorts and transmits them to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex.

where are interneurons found? What type of behavior are they linked to?

found between other neurons. located predominantly in the brain and spinal cord and are often linked to reflexive behavior

what are the 4 lobes of the brain?

frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital (F-POT)

What is the extrapyramidal system?

gathers info about body position and carries this info to the CNS, but does not function directly through motor neurons.

the autonomic nervous system regulates

heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretions. The ANS manages the involuntary muscles associated with many internal organs and glands. It also helps regulate body temp by activating sweating or piloerection. All these functions are automatic.

reticular formation-in what part of the brain is it found and what are its functions

hindbrain. arousal and alertness

cerebellum-in what part of the brain is it found and what are its functions

hindbrain. refined motor movements, posture, balance (drinking alcohol impairs the cerebellum--results in slurred speech and balance issues)

medulla oblongata-in what part of the brain is it found and what are its functions

hindbrain. vital functioning (breathing, digestion, HR, BP)

John Dewey

his 1896 article is seen as the inception of functionalism. this article criticized the concept of the reflex arc, which breaks the process of reacting to a stimulus into discrete parts. Dewey believed that psych should focus on the study of the organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to the environment.

Sir Charles Sherrington

inferred the existence of synapses

What does the primary motor cortex do?

initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord towards the muscles

which are the most numerous of the three types of neurons?

interneurons

What is cerebrospinal fluid? How is it produced?

it is the aqueous solution in which the brain and spinal cord rest; it is produced by specialized cells that line ventricles (internal cavities) of the brain

what does the pineal gland do? what hormone does it secrete?

it is the key player in several biological rhythms. melatonin (regulates circadian rhythms)

what does the prefrontal cortex do? how? give an example relating to memory

it manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions. This region supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long term planning. Ex: in memory the role of the prefrontal cortex isn't to store any memory traces, but rather to remind the individual that he or she has something to remember at all

what is the hippocampus responsible for? what system is it a part of?

learning and memory, specifically helps consolidate info to form long-term memories, and can redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex. it communicates w/ other parts of the limbic system through a long projection called the fornix. limbic system

inferior and superior colliculi-in what part of the brain is it found and what are each of their functions.

midbrain. sensorimotor reflexes. superior receives visual sensory input. inferior receives auditory sensory input.

efferent neurons (also known as ?)- do what

motor neurons- transmit motor info from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands

what is CT (computed tomography) scan?

multiple X-rays are taken at different angles and processed by a computer to cross-sectional slice images of the tissue

During embryonic development, the rhombencephalon (hindbrain) divides to form the myelencephalon (which becomes the _______) and the metencephalon (which becomes the (___________).

myelencephalon becomes the medulla oblongata metencephalon becomes the pons and cerebellum

the cerebral cortex, also referred to as _____ is what part of the brain?

neocortex (because it is the most recent brain region to evolve). the outer surface of the brain

The PNS is composed of what?

nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord, including all 31 pairs of spinal nerves and the 12 pairs of cranial nerves.

what is anterograde amnesia? Who is the 1st example of this?

not being able to establish new long-term memories. "HM."

where is the primary motor cortex located?

on the precentral gyrus of the frontal lone (just in front of the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes)

what is a projection area? give an example

perform more rudimentary or simple perceptual and motor tasks than association areas. examples-the visual cortex (receives visual input form the retina and the motor cortex and sends out motor commands to muscles)

how would you do an EEG (electroencephalogram)

place several electrodes on the scalp, detecting broad patterns of electrical activity.

what is the amygdala responsible for? what system is it a part of?

plays an important role in defensive and aggressive behaviors, including fear and rage. (lesions to the amygdala result in docility and hypersexual states) limbic system

what is the septal nuclei responsible for? what system is it a part of?

pleasure center. (association with addictive behavior). limbic system

The somatosensory cortex is located on the ____________________ and it is involved in what?

postcentral gynus (just behind the central sulcus) and it is involved in somatosensory information processing.

explain what happens when someone steps on a nail (think reflex arc)

receptors in the foot detect pain and the pain signal is transmitted by sensory neurons up to the spinal cord. There, sensory neurons connect with interneurons, which can then relay pain impulses up to the brain. Rather than waiting for the brain to send out a signal, interneurons in the spinal cord send signal s to the muscles of both legs directly, causing the individual to withdraw the foot with pain. The original sensory info still makes its way up to the brain; however, by the time it arrives there the muscles have already responded to the pain, thanks to the reflex ark

the somatic nervous system consists of

sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout skin, joints, and muscles. Sensory neurons transmit info through afferent fibers. motor impulses, in contrast, travel along efferent fibers

what are the three kinds of nerve cells in the nervous system?

sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons

afferent neurons (also known as ?)- do what

sensory neurons- transmit sensory info from receptors to the spinal cord and brain

the anterior hypothalamus controls what?

sexual behavior mainly, but also sleep and body temp.

the PNS can be subdivided into two divisions:

somatic and autonomic nervous systems

the central region of the parietal lobe is associated with what?

spatial processing and manipulation. This region makes it possible to orient one self and other objects in 3 dimensional space

Broca's area is vitally important for what? where is it found?

speech production. usually found only in one hemisphere, the "dominant" hemisphere; for most people (both right and left handed)- this is the left hemisphere

the sympathetic nervous system is activated by

stress

What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

sympathetic and parasympathetic

During prenatal development, the prosencephalon (forebrain) divides to form the telencephalon (which forms what things) and the diencephalon (which forms what things).

telencephalon- cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system diencephalon- thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pit and pineal gland

the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) controls what?

the "satiety center" provides signals to stop eating. brain lesions lead to obesity

what are the two primary components of the nervous system?

the CNS (central nervous system) and PNS (peripheral nervous system)

What part of the brain is destroyed in Parkinson's disease? What are the characterizations of the disease?

the basal ganglia (controls movements and posture) characterized by jerky movements and uncontrolled resting tremors.

what is the most recent evolutionary development of the human brain

the cerebral cortex

what are the most principal structures of the forebrain

the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, thalamus, and hypothalamus

what are the structures of the limbic system?

the corpus callosum, thalamus, hippocampus, fornix, septal nuclei, and the amygdala

How does the hippocampus communicate with other portions of the limbic system?

the fornix

the lateral hypothalamus (LH) controls what?

the hunger center. has receptors thought to detect when the body needs more food or fluids.

what are the principal structures of the midbrain

the inferior and superior colliculi

what are the 3 divisions of the hypothalamus?

the lateral hypothalamus (LH), the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), and the anterior hypothalamus

the brain is covered with a thick sheath of connective tissue called

the meninges

in prenatal life, the brain develops from ?

the neural tube

which 2 nerves are structurally outgrowths of the CNS but are still considered components of the PNS?

the olfactory and optic nerves (cranial nerves I and II)

what are the two basic regions of the frontal lobe?

the prefrontal cortex and the motor cortex

sometimes the somatosensory cortex and motor cortex as so interrelated that they are described as what?

the sensorimotor cortex

What are reflex arcs?

they are neural circuits that control reflexive behavior

what do the meninges of the brain do? (3 things)

they help protect the brain, keep it anchored within the skull and reabsorb cerebrospinal fluid

what is an fMRI? (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

uses the same base technique as MRI, but specifically measures changes associated with blood flow. This is especially useful for monitoring neural activity, since inc. blood flow in regions of the brain is typically coupled w/ neural activation

Extirpation (ablation)- who and what

various parts of the brain are surgically removed and the behavioral consequences are observed. Pierre Flourens.

is the prefrontal cortex a good example of an association area?

yes

Phrenology- who and what

Franz gall. If a particular trait was well-developed, that part of the brain would expand and cause a bulge in the head.

what is a meritocracy

based on intellectual talent and achievement for a person to move up

core nations

focus on higher skills and higher paying productions while exploiting peripheral nations for their lower skilled productions

what is class

socioeconomic status

People from cultures around the world can identify which of the following emotions? A. Happiness, sadness, and surprise B. Happiness, anger, and apathy C. Sadness, anticipation, and happiness D. Excitement, anger, and disgust

A. The seven universal emotions are happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, and anger

A person with high left frontal lobe activity is most likely experiencing which emotion? A. happiness B. sadness C. surprise D. disgust

A. the left frontal lobe is associated with positive feelings, corresponding with joy and happiness the right frontal lobe is associated with negative feelings

Which of the following activities would most likely be completed by the right hemisphere of a left-handed person? A. finding a car in a parking lot B. learning a new language C. reading a book for pleasure D. jumping rope with friends

A. the right hemisphere is usually the non dominant hemisphere, even in left handed people. sense of direction is an ability of the non dominant hemisphere.

Which of the following demographics can be measured in events per 1000 people per year? I. Birth rate II. Fertility rate III. Mortality rate

B Fertility rate is measured in number of children per woman during her lifetime

In the context of impression management, which of the following selves is most similar to the ought self? A. the ideal self B. The tactical self C. The authentic self D. The presented self

B the ought self is who others think we should be: the expectations imposed by others on us. This is most similar to the tactical self, which is the self we present to others when we adhere to their expectations. The presented self, D, is a combination of the authentic, ideal, and tactical selves.

Which component of the nervous system is NOT involved in the initial reflexive response to pain? A. spinal cord B. cerebral cortex C. interneuron D. motor neuron

B- the sensory receptors send info to the interneurons in the spinal cord, which stimulate a motor neuron to allow quick withdrawal. while the brain does ultimately get the signal, the reflex has already occurred

Determination of the intensity and risk of a stressor occurs during which stage(s) of stress appraisal? A. primary appraisal only B. secondary appraisal only C. both primary and secondary appraisal D. neither primary nor secondary appraisal

B. primary appraisal is simply the initial determination of whether there is a negative association at all, not its intensity

Which of the following fine motor tasks would one expect to see first in an infant? A. grasping for objects with 2 fingers B. following objects with eyes C. scribbling with a crayon D. moving a toy from one hand to the other

B. motor skills tend to develop from the core towards the periphery.

Which theory of motivation is most significantly informed by Darwin's theory of evolution? A. arousal theory B. drive reduction theory C. instinct theory D. incentive theory

C. According to Darwin's theory of evolution, all species have instincts that help them survive. The instinct theory of motivation states that people are motivated to act based on instincts that they are programmed to exhibit.

All of the following brain regions are primarily responsible for the experience of emotions EXCEPT the: A. amygdala B. prefrontal cortex C. basal ganglia D. thalamus

C. the basal ganglia are involved in smooth movement and are not primarily responsible for the experience of emotions.

A weight lifter is just able to tell the difference between 100 and 125 pounds. According to Weber's law, the lifter would notice a difference between: A. 125 and 150 pounds B. 5 and 6 pounds C. 25 and 35 pounds D. 225 and 275 pounds

C. Weber's law posits that thresholds are proportional. Going from 100 to 125 lbs is a 25% inc C is a 40% inc while all the rest are under 25%

A child has experienced nervous system damage and can no longer coordinate the movements to dribble a basketball, although she can walk. Which region of the central nervous system was most likely affected? A. Forebrain B. Midbrain C. Hindbrain D. Spinal Cord

C. the hindbrain is responsible for balance and motor coordination. The spinal cord is likely not damaged because the child can still walk

Which of the following is false with regard to a major depressive episode? A. It may last less than 2 weeks B. It must involve thoughts of a suicide or a suicide attempt C. It may involve a decrease in sleep D. It must involve feelings of sadness

D in older men, depression may often manifest as anhedonia without feelings of sadness

During a physical exam, a physician brushes the bottom of the foot of a 50 yo patient with multiple sclerosis. Her toes are observed to curl towards the bottom of her foot, with no fanning of the toes. This response is: A. abnormal, and evidence that she is exhibiting a primitive reflex B. normal, and evidence that she is exhibiting a primitive reflex C. abnormal, and evidence that she is not exhibiting a primitive reflex D.normal, and evidence that she is not exhibiting a primitive reflex

D. The Babinski reflex is a primitive reflex that refers to an extension of the big toe accompanied by fanning of the other toes. It is normal in infants, but should disappear with time.

A man is at a party with his wife. There is loud music in the background and the location is crowded. While listening to the music he hears what he believes to be his wife's laughter and turns around to investigate. The man is exhibiting: A. feature detection B. bottom-up processing C. vestibular sense D. signal detection

D. The man is discerning a specific noise within a field of many noises.

what are they symptoms of a manic episode?

DIG FAST Distractible Insomnia Grandiosity Flight of ideas (racing thoughts) Agitation Speech (pressured) Thoughtlessness (risky behavior)

what is avoidance-avoidance conflict?

choosing between two unpleasant options

what is a plutocracy

government ruled by the wealthy

Same side of the brain

ipsilateral

Wernicke's area is associated with

language reception and comprehension

which lobe of the brain is devoted to vision?

occipital lobe

What is self-efficacy?

our belief in our ability to succeed

what is prospective memory?

remembering to do something in the future

what are the 3 basic subdivisions of the human brain?

the hindbrain, the midbrain and the forebrain

what is class consciousness

Organization of the working class around shared goals and recognition of a need for collective political action

What are the four areas of theories of personality and who is associated with each?

Psychoanalytic: Sigmund Freud, Carl , Alfred Adler, Karen Horney Humanistic: Kurt Lewin, Abraham Maslow, George Kelley, Carl Rogers Type and Trait: William Sheldon,, Hans and Sybil Eysenck, Gordon Allport, David McClelland Behaviorist: BF Skinner, Albert Bandura

dopamine plays an important role in what 2 things

movement and posture.

is the somatosensory cortex an association or projection area?

projection

what is the most primitive region of the brain

the brain stem

what are mores?

widely observed social norms

what is social integration

peaceful movement into mainstream society

what is short-term memory? what is the limit? where is it housed?

- a memory storage system that briefly holds a limited amount of information in awareness - limited in capacity to approx 7 items, usually stated as a 7 +/- 2 rule. - hippocampus, which also consolidates short-term memory into long-term memory

What are the biological markers of Alzheimer's disease?

- diffuse atrophy of the brain on CT or MRI - flattened sulci in the cerebral cortex - enlarged cerebral ventricles - deficient blood flow in parietal lobes, which is correlated with cognitive decline - reduction in levels of acetylcholine - reduction in choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), the enzyme that produces acetylcholine - reduced metabolism in temporal and parietal lobes - senile plaques of B-amyloid (a mis-folded protein in B-pleated sheet form) - neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein

A physician is attempting to diagnose a patient's mental disorder based on a set of symptoms. The confirmed symptoms include appetite disturbance, substantial weight change, decreased energy, a feeling of worthlessness, and excessive guilt. 1. What two disorders could these symptoms include? A. Major depressive and bipolar disorders B. Dissociative amnesia and depersonalization/derealization disorder C. Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease D. Specific phobia and panic disorder 2. What should the physician ask about to distinguish between the two possible disorders affecting that patient? A. Whether the patient had amnesia B. Whether the patient has also had manic episodes C. Whether the patient is irrationally afraid of anything D. Whether the patient has experienced difficulty performing familiar tasks

1. A 2. B

A small town has 1000 residents, including 500 men and 500 women. In his town, 20 of the men have prostate cancer. During a calendar year, 10 more men are diagnosed with prostate cancer. Assume none of the men are cured or die during the year. 1. What is the prevalence of prostate cancer in this population at the end of the year? A. 10 / 480 B. 10 / 1000 C. 20 / 500 D. 30 / 1000 2. What is the incidence of prostate cancer in this population during the year? A. 10 / 480 B. 10 / 1000 C. 20 / 500 D. 30 / 1000

1. D Prevalence is defined as the total number of cases divided by the total population during a period of time. Here, the period of time is defined as one point: the end of the year. At the end of the year, there are 30 total cases in a population of 1000 individuals, meaning the prevalence is 30 / 1000 2. A Incidence is defined as the total number of new cases divided by the at-risk population during a period of time. Here, the period of time is one year. There were 10 new cases in this year, and the at-risk population will be only the males who do not already have prostate cancer; the 20 men already diagnosed and the 500 women should not be included in the at-risk population. Therefore, the incidence in this population is 10 / 480.

What are the 7 universal emotions?

1. Happiness 2. Sadness 3. Contempt 4. Surprise 5. Fear 6. Disgust 7. Anger

What are Irving Janis' eight symptoms of groupthink? Explain each

1. Illusion of invulnerability (the creation of optimism and encouragement of risk taking). 2. Collective rationalization (ignoring warnings against the ideas of the group). 3. Illusion of morality (the belief that the group's decisions are morally correct). 4. Excessive stereotyping (the construction of stereotypes against outside opinions). 5. Pressure for conformity (the pressure put on anyone in the group who expresses opinions against the group, viewing the opposition as disloyal). 6. Self-censorship (withholding of opposing views). 7. Illusion of unanimity (the false sense of agreement within the group). 8. Mindguards (the appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views).

Explain Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

1. Physical needs: food, shelter, water 2. Safety needs: job security, health at work 3. Social needs: trust, friendship 4. Esteem needs: respect from others, recognition of achievement 5. Self-actualization: reaching ones full potential if the lowest level of need is not met, motivation to meet that need will be the highest priority. Once that need is met, if additional needs exist, they will be satisfied based on priority.

what are the five mechanisms of mate choice? explain them

1. phenotypic benefits- observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive to the opposite sex 2. sensory bias- development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in the population 3. Fisherian or runaway selection- a positive feedback mechanism in which a particular train that has no effect or a negative effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerated over time. A trait is deemed sexually desirable and this is more likely to be passed on. This increases the attractiveness of the trait, which in turn inc the likelihood that it continues to be passed on (PEACOCK) 4. Indicator traits- traits that signify overall good health and well-being of an organism, increasing its attractiveness to mates. Notably, these traits may or may not be genetic in origin. Ex: females cats are more attracted to male cats with clean and shiny coats b/c the opposite may be related to infection, malnutrition, or a genetic issue 5. Genetic compatibility- The creation of mate pairs that, when combined, have complementary genetics. This theory provides a mechanism for the reduced frequency of recessive genetic disorders in the population; attraction to others who have starkly different genetic makeups reduces the probability of offspring being homozygotic for a disease-carrying allele.

what are 4 techniques to gain compliance of others?

1. the foot in the door technique 2. the door in the face technique 3. lowball technique 4. that's not all technique

A woman is at a restaurant and orders a spicy entrée. After the first bite, she experiences burning in her mouth and becomes concerned that her food is too hot for her. The next few bites are similarly uncomfortable, but after a while the spiciness seems to subside somewhat, and by the end of the meal, she doesn't notice the spice level. The end of the meal experience is best described as: a. adaptation. b. signal detection. c. a difference threshold. d. pain perception.

A

If the amount of acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine, is increased, which of the following would likely be the result? A. Weakness of muscle movements B. Excessive pain or discomfort C. Mood swings and mood instability D. Auditory and visual hallucinations

A

In several species of shrimp, the larger adults will sacrifice themselves to protect the younger, smaller shrimp. How is this behavior best explained? A. Inclusive fitness B. Direct benefit C. Sensory bias D. Foraging

A

Over the last few decades, the United States population has become: A. bigger, older, and more diverse B. bigger, younger, and more diverse C. smaller, older, and less diverse D. smaller, older, and more diverse

A

The ability to sense stimuli against one's own skin is known as: A. somatosensation B. kinesthetic sense C. vestibular sense D. chemoreception

A

The adrenal glands do all of the following EXCEPT: A. promote the fight or flight response via estrogen B. produce stress responses via cortisol C. produce both hormones and neurotransmitters D. release estrogen in males and testosterone in females

A

The swimming times for all members of a swim team are tracked over a 6-month period in team-only practices and at public meets. for 14 of the 16 members, top times were clocked at the meets. What social phenomenon does this evidence support? A. social facilitation B. peer pressure C. identification D. group polarization

A

The swimming times for all members of a swim team are tracked over a six-month period in team-only practices and at public meets. For 14 of the 16 members, top times were clocked at the meets. What social phenomenon does this evidence support? A. Social facilitation B. Peer pressure C. Identification D. Group polarization

A

The tendency to become close friends with neighbors rather than people in other neighborhoods is most strongly related to which of the following factors? A. Proximity B. Reciprocity C. Self-disclosure D. Similarity

A

Urbanization can cause all of the following negative effects EXCEPT: A. decreased opportunity for social interaction B. increased transmission of infectious diseases C. decreased air quality and sanitation D. increased rates of violent crime

A

Which correlation supports the bystander effect? A. The number of bystanders is positively correlated with the time it takes for someone to offer help in the case of an emergency. B. The number of bystanders is negatively correlated with the time it takes for someone to offer help in the case of an emergency. C. The number of bystanders is positively correlated with whether people judge a situation to be an emergency. D. The number of bystanders is negatively correlated with whether people judge a situation to be an emergency.

A

Which of the following methods of encoding is most conducive to later recall? A. semantic B. visual C. iconic D. acoustic

A

Which part of the eye is responsible for gathering and focusing light? A. Cornea B. Pupil C. Iris D. Retina

A

While cleaning your house, you notice a large spider on the wall by your head and feel your heart rate jump up and your skin temp grow warm. Which stage of stress response are you experiencing? A. Alarm B. Resistance C. Exhaustion D. Homeostasis

A

chemicals that complex behavior after binding with chemoreceptors are known as: A. pheromones B. olfactory receptors C. somatostimuli D. papillae

A

A researcher uses a partial-report procedure after presenting participants with an array of nine numbers for a fraction of a second. Which of the following is the most likely result of this procedure? a. The participant will be able to recall any of the rows or columns in great detail but only immediately after presentation. b. The participant will only be able to recall the first few numbers in the array due to the serial position effect. c. The participant will be able to recall approximately seven of the numbers for a few seconds following presentation of the stimulus. d. The participant will not be able to recall any of the numbers verbally, but will be able to draw the full array under hypnosis.

A Both B and C are characteristics of short term memory. A refers to sensory (specifically, iconic) memory

Which of the following statements represents the affective component of an attitude? A. I love action movies B. I'm going to see a new action movie at the theatre C. Action movies are much better than comedies D. Tomorrow, I'm going to rent an action movie

A Affective component of attitude consists of feelings and emotions toward something

Researchers repeatedly startle a participant with a loud buzzer. After some time, the participant stops being startled by the buzzer. If the researchers interrupt the study with the sound of bands banging together, which of the following would likely be observed? A. Increased startle response to the buzzer B. Decreased startle response to the buzzer C. No change in the response to the buzzer D. Generalization to previously non aversive stimuli

A - introducing a new stimulus should dis habituate (desensitize) the original stimulus

Which of the following is an example of a Gesellschaft? A. A large corporation B. A small rural neighborhood C. Members of the same family D. An ethnic enclave in a large city

A A Gesellschaft (society) is one in which individuals are working toward the same goal, such as a company or country. Gemeinschaften (communities), on the other hand, are those that are bonded together by beliefs, ancestry, or geography.

Which of the following best describes a manifest function? A. An intended positive effect on a system B. An intended negative effect on a system C. An unintended positive effect on a system D. An unintended negative effect on a system

A A manifest function is an intended positive effect on a system. A latent function is an unintended positive effect on a system.

Which type of conflict is associated with the LEAST amount of stress? A. approach-approach conflict B. avoidance-avoidance conflict C. approach-avoidance conflict D. avoidance-escape conflict

A Approach-approach conflict is one in which both results are good outcomes.

A district attorney with an internal locus of control wins an important court trial. Which of the following best represents the lawyer's attribution of the events? A. I won because I made great arguments and had more experience than the defense. B. I won because the jury was on my side from the beginning and believed my arguments C. I won because the defense did not adequately present their side of the case D. I shouldn't have won because I don't deserve to be successful.

A Because we know the lawyer has an internal locus of control, we expect her to believe that she is in control of the events that happen in her life. Both B and C attribute success to outside factors, representing an external locus of control. While D perhaps represents an attribution that could correlate to low self-esteem, it is not indicative of locus of control.

Seeking homeostasis to reduce an uncomfortable internal state is associated with which motivational theory? A. Drive reduction theory B. Instinct theory C. Arousal theory D. Incentive theory

A Drive reduction theory is the theory that will act to eliminate uncomfortable internal states known as drives.

Hypertension (high blood pressure) can be diagnosed by having two or more blood pressure readings higher than 140/90 on two different occasions, separated by a week. Suppose that the criteria were changed to include anyone with a reading higher than 130/80 on at least one occasion. How would this change the prevalence of diagnosed hypertension in the population? A. The prevalence would increase B. The prevalence would decrease C. The prevalence would remain the same D. There is not enough info

A If the threshold for hypertension were lowered, more individuals would fit the criteria for the disease. If the number of individuals with the disease increases and the population stays the same overall, there will be an increased prevalence of the disease.

Which of the following would decrease the likelihood of a bystander lending aid to a victim? A. Increasing the number of people in the room B. Increasing the degree of danger experience by the victim C. Making the victim an acquaintance in stead of a stranger D. Being alone in the room with the victim

A It has been observed that increasing the number of bystanders decreases the likelihood that any of them will aid a victim. Increasing the degree of danger experienced by the victim, B, making the victim an acquaintance instead of a stranger, C, and being alone in the room with the victim, D, would increase the likelihood that the bystander would help the victim.

Which of the following terms refers to the burden or degree of disease associated with a given illness? A. Morbidity B. Mortality C. Second sickness D. Chronicity

A Morbidity refers to the burden of illness, or the severity or degree of illness. Mortality refers to deaths caused by a given illness. Second sickness is a term used to describe the exacerbation of health outcomes due to social injustice. Chronicity refers to the duration of a disease, not its severity or significance for the patient.

Adult prison systems may attempt to change the behavior of inmates through all of the following mechanisms of socialization EXCEPT: A. primary socialization. B. secondary socialization. C. anticipatory socialization. D. resocialization.

A Primary socialization is the teaching of acceptable actions and attitudes during childhood, which would occur too early to be part of the adult prison system.

Stockholm Syndrome is a phenomenon in which a victim of a kidnapping or hostage situation may begin to identify with or even feel affection for his or her captors. A psychoanalyst might explain Stockholm Syndrome by citing which of the following defense mechanisms? A. Reaction formation B. Regression C. Projection D. Displacement

A Reaction formation is a defense mechanism that converts unwanted feelings into their exact opposite. A psychodynamic theorist would say that the terror and hatred one feels toward his or her captor might be unconsciously turned into affection in an effort to reduce the stress of the situation.

The evolutionary role of emotions has been used as support for which model(s) of emotional expression? A. The basic model only B. the social construction model only C. Both the basic model and social construction model D. Neither the basic model nor the social construction model

A The basic model of emotion, as proposed by Charles Darwin, states that emotions serve as evolutionary purpose, and thus are similar across cultures. The seven universal emotions have also been used as support for this theory. The social construction model states that emotions are always a product of the current social situation and does not posit any biological basis for emotions, implying a lack of a role for emotions in evolution.

A woman comes to the doctor with a two-week history of complete paralysis of her left arm. She has had no injury to the extremity, and full neurological workup fails to demonstrate any underlying cause. She seems surprisingly unconcerned about the paralysis, and seems more worried about an argument she had one month ago in which she hit her daughter. Based on this information, the woman's most likely diagnosis is: A. conversion disorder. B. generalized anxiety disorder. C. illness anxiety disorder. D. histrionic personality disorder.

A conversion disorder is marked by a motor or sensory symptom in the absence of an underlying physical or neurological cause. It is associated with an inciting event that, in this case, may have been the argument with her daughter. Her lack of concern over the deficit is referred to as la belle indifference .

A college student strives for excellent grades and hopes to graduated with a better GPA than his brother. This type of motivation is considered: A. extrinsic motivation B. intrinsic motivation C. a primary drive D. a secondary drive

A due to the competitive nature of the motivation, this is considered extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is based on external conditions, including perceived reward or fear of punishment.

During an interview with a schizophrenic patient, a psychiatrist notices that the patient keeps repeating what the psychiatrist says. This phenomenon is known as: A. echolalia B. echopraxia C. loosening of associations D. neologisms

A echopraxia is the imitation of others' actions loosening of associations is a type of disordered thought in which the patient move between remotely related ideas neologisms are newly invented words

A 42-year-old woman has always been extremely neat and tidy. She works as a secretary and stays long after normal working hours to check the punctuation and spelling of letters she prepared during the day. Her boss referred her for counseling after she repeatedly got into fights with her coworkers. "They don't take the job to heart," she says. "They just joke around all day." The most likely preliminary diagnosis for this patient is: A. obsessive-compulsive personality disorder B. antisocial personality disorder C. narcissistic personality disorder D. borderline personality disorder

A focusing on details, loving routine, having a sense that there is only one right way to do things, and lack of humor suggests an OCPD

When you first meet Dustin, he is very rude to you. You run into him twice more and he is very friendly, but you still dislike him because of your first meeting. What impression bias does this describe? A. Primacy effect B. Recency effect C. Reliance on central traits D. Proximity

A the primacy effect refers to the occasions when first impressions are more important than subsequent impressions

Matt and Cati discuss the reasons why they avoid driving above the speed limit. Matt says that he wants to avoid a traffic fine, while Cati says that speeding is dangerous and, if everyone did it, there would be more accidents and people would get hurt. According to Kohlberg, which of the following describes the phases of moral reasoning demonstrated by Matt and Cati, respectively? A. Preconventional; conventional B. Preconventional; postconventional C. Conventional; preconventional D. Postconventional; conventional

A Matt's reasoning reflects a desire to avoid punishment, which reflects stage one in Kohlberg's preconventional phase (obedience). Cati's reasoning rakes into account social order, reflecting stage four in the conventional phase (law and order)

what is somatosensation? what are the 5 different types of receptors that receive tactile info and what info do they receive? how do these receptors relay info to the brain?

A broad term that includes pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature. Pacinian corpuscles (respond to deep pressure and vibration) Meissner corpuscles (respond to light touch) Merkel cells (discs)- (respond to deep pressure and texture) Ruffini endings (respond to stretch) Free nerve endings (respond to pain and temp) transduction occurs in these receptors, which send the signal to the CNS where it eventually travels to the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe

what is habituation?

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations

what is a theocracy?

A government controlled by religious leaders

Many pets will run toward the kitchen when they hear the sound of a can opener opening a can of pet food. The sound of the can opener is a: a. conditioned response. b. unconditioned response. c. conditioned stimulus. d. unconditioned stimulus.

C

What is the instinct theory?

All motivation comes from instinct and all motivations are instinctual, automatic, involuntary behaviors that are released in response to certain stimuli and occur the same way in a certain species. (Does not account for learning) people are driven to do certain behavior s based on evolutionary programmed instincts

What is our self-concept?

Answers to the question, who am I? ex: student, intelligent, etc includes self-schema and our appraisal of who we used to be and who we will become: our past and future selves

Symbolic Interactionism

Approach that focuses on the interactions among people based on mutually understood symbols. Ex: hand shake ex respect. Flip off is bad This MUST be an interaction. There must be a receiver of your interaction.

Explain general health outcomes for asian americans, whites, african americans, latinos, and native americans and females vs males.

Asian americans have some of the best health profiles, better than white americans. African americans have the worst health profiles. Latinos and Native Americans have mixed profiles. Females have better health profiles than males.

what is the functional attitudes theory

Attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense. Knowledge function- provides consistence and stability: attitudes help provide organization to thoughts and experiences, and knowing the attitudes of others helps to predict their behavior. Ex: one would predict that an individual who cares about political action would vote Ego-Expressive-allowing us to communicate and solidify our self identity. Ex: If a person strongly identifies with a sports team, she may wear a hat that helps identify her as a fan Adaptive-the idea that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed Ego-Defensive-protect our self-esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong. Ex: a child who has difficulty doing math may develop a negative attitude toward the subject

A 28 year old male comes to a clinic concerned that he has pancreatic cancer. Review of his medical records show that this is the fourth time in the past year that he has appeared for medical attention. No identifiable medical pattern is found. When confronted with this history, he confesses that he feels relieved after being told that all of the tests are negative, but soon becomes worried again that he has cancer. Based on this info, the most likely diagnosis for this patient would be: A. major depressive disorder B. illness anxiety disorder C. conversion disorder D. narcissistic personality disorder

B

Because there are more than 500 Native American tribes, there are several different healing practices among them. Some tribes may have ceremonies that include chanting, singing, dancing, and even use of mind-altering substances to persuade the spirits to heal the sick person. These ceremonies are examples of: A. latent functions B. rituals C. cultural barriers D. social movements

B

Compared to white Americans, which of the following racial or ethnic groups tends to have a better overall health profile? A. African Americans B. Asian Americans C. Hispanic Americans D. Native Americans

B

Elephant seal males mate with multiple females each mating season, while females only have one mate each. What type of mating system is this? A. Polyandry B. Polygyny C. Monogamy D. Promiscuity

B

In the Milgram shock experiment, may subjects were willing to give the maximum voltage shock because they were influenced by which psychological principal? A. Deviance B. Obedience C. Conformity D. Compliance

B

Prolonged B12 deficiency can be associated with subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord. Patients with this disease have difficulty walking because they lose the ability to feel where their feet are in space. This represents a loss of: A. vestibular sense B. kinesthetic snese C. parallel processing D. feature detection

B

Which of the following demographic variables is known to be biologically determined? A. Gender B. Sex C. Ethnicity D. Sexual orientation

B

Which of the following is an example of a semantic memory? A. having the ability to drive a car B. Knowing the parts of a car engine C. Remembering the experience of learning to drive D. Associating a car with other vehicles in a semantic network

B

Which of the following is not a taste modality: A. sweet B. floral C. savory D. bitter

B

Which of the following trends is most likely FALSE? A. Mortality rates are increased in low-income racial and ethnic minorities B. Life expectancy is decreased in high-income groups C. Birth weights are decreased in children of low-income women D. Rates of lung cancer are increased in low-income groups

B

Broca's area -what does it control - usually In what hemisphere - what lobe of the brain

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. Impacted = unable to talk

Becoming a college graduate requires hard work and diligence in academics. As such, being a college graduate could be considered a(n): a ascribed status. b achieved status. c master status. d pigeonholed status.

B An achieved status is one that is acquired through personal efforts. This is in contrast to an ascribed status, A, in which the status is involuntarily given based on race, ethnicity, gender, family background, and so on. A master status, C, is one that influences all aspects of an individual's life. While being a college graduate is an important aspect of day-to-day life, it does not usually pervade every part of our lives.

An EMT sees himself as a bit of a rebel, but is highly sociable and is able to keep calm in an emergency. This person would likely score in the lower range of which of the following traits? a. Psychoticism b. Neuroticism c. Extraversion d. Conscientiousness

B As a rebel and a sociable person, this individual would score highly on both psychoticism and extraversion, respectively. Neuroticism is associated with high emotional arousal in stressful situations, so being able to keep calm in an emergency is a sign of low neuroticism. Conscientiousness, a trait associated with being hardworking and organized instead of impulsive, is not described by the question stem.

A high school student struggles consistently with math and feels that no matter how hard he studies, he "just doesn't get it." Which of the following is the most likely short-term result with respect to his ability to do math? A. Low self-esteem B. Low self-efficacy C. Learned helplessness D. An external locus of control

B Because there is nothing in the question stem to suggest that this situation will fundamentally change the student's attitudes in the short term. A and D can be eliminated. C is unlikely in the short term, as learned helplessness requires a repeated inability to have any effect on a situation over a long period of time and is much more severe, usually manifesting as depression. It is far more likely that the student will simply feel ineffective when it comes to math, which is low self-efficacy.

A person keeps his desk extremely tidy and becomes very nervous whenever things are disorganized or out of place. In which of the following stages would a psychodynamic therapist say the man had become fixated? A. the oral stage B. the anal stage C. the phallic stage D. the genital stage

B Both excessive organization and excessive sloppiness are indicative of fixation in the anal stage of psychosexual development

In some cultures, it is considered taboo for one to show too much sadness at a funeral. In other cultures, wailing and crying loudly is expected. These cultures differ in their: A. characteristic institutions B. display rules C. authentic selves D. peer groups

B Display rules are those that dictate cultural expectations of emotion. In some cultures, sadness is considered personal and internal; in others, sadness is shared externally with the community.

A person suffers from food poisoning after eating a spoiled orange, and later finds that the smell of lemon and other citrus fruits make her nauseated. This is an example of: A. acquisition B. generalization C. discrimination D. negative reinforcement

B Generalization is the process by which similar stimuli can produce the same conditioned response

Political campaign ads often focus on "exposing" an opposing candidate's negative characteristics. In the dramaturgical approach, one would describe this as: A. bringing the front stage self to the back stage B. bringing the back stage self to the front stage C. removing the front stage self D. removing the back stage self

B If a candidate is "exposed" then personal characteristics that are usually shielded from public view have been brought in front of the public. This would be pulling aspects of the back stage self to the front stage. It would not be considered removing the front stage self, C, because the candidate still has a public image, even if it has been tarnished.

Which of the following would contribute to increasing population growth over time? A. A fertility rate less than 2 B. An immigration rate larger than emigration rate C. An increase in mortality rate D. A decrease in birth rate

B If the immigration rate in a geographic area is larger than the emigration rate, then there is a larger influx than efflux of people. This will increase the population of that area.

While on the phone, a friend says: "A good friend would let me borrow the bike." This friend is using which impression management strategy? A. Managing appearances B. Alter-casting C. Ingratiation D. Self-disclosure

B Imposing a role on another person (in this case, "good friend") is the hallmark of alter-casting. This example is also the opposite of ingratiating, C, because the implication behind the statement is that one is a "bad friend" if he or she does not lend the bike; ingratiation is the use of flattery or conformity to win over someone else.

Which of the following trends regarding healthcare disparities has NOT been documented? A. Females are more likely to be insured than males B. Primary care use is more likely among males than females C. Low-income individuals have more difficulty accessing care than high-income individuals D. LGBT individuals have more barriers to healthcare than heterosexuals

B In comparison to females, males visit primary care doctors less frequently.

Each of the following is considered a part of a person's self-concept EXCEPT: A. the past self B. the ought self C. the future self D. self-schemata

B Self-concept is defined as the sum of all of the ways in which we see ourselves, including who we are, as in (D), who we were in the past, (A), and who we may become in the future (C). The ought self, while closely related to self-esteem, is our appraisal of how others see us and is not a part of our self-concept

A jury member who initially feels that a strict penalty should be placed on the defendant votes for an even stricter penalty after deliberation with the other jury members. This behavior is best described by which social phenomenon? A. Social facilitation B. Group polarization C. Assimilation D. socialization

B The fact that individual opinions became more extreme during group discussion is explained by group polarization. The jury member initially felt that a strict penalty should be given, but this opinion became more extreme after conversation with the rest of the group

Which of the following is NOT a component of the functional attitudes theory? A. Knowledge B. Acceptance C. Ego defense D. Ego ecxpression

B The four functional areas of the functional attitudes theory are knowledge, adaptability, ego expression, and ego degense

Which of the following would elderly individuals be most likely to have trouble recalling? A. the circumstances of meeting his or her significant other in college B. A doctor's appointment scheduled for 1pm C. The names of the characters in his or her favorite TV shoe D. that a library book needs to be returned when passing by the library on a morning walk

B elderly individuals have the most trouble with time-based prospective memory, which is remembering to do an activity at a particular time. Other forms of memory are generally preserved, or may decline slightly but less significantly than time-based prospective memory

Which of the following best reflects the difference between social action and social interaction? A. Social action refers to positive changes one makes in their society; social interaction refer to the route by which these changes occur B. Social action refers to the effect of a group on an individual's behavior; social interaction refers to the effect that multiple individuals all have on each other C. Social action refers to changes in behavior caused by internal factors; social interaction refers to changes in behavior caused by external factors D. Social action refers to changes in behaviors that benefit only the individual; social interaction refers to changes in behavior that benefit others

B social action is best described as the effects that a group has on individual behavior, including social facilitation, deindividuation, the bystander effects, social loafing, and peer pressure. Social interaction describes how two or more individuals influence each other's behavior, including group polarization and groupthink

Splitting is a defense mechanism commonly seen with which personality disorder? A. Antisocial personality disorder B. Borderline personality disorder C. Histrionic personality disorder D. Narcissistic personality disorder

B splitting is the consideration of others as either all good or all bad

A group of men and women are going to be rated on their driving abilities. The role of gender is emphasized in the experiment and the women perform worse than the men. In another experiment the role of gender is not mentioned and the ratings are comparable between the two groups. Which principle do these results support? a. Institutional discrimination b. Stereotype threat c. Prejudice d. The just-world hypothesis

B stereotype threat refers to the concept of people being concerned or anxious about confirming a negative stereotype of their social group. Stereotype threat can hinder performance, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Having struggled for years through an economic recession, a young professional begins to buy lottery tickets every Friday. "If I won the lottery," he reasons, "I'd finally have the life I've always wanted. All my stress would go away and I could live comfortably." His thoughts regarding winning the lottery are most representative of: A. a cardinal trait. B. fictional finalism. C. functional autonomy. D. unconditional positive regard.

B Fictional finalism is comprised of internal, idealistic beliefs about the future. The assumption that winning the lottery will solve all of his problems is representative of this form of thinking. Cardinal traits (A) are the traits around which one organizes his or her entire life. Functional autonomy (C) is when a behavior continues after the drive behind the behavior has ceased; for example, if this young progessional continued purchasing lottery tickets after winning simply because he enjoyed them, then this behavior would have gained functional autonomy. Unconditional positive regard (D), is used in some forms of humanistic therapy in which the therapist believes in the internal good of the client and does not judge the client negatively for any words or actions.

which sensory receptors send signals in response to tissue damage? A. chemoreceptors B. nociceptors C. osmoreceptors D. photoreceptors

B. Nociceptors are important for pain sensation, which would be expected during tissue damage

Explain the behaviorist perspective of personality. What type of conditioning is reflected in this perspective?

BF Skinner. Based on the concepts of operant conditioning. Skinner reasoned that personality is simply a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced over time. Therapy, then , should focus on learning skills and changing behaviors through operant conditioning techniques. Token economies, for example, are often used in inpatient therapeutic settings: positive behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for treats, privileges, or other reinforcers.

What is the prodromal phase?

Before schizophrenia is diagnosed, a patient often goes through a phase characterized by poor adjustment. The prodromal phase is exemplified by clear evidence of deterioration, social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences. This phase is followed by the active phase of symptomatic behavior. If schizophrenia development is slow, the prognosis is especially poor. If the onset of symptoms is intense and sudden, the prognosis is better.

what is cultural capital

Benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities, and skills

A credit card company begins applying an interest rate to credit card accounts in response to late payments. This is an example of: A. positive reinforcement because the bank will now make more money B. negative reinforcement because the bank is adding a fee to motivate the person to pay their bills C. positive punishment because the bank is adding a fee to reduce the incidence of late payments D. negative punishment because the bank is decreasing the amount the person has to pay

C

A disorder of the pineal gland would most likely result in which of the following disorders? A. High blood pressure B. Diabetes C. Insomnia D. Hyperthyroidism

C

Game theory is designed to study: A. reliance on central traits B. behavior attribution C. decision making behavior D. self-enhancement

C

In a personality survey, which set of twins would be expected to score most similarly? A. Identical twins raised in different homes B. Fraternal twins raised in different homes C. Identical twins raised in the same home D. Fraternal twins raised in the same home

C

In comparison to urban centers, suburbs tend to have: A. larger racial and ethnic minority populations. B. higher rates of poverty. C. larger high- and middle-class populations. D. higher rates of crime and homicide.

C

In the group setting , the mentality of "If you aren't with us, you're against us" is most representative of which factor of groupthink? A. Illusion of invulnerability B. Illusion of morality C. Pressure for conformity D. Self-censorship.

C

Researchers conducted an experiment to test social loafing. They asked participants to prepare an annual report or a tax return. Some participants performed the task individually and others performed it as a group. What are the independent and dependent variables? A. The independent variable is the overall productivity to a group and the dependent variable is each participant's contribution to the task. B. The independent variable is the type of task and the dependent variable is whether the participants worked alone or in a group C. The independent variable is whether the participant worked alone or in a group and the dependent variable is each participant's contribution to the task. D. The independent variable is whether the participant worked alone or in a group and the dependent variable is the type of task.

C

Upon which part of the eye are images projected and transduced into electrical signals? A. Cornea B. Pupil C. Retina D. Lens

C

Which of the following best describes the difference between endolymph and perilymph? A. endolymph is found in the vestibule, while perilymph is found in the cochlea B. endolymph is found in the cochlea, while perilymph is found in the vestibule C. endolymph is found in the membranous labyrinth, while perilymph is found in the bony labyrinth D. endolymph is found in the bony labyrinth, while perilymph is found in the membranous labyrinth

C

Which of the following best describes the populations targeted by Medicare and Medicaid, respectively? A. Medicare: mostly patients without employer-guaranteed healthcare; Medicaid: mostly patients who have recently immigrated B. Medicare: mostly patients who have recently immigrated; Medicaid: mostly patients without employer-guaranteed healthcare C. Medicare: mostly patients in older age groups; Medicaid: mostly patients with low socioeconomic status D. Medicare: mostly patients with low socioeconomic status; Medicaid: mostly patients in older age groups

C

Which of the following is true of controlled processing? A. It is the means through which info enters short term memory B. Info that requires controlled processing cannot become automatic C. It always requires active attention to the info being encoded D. Most info we can later recall is encoded using controlled processing

C

Which of the following neurotransmitters is associated with both schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease? A. GABA B. serotonin C. dopamine D. enkephalins

C

Which series correctly sequences the types of cells involved in the transmission of information from sound detection to the moment when an individual turns his or her head in response to sound? A. Sensory neurons, interneurons, afferent neurons, skeletal muscle cells B. Sensory neurons, efferent neurons, interneurons, skeletal muscle cells C. Mechanoreceptors, sensory neurons, interneurons, motor neurons, skeletal muscle cells D. Mechanoreceptors, sensory neurons, interneurons, afferent neurons, skeletal muscle cells

C

Your neighbor asks you to check her mail while she is out of town and you agree. Later than day, she asks you to water her plants as well. What technique for compliance is she using in this scenario? A. Lowball technique B. That's-not-all technique C. Foot-in-the-door technique D. Door-in-the-face technique

C

a man is looking for change to do his laundry. He decides to look under the seats of his car. He uses a flashlight but is still unable to get more than an obscured look at the space below. There are various sites such as wrappers and papers, but the man sees the glint of silver from an object laying flat and determines it to be a coin. To make this determination, this man used: A. signal detection B. sensory adaptation C. feature detection D. kinesthetic sense

C

a person proofreading a paper reads over a long, misspelled word in which an "e' is replaced with an "o". the person doesn't recognize the error and reads the word as correct. Which of the following could explain while the proofreader read the word as correct? A. parallel processing B. feature detection C. top-down processing D. bottom-up processing

C

which of the following would be most likely to be stored in long-term memory? A. A list of nonsense words B. A list of the dates of birth of 15 randomly selected people C. A list of the names of musicians in an individual's favorite bands D. A list of the dates of battles in the Peloponnesian War

C

A bureaucracy is a specific example of a(n): A. immediate network B. primary group C. organization D. reference group

C A bureaucracy is an example of an organization, specifically one with the goal of performing complex tasks as efficiently as possible. Immediate networks and primary groups, A and B, are characterized by strong, intimate bonds, which are not commonly seen in bureaucracies. Reference groups, D, are those groups to which we compare ourselves for various characteristics.

Which of the following best describes the sociological definition of a status? A. The emotional state of a social interaction B. Expectations that are associated with a specific title in society C. A position in society used to classify an individual D. A means to describe one's peer

C A status is a position used to classify a person and exists in relation to other statuses.

Which of the following best describes the impression management strategy of aligning actions? A. Adhering to the behavior that are expected for a given role in society B. Relieving tension brought about by holding conflicting views in one's head C. Providing socially acceptable reasons to explain unexpected behavior D. Dictating that members of a group should follow similar practices to one another

C Aligning actions is an impression management technique in which one provides socially acceptable reasons for unexpected behavior. This may manifest as providing an excuse for poor performance or laughing off an inappropriate comment as a joke. tension creating from having conflicting thoughts or opinions, as mentioned in B, refers to cognitive dissonance.

According to Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, which of the following would be the most important for a recent college graduate to accomplish? A. Figuring out what identities are most important to him or her B. Feeling like a contributing member of society C. Forming an intimate relationship with a significant other D. Finding a feeling of accomplishment in his or her life.

C As a postadolescent young adult, this person would be described by Erikson as experiencing the conflict of intimacy vs isolation, and so forming significant relationships with others would be a primary goal. B and D represent the next two stages in life (generativity vs stagnation and integrity vs despair, respectively), while A is the conflict that Erikson would say should have been resolved in adolescence (identity vs role confusion)

A rat is trained to press a lever to obtain food under a fixed-interval schedule. Which of the following behaviors would the rat most likely exhibit? a. Pressing the lever continuously whenever it is hungry. b. Pressing the lever exactly once and waiting for the food pellet before pressing it again. c. Pressing the lever slowly at first, but with increasing frequency as the end of the interval approaches. d. None of the above; the association formed by fixed-interval schedules is too weak to increase behavior.

C In a fixed-interval schedule, the desired behavior is rewarded the first time it is exhibited after the fixed-interval has elapsed. Both fixed-interval and fixed-ratio schedules tend to show this phenomenon: almost no response immediately after the reward is given, but the behavior increases as the rat gets close to receiving the reward

which part of the brain deals with both homeostasis and emotions? A. cerebellum B. pons C. hypothalamus D. thalamus

Cq

A woman advances through the ranks of a company, eventually becoming the CEO. Which of the following Jungian archetypes reflects this woman's drive to be successful within the company? a. The persona b. The anima c. The animus d. The shadow

C Jung saw the drive for power and success as typically male traits, so Jung would say this woman is exercising her "inner man." The animus is the archetype that most closely reflects this quality.

Which of the following displays a correct association? A. High social networking and low social capital B. High social mobility and low social capital C. Low social class and low social capital D. Low social networking and high social capital

C Low social class may lead to low social capital. Members of the lower class often have smaller numbers of weak ties in social networks, and therefore have less opportunity to invest in society and reap its benefits.

Morbidity is increased in low-income groups because of all of the following EXCEPT: A. higher rates of obesity B. less access to healthcare C. higher rates of homicide D. lower rates of physical activity

C Morbidity refers to the burden or severity of disease. All of the factors listed are true with regard to low-socioeconomic status populations; however, high homicide rates cause increases in mortality, not morbidity

Primary groups differ from secondary groups in that: A. primary groups are short-lived than secondary groups B. primary groups are larger than secondary groups C. primary groups are formed of stronger bonds than secondary groups D. primary groups are assigned while secondary groups are chosen.

C Primary groups have direct and close bonds between members, providing warm, personal, and intimate relationships to its members. Secondary groups, in contrast, form superficial bonds and tend to last for a shorter period of time.

Which of the following is true with regard to relative poverty? A. Individuals in relative poverty have incomes below the poverty line B. Individuals in relative poverty exhibit downward social mobility C. Individuals in relative poverty may be in the upper class D. Individuals in relative poverty exhibit upward social mobility

C Relative probability is a comparative term: it describes being poorer than those in the surrounding populations. Members of the upper class can live in relative poverty compared to others in their neighborhood if they are not as well-off as their neighbors.

Which of the following is NOT a dimension of the system for multiple level observation of groups (SYMLOG)? A. Friendliness vs unfriendliness B. Dominance vs submission C. Conformity vs contrast D. Instrumentally controlled vs emotionally expressive

C SYMLOG is a method for analyzing group dynamics and considers groups along three dimensions: dominant vs submissive, friendliness vs unfriendliness, and instrumentally controlled vs emotionally expressive.

A friend wins a tennis game and says "I trained so hard-that was a great win!" When she loses a subsequent match, she says, "my baby brother kept me up all night crying; I was tired for the match." These statements reflect which of the following principles? A.) Fundamental attribution bias B.) Fundamental attribution error C.) Self-serving bias D.) Esteem bias

C Self-serving bias refers to the fact that individuals will view their own successes as being based on internal factors, while viewing failures as being based on external factors

Glen brings cookies to work. Although you have not yet tasted them, you say to another coworker, "Glen is such a great guy; I'm sure these cookies are fantastic!" What type of bias is this? A. Reliance on central traits B. Direct benefits C. Halo effect D. Similarity

C The halo effect is a cognitive bias in which judgements of an individuals character can be affected by the overall impression of the individual

Studying why a nod means "yes" in many cultures is most representative of which of the following sociological concepts? A. Demographic transition B. Conflict theory C. Symbolic interactionism D. Demographic shift

C Symbolic interactionism studies how individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols.

Explain schizoid personality disorder. What cluster is it in?

Cluster A. a pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression. People with this disorder show little desire for social interactions; have few, if any, close friends; and have poor social skills. It should be noted that this is not the same thing as schizophrenia.

A man feels extremely guilty after having an extramarital affair. According to the psychodynamic perspective, which of the following is responsible for this anxiety? a. The id b. The ego c. The superego d. The libido

C The superego is responsible for moral guilt when we do not live up to our ideals. While the id and the libido, A and D may be responsible for the urge to have an affair, the superego is responsible for the anxiety one feels afterward

A woman notices that her father has started to move his fingers in such a way that it looks like he is rolling something, despite nothing actually being there. She also notes slowed movement and a shuffling gait. Which neurotransmitter is likely to be present in decreased levels in her father's brain? A. Epinephrine B. Histamine C. Dopamine D. Serotonin

C They symptoms indicate that her father likely has Parkinson's disease, caused by decreased dopamine production in the substantia nigra

Which of the following is a form of verbal communication? A. Facial expressions B. Hand gestures C. Written text D. Body movements

C Verbal communication uses words (whether spoken, written, or signed). Nonverbal communication uses other means of signaling emotions or ideas, such as gestures, body language, facial expressions, prosody, eye contact, and personal space

The behavior of the individuals in the Stanford prison experiment is best explained by which of the following terms? I. Bystander effect II. Deindividuation III. Internalization IV. Social loafing A. I only B. III only C. II and III only D. II and IV only

C When fulfilling particular roles, an individual's behavior can be very out of character. The changing of one's behavior (and internal ideas) to match a group is called internalization conformity. This was a key part of the experiment. The experiement also involved deindividuation, the loss of self-identity in the group setting that can lead to antinormative or violent behavior

A person with a ventromedial hypothalamus injury will likely show which behavior? A. Increased empathy B. Decreased empathy C. Increased food intake D. Decreased food intake

C a person with this type of injury will never feel satiated when eating and will therefore never feel the sensation to stop eating. A person with a lateral hypothalamus injury will never feel hunger and will have decreased food intake.

A 36-year-old who works from home is referred for evaluation. He is reluctant to venture out to meet other people and rarely has people in to visit. When selected for a company-wide award, he refused to have his picture taken for the company newsletter. During an assessment he averts his face and asks the examiner to "stop looking at me." Although he is average in appearance, he is convinced that his face is ugly and misshapen. The most likely diagnosis for this man would be: A. schizophrenia B. OCD C. body dysmorphic disorder D. schizoid personality disorder

C central issue is the negative appraisal of his own appearance

Carl is always happy and smiling. Today, you notice he seems down and think something must have happened to upset him. What types of attribution are you making? I. Internal II. External III. Situational IV. Dispositional A. I and III only B. I and IV only C. II and III only D. II and IV only

C dispositional (internal) causes are related to the features of the person whose behavior is being considered. Situational (external) causes are related to features of the surroundings

Each individual in a group of teenagers is asked to estimate the height of a tree. One individual estimates the height to be 25 feet, but after discussing with the group is convinced that the height is likely closer to 40 feet. Which type of conformity is seen here? A. Normative B. Identification C. Internalization D. Compliance

C internalization refers to the type of conformity in which an individual changes his or her outward opinion to match the group and also personally agrees with those ideas

Which of the following is NOT an example of material culture? A. Traditional African clothing B. Japanese cuisine C. American values D. Native American sand paintings.

C material culture includes any cultural artifact-objects to which we assign meaning. Values are ideas, which are associated with symbolic culture

Which of the following is an example of a negative symptom seen in schizophrenia? A. Auditory hallucinations B. Disorganized behavior C. Disturbance of affect D. Delusions

C negative symptoms are the absence of normal or desired behavior, which include the disturbance of affect and avolution

Each of the following responses to stress is considered maladaptive EXCEPT: A. drug use B. social withdrawal C. progressive muscle relaxation D. avoiding the stressor

C progressive muscle relaxation is a relaxation technique demonstrated to help reduce stress in a manner that is beneficial to the body and psyche .

A young adult male claims to have had sexual relationships mostly with other men, although he has been attracted to women at times. What would be his most likely score on the Kinsey scale? A. 0 B. 1 C. 5 D. 6

C this man is mostly homosexual, with some heterosexual attractions. The Kinsey scale scores a 6 as exclusively homosexual. 3= bisexuality. Thus, this man would likely score a 4 or 5.

Experiencing emotion involves three components, which are: A. behavioral, reactionary, and cognitive B. emotional, physical, and mental C. physiological, cognitive, and behavioral D. emotional, cognitive, and behavioral

C.

Explain the differences in function between achetylcholine found in the CNS and PNS.

CNS-linked to attention and arousal. loss of cholinergic receptors connecting with the hippocampus is associated with Alzheimer's PNS- used to transmit nerve impulses to muscles. Used by parasympathetic nervous system and a small portion of the sympathetic nervous system (in ganglia for innervating sweat glands)

Explain schizotypal personality disorder. What cluster is it in?

Cluster A. refers to a pattern of odd or eccentric thinking. These individuals may have ideas of reference (similar to delusions of reference, but not as extreme in intensity) as well as magical thinking, such as superstitiousness or a belief in clairvoyance. It should be noted that this is not the same thing as schizophrenia.

Explain histrionic personality disorder. What cluster is it in?

Cluster B characterized by constant attention-seeking behavior. These individuals often wear colorful clothing, are dramatic, and are exceptionally extroverted. They may also use seductive behavior to gain attention.

Functionalism. Manifest vs latent functions

Certain things in society have functions. Ex: fire departments put out fires. Things have manifest functions (the big main reason it exists; fires) but there are also latent functions (smaller things that they also do; decrease insurance in an area, gives people jobs, etc)

What is the basic model of emotional expression?

Charles Darwin. Emotional expression involves a number of components: facial expressions, behaviors, postures, vocal changes, and physiological changes. Expression is consistent with theories on evolution and should be similar across cultures. Darwin states that primates and animals exhibit rudimentary muscle actions that are similar to those used by humans for facial expression. Since Darwin, many researchers have found that a number of basic human emotions are universally experienced and that their corresponding facial expressions are universally recognized.

Church vs Sect vs Cult

Church is a religious group that is accepted by society and integrated into society. Sect is accepted by society but not integrated into society. Ex: Amish. Cult is not accepted by or incorporated into society.

What are approach-avoidance conflicts?

Clash of predispositions toward stimuli and a disposition away from stimuli; avoidance is stronger than approach deal with only one choice, goal, or event, but the outcome could have both positive and negative elements. Ex: job promotion might mean more money or status, it also comes with inc responsibility, potential for longer working hours, and inc pressure

Explain borderline personality disorder. What cluster is it in?

Cluster B. 2x more common in females than males. There is pervasive instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image. Interpersonal relationships are often intense and unstable. There may be profound identity disturbance with uncertainty about self-image, sexual identity, long-term goals, or values. there is often intense fear of abandonment. Individuals with this disorder may use splitting as a defense mechanism, in which they view others as either all good or all bad (angel vs devil mentality). Suicide attempts and self-mutilation (cutting or burning) are common

Explain antisocial personality disorder. What cluster is it in?

Cluster B. 3x more common in males than females. The essential feature is the pattern of disregard for and violations of the rights of others. This is evidenced by repeated illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, or lack of remorse for said actions. Many serial killers and career criminals who show no guilt for their actions have this disorder. People with this disorder compromise 20-40% of the prison population.

explain narcissistic personality disorder. What cluster is it in?

Cluster B. grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness, preoccupation with fantasies of success, a need for constant admiration and attention, and characteristic disturbances in interpersonal relationships such as feelings of entitlement. Have very fragile self esteem and are constantly concerned with how others view them. There may be marked feelings of rage, inferiority, shame, humiliation, or emptiness when these individuals aren't viewed favorably by others.

Explain avoidant personality disorder. What cluster is it in?

Cluster C the affected individual has extreme shyness and fear of rejection. The individual will see herself as socially inept and is often socially isolated, despite an intense desire for social affection and acceptance. These individuals tend to stay in the same jobs, life situations, and relationships despite wanting to change.

Explain dependent personality disorder. What cluster is it in?

Cluster C. continuous need for reassurance. Individuals with this disorder tend to remain dependent on one specific person, such as a parent or significant other, to take actions and make decisions.

Explain obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. What cluster is it in?

Cluster C. the individual is perfectionistic and inflexible, tending to like rules and order. Other characteristics may include an inability to discard worn-out objects, lack of desire to change, excessive stubbornness, lack of a sense of humor, and maintenance of careful routines. Not the same as OCD. OCD has obsessions and compulsions that are focal and acquired whereas OCPD is lifelong. OCD is also ego-dystonic (I can't stop washing my hands because of these germs!) whereas OCPD is ego-syntonic (I just like rules and order!).

What's the difference between cultural transmission and cultural diffusion?

Cultural transmission is the spread of culture from one person to the next. Cultural diffusion is culture spreading across the globe/a community.

A low-income single mother works a part-time job and lives in a small apartment in the city. When her children grow up, they take similar jobs and live in similar housing. This is an example of: A. upward social mobility B. downward social mobility C. social exclusion D. social reproduction

D

A patient who resides in the US says, "I love you," and hugs his doctor after every routine visit. This behavior violates: A. personal beliefs B. patient autonomy C. social values D. social norms

D

An 18 year old male is completing his final months of high school and begins to wake up early each day to run 5 miles in preparation for joining the Army. What type of socialization is this young man experiencing? A. normative socialization B. informative socialization C. resocialization D. anticipatory socialization

D

An individual memorizes a shopping list by associating each item with an image that corresponds with a number. This individual is using which of the following mnemonics? A. Clustering B. Method of loci C. elaborative rehearsal D. peg-words

D

In addition to being a freestanding diagnosis, agoraphobia is most often seen in association with which other psychiatric diagnosis? A. OCD B. avoidant personality disorder C. generalized anxiety disorder D. panic disorder

D

The concept of cultural capital predicts that A. cultural distinctions associated with the young will be more valued within a society B. with improved communication, there will eventually be a convergence of cultural practices of all classes C. cultural distinctions by class will become less important during a recession because people will have less money to spend D. cultural distinctions associated with elite classes will be more valued within a society

D

The temporal lobe deals with all of the following EXCEPT: A. language comprehension B. memory C. emotion D. motor skills

D

Which of the following is NOT a component of social perception? A. The target B. The situation C. The perceiver D. The process

D

a corporate logo uses five unconnected angles equally spaced in a circular fashion. When viewed, it appears to be a star. Which of the following is the logo artist using to crease a complete pattern to viewers? A. bottom-up processing B. top-down processing C. gate theory D. gestalt principles

D

a patient comes in with a tumor of the pituitary gland which has grown upward into the optic chiasm and caused a visual field defect. The most likely defect from compression of the optic chasm is; A. complete blindness in one eye B. loss of the upper visual fields in both eyes C. loss of the nasal visual fields in both eyes D. loss of the temporal visual fields in both eyes

D

which of the following neurotransmitters is NOT classified as a catecholamine? A. epi B. norepi C. dopamine D. acetylcholine

D

As a gender identity, androgyny is defined as: A. low femininity, low masculinity B. high femininity, low masculinity C. low femininity, high masculinity D. high femininity, high masculinity

D Androgyny is defined as scoring highly on scales of both femininity and masculinity

Which of the following best describes the component of socioeconomic status attributable to direct individual efforts? A. Ascribed status B. Meritocratic competition C. Anomic condition D. Achieved status

D Ascribed socioeconomic status is based on identifiable external characteristics.

Which of the following is a conclusion that can be made from research in role-taking and observational learning? A. Young children will only model actions performed by their parents B. Celebrities and athletes are an adolescent's most important role models C. Children who role-take identities that are not gender typical are more likely to take on those roles later in life D. A female child is more likely to model the behavior of another female than a male

D C has no support from role-taking research and can be eliminated. A and B are both inaccurate; the Bobo doll experiment shows young children modeling behavior not performed by their parents, and teens are most influenced by their peers, not celebrities and athletes. The research does suggest, however, that children are more likely to engage in behavior modeled by individuals who are like themselves; thus, a female child is more likely to imitate behavior by another female.

During which stage of demographic transition are both birth rates and mortality rates low? A. Stage 1 B. Stage 2 C. Stage 3 D. Stage 4

D During demographic transition, both birth rates and mortality rates are high in stage I. Mortality rates drop during stage 2, and birth rates drop during stage 3. In stage 4, both are low.

The statement, "I noticed my heart racing and breathing rate increasing when I saw a bear, so I am afraid," corresponds most closely with which theory of emotion? A. Schachter-Singer theory B. Yerkes-Dodson theory C. Cannon-Bard theory D. James-Lange theory

D Experiencing a physiological reaction to a stimulus and then labeling that response as emotion is in line with the James-Lange theory of emotion.

Which of the following is NOT characteristic of a bureaucracy? A. Rigidly defined work procedures B. Requirement for officials to hold an advanced degree C. Regular salary increases D. Election by constituents

D Generally, bureaucracies are marked by six characteristics: paid officials on a fixed salary; nonelected officials who are provided rights and privileges as a result of making their career out of holding office; regular salary increases, seniority rights, and promotions upon passing exams or milestones, C; officials who enter the organization by holding an advanced degree or training, B; responsibilities, obligations, privileges, and work procedures rigidly defined by the organization, A; and responsibility for meeting the obligations of the office one holds.

Which of the following concepts are LEAST likely to coincide? A. Hazardous waste facilities and low-income neighborhoods B. Tuberculosis and poor living conditions C. Environment pollution and high minority population D. Globalization and global equality

D Globalization does not typically lead to global equality; rather, globalization tends to create further global inequalities.

Which of the following is an example of intraspecific animal communication/ A. A dog who barks when a stranger enters the house B. An anglerfish that uses a bioluminescent appendage to attract prey C. Bats using echolocation to detect the surrounding environment D. A cat who uses scent glands to mark his territory for other cats

D Intraspecific communication refers to communication between members of the same species. Interspecific communication, on the other hand, refers to communication between members of different species. Echolocation is not an example of intraspecific communication because the sender of the signal and the recipient are the same organism; this would be considered autocommunication.

After sitting in a lecture, determining that a professor is a bad teacher based on their unprofessional attire and monotone speech is an example of which type of processing? A. Knowledge route processing B. Adaptive route processing C. Central route processing D. Peripheral route processing

D Peripheral route processing deals with processing info that is not based on content, but instead on superficial parameters such as boring speech patters or appearance of the speaker

A child who cries when his mother departs and smiles and runs to his mother when she returns is displaying which type of attachment pattern? A. Avoidant attachment B. Ambivalent attachment C. Disorganized attachment D. Secure attachment

D Secure attachment is seen when a child has a consistent caregiver and is able to go out and explore, knowing he or she has a secure base to return to.

Simultaneous processing of conscious emotions and physiological activation is the defining feature of which theory of emotion/ A. Schachter-Singer theory B. James-Lange theory C. Incentive theory D. Cannon-Bard theory

D The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion is based on the premise that conscious feelings and physiological components of emotion are experienced at exactly the same time. In this theory, the combination then leads to action. This is commonly confused with the Schachter-Singer theory in which the nervous system arousal occurs and then is labeled based on the context provided by the environment.

When practicing her recital song at home, a teenage girl sounds perfectly in pitch to her family and friends. However, when performing at the recital in front of a large audience of peers, strangers, and coaches, her pitch and tone are off, resulting in a poor performance. This second performance is best explained by: A. drive reduction theory B. instinct approach theory C. Maslow's hierarchy of needs D. the Yerkes-Dodson law

D The Yerkes-Dodson law states that there is an optimal level of arousal necessary to perform. If levels of arousal are too high, poor performance can result.

A young woman of unknown age is brought by the Philadelphia police to the local ED for evaluation after they found her wandering in a park. She carries no purse or ID. She can't state her name or any details about her life except that the name Phoenix seems familiar. The police in Arizona are contacted and find a missing persons report matching the persons description. Based on this info, the most likely diagnosis for this patient it: A. depersonalization/derealization disorder B. dissociative identity disorder C. somatic symptom disorder D. dissociative amnesia with dissociative fugue

D dissociative fugue is characterized by sudden travel or change in normal day-to-day activities and occurs in some causes of dissociative amnesia

Which of the following ethical principles states that physicians should avoid using treatments with greater potential for harm than benefit? A. Automony B. Beneficence C. Justice D. Nonmalificence

D The principle of nonmalificence states that physicians must not only act in their patient's best interest but must also avoid treatments where the potential for harm outweighs the potential for benefit

A child finds that she cannot make an origami swan by herself, but is able to do so when observing and being assisted by an adult. This scenario is described in the ideas of which of the following theorists? a. Albert Bandura b. Alfred Adler c. B.F. Skinner d. Lev Vygotsky

D This situation is best described by Lev Vygotsky's zone of proximal development theory, which holds that children are often unable to perform tasks by themselves, but can complete the task with the help of a more knowledgeable other.

During groupthink, members of the group do all of the following EXCEPT: A. stereotype members outside of the group. B. withhold opposing views. C. ignore warnings against the ideas of the group. D. create a sense of negativity against risk-taking.

D With groupthink, there is optimism and encouragement toward risk-taking

Which of the following processes would increase the likelihood of a behavior? A. Extinction B. Negative punishment C. Positive punishment D. Avoidance learning

D avoidance learning is a type of negative reinforcement in which a behavior is increased to prevent an unpleasant future consequence Extinction (A) is a decreased response to a conditioned stimulus when it is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Punishment (B and C) lead to decreased behaviors in operant conditioning

The behavior that accompanies the negative attitudes a person has toward a group or individual is referred to as: A. stereotyping B. cultural relativism C. prejudice D. discrimination

D discrimination is when prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently than others. While prejudice is an attitude, discrimination is a behavior.

A mother notices that her teenage son seems to have a phobia for snakes. In the past week, on several occasions, the teen has had more severe fear symptoms than usual, without seeing or even thinking about a snake. Which mental disorder could cause this reaction? A. Schizophrenia B. Antisocial personality disorder C. OCD D. Panic disorder

D panic and irrational fear without any instigating object present = panic disorder

which of the following is true regarding nerve cells? A. sensory neurons are also referred to as efferent neurons B. Interneurons are also referred to as afferent neurons C. motor neurons transmit info from receptors to the brain D. sensory neurons transmit info from receptors to the brain

D- sensory neurons are afferent, motor neurons are efferent. Motor neurons transmit motor info from the brain to the body.

A medical student is feeling a high level of stress due to upcoming exams and pressure from his family to engage in activities at home. He chooses to go to the gym for a workout to help himself relax. This workout is which type of stress? A. Hassle B. Frustration C. Distress D. Eustress

D. because working out is used to relax, it is considered a eustress (positive stressor)

poverty

Defined by low socioeconomic status and a lack of possessions or financial resources

What is disorganized behavior? What is catatonia? Are these positive or negative symptoms?

Disorganized behavior refers to an inability to carry out activities of daily living, such as paying bills, maintaining hygiene, and keeping appointments. Catatonia refers to certain motor behaviors characteristic of some people with schizophrenia. The patient's spontaneous movement and activity may be greatly reduced or the patient may maintain a rigid posture, refusing to be moved. At the other extreme, catatonic behavior may include useless and bizarre movements not caused by any external stimuli, echolalia (repeating another's words), or echopraxia (imitating another's actions). Positive symptom

Explain learned helplessness using an experiment in dogs.

Dogs were divided into 3 groups. The first was a control group in which the dogs were simply strapped into a harness. In the second group, dogs were strapped into a harness but subjected to painful electric shocks, which they could stop by pressing a lever. Dogs in the third group were harnessed and shocked, but were powerless to control the administration of the shock. Dogs in the first two groups recovered from the experience quickly, but the third group soon stopped trying to escape the shock and acted as if they were helpless to avoid the pain of the experience, even when offered opportunities to avoid being shocked.

Explain self-discrepancy theory. How does it relate to self-esteem/self-worth?

Each of us has three selves. Our self-concept makes up our... actual self-the was we see ourselves as we currently are ideal self- the person we would like to be ought self- our representation of the way others think we should be Generally, the closer these three selves are to one another, the higher our self-esteem or self-worth will be.

what is state-dependent memory (state dependent effect)?

Ex: people who learn facts or skills while intoxicated will show better recall or proficiency when performing those same tasks while intoxicated as compared to performing them while sober. Emotions work in a similar way. being in a foul mood primes negative memories, which turn work to sustain the foul mood. so not only will memory be better for info learned when in a similar mood, but recall of negative or positive memories will lead to the persistence of the mood

what are the 4 reinforcement schedules and explain them.

Fixed-ratio (FR) schedules: reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior. (Ex: in a typical operant conditioning experiment, researchers might reward a rat with a food pellet every third time it presses a bar in its cage). Continuous reinforcement is a FR schedule in which the behavior is rewarded every time it is performed. Variable-ratio (VR) schedules: reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior, but such that the avg number of performances to receive a reward is relatively constant. With this type of reinforcement schedule, researchers might reward.a rat first after two button presses, then eight, then four, then finally 6. Fixed-interval (FI) schedules: reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specific time period has elapsed. (Ex: once our rat gets a pellet, it has to wait 60 seconds before it can get another pellet. The first lever press after 60 seconds gets a pellet, but subsequent presses during those 60 seconds accomplish nothing) Variable-interval (VI) schedules: reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying time interval. Instead of waiting exactly 60 seconds, our rat may hav veto wait 90 seconds, then 30, then 3 minutes. In each case, once the interval elapses, the next press gets the rat a pellet.

Explain Freud's theory of psychosexual development. -What is the principle of the theory - Explain fixation and neurosis - Explain the 5 stages

Freud says libido is present at birth. Freud believed that libidinal energy and the drive to reduce libidinal tension were the underlying dynamic forces that accounted for human psychological processes. 5 distinct stages of psychosexual development. In each stage, children are faced with a conflict between societal demands and the desire to reduce the libidinal tension associated with different erogenous zones of the body. Fixation occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development. In response to the anxiety caused by fixation, the child forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage, which persists into adulthood as a functional mental disorder known as neurosis. Stage 1- Oral Stage (0-1 year). Gratification is obtained primarily through putting objects into the mouth, biting, and sucking. Libido centered on the mouth. An orally fixated adult would likely exhibit excessive dependency. Stage 2- Anal stage (1-3 years). Libido centered on the anus. Gratification is gained through the elimination and retention of waste materials. Toilet training occurs during this stage. Fixation during this stage would lead to either excessive orderliness (anal-retentiveness) or sloppiness in the adult. Stage 3- Phallic or Oedipal Stage (3-5 years) centers on the resolution of the Oedipal conflict for male children or the analogous Electra conflict for female children. In Freud's view, the male child envies his father's intimate relationship with his mother and fears castration at his father's hands. He wishes to eliminate his father and possess his mother, but the child feels guilty about these wishes. To successfully resolve the conflict, he deals with his guilty feelings by identifying with his father, establishing his sexual identity, and internalizing moral values. Also, the child to a large extent de-eroticizes or sublimates his libidinal energy. This may be expressed through collecting objects or focusing on schoolwork. Because females cannot have castration fear (instead, they are thought to have penis envy), girls are expected to exhibit less stereotypically female behavior and be less morally developed in this theory. Stage 4- Once the libido is sublimated, the child has entered Latency, which lasts until puberty is reached. Stage 5- Genital Stage (puberty through adulthood). If prior development has proceeded correctly, the person should enter into healthy heterosexual relationships at this point. However, if sexual traumas or childhood have not been resolved, such behaviors as homosexuality, asexuality, or fetishism may result.

Explain Ferdinand Tonnies' Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (community and society) theory.

Gemeinshaft (community) refers to groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefes, ancestry, or geography. Families and neighborhoods are examples of Gemeinschaften. Gesellschaft (society) refers to groups that are formed because of mutual self-interests working together toward the same goal. Companies and countaries are examples of Gesellschaften.

Gentrification and urban renewal

Gentrification = arrival of wealthy people into poor urban areas, raising rent and property values. Urban renewal = clearing slums in cities and redeveloping it.. Mainly differ in their connotation.

What are hallucinations? Are they positive or negative symptoms? Give some examples of common and uncommon types of hallucinations.

Hallucinations are positive symptoms. They are perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality. The most common form of hallucination is auditory, involving voices that the individual perceives as coming from inside or outside his or her head. Visual and tactile hallucinations are less common, but may be seen in drug use or withdrawal. olfactory and gustatory hallucinations are even less common, but may be experienced during the aura before a seizure.

What is homeostasis and how is it controlled?

Homeostasis is the regulation of the internal environment to maintain an optimal, stable set of conditions. controlled by negative feedback loop

Social constructionism

Human actors actively construct their "reality", rather than discovering a reality that has inherent validity, through their social interactions. The beliefs and shared understandings of individuals create social realities. Ex: MONEY or honor. In the context of illness, there is a gap b/t the biological reality of a medical condition and the societally created meaning of the condition. (ex. changing conceptualizations of mental illness results in changes to the DSM).

Explain Kurt Lewin's force field theory and his other contributions to psychological theory.

Humanist. Force field theory- puts very little stock in constraints on personalities such as fixed traits, habits, or structures such as the id, ego, and superego. Further, Lewin focused little on an individuals past or future, focusing instead on the present. Lewin defined the field as one's current state of mind, which was simply the sum of the forces (influences) on the individual at that time. if the focus of humanistic psychology is exploring how an individual reaches self-realization then these forces could be divided into two large groups: those assisting in our attainment of goals and those blocking the path to them.

Explain Carl Roger's self concept theory of personality

Humanist. Rogers believed that people have the freedom to control their own behavior, and are neither slaves to the unconscious (psychoanalyst perspective) or subjects of faulty learning (behaviorist perspective). Rather than providing solutions or diagnoses, the person-centered therapist helps the client reflect on prohlems, making choices, generate solutions, take positive action, and determine his or her own destiny. Rogers created the concepts o f the real and ideal self and his therapeutic techniques aimed to help clients reconcile the differences between the various selves and reduce stress-inducing incongruence. Rogers also pioneered the concept of unconditional positive regard, a therapeutic technique by which the therapist accepts the client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment.

Explain George Kelley's contribution to personality theory.

Humanist. Used himself as a model to theorize about human nature and set aside the traditional concepts of motivation, unconscious emotion, and reinforcement in his descriptions of personal construct psychology. Kelly thought of the individual as a scientist, a person who devises and tests predictions about the behavior of significant people in his or her life. The individual constructs a scheme of anticipation of what others will do, based on his or her knowledge, perception, and relationships with these other people. thus, the anxious person, rather than being the victim or inner conflicts and pent-up energy, is the one who is having difficulty constructing and understanding the variables in the environment.

What is Gestalt therapy and what type of personality theory is it associated with?

Humanistic perspective. Gestalt therapy is where practitioners tend to take a holistic view of the self, seeing each individual as a complete person rather than reducing him to individual behaviors or drives.

Researchers discover that polymorphisms in the DRD2 gene can be associated with thrill-seeking behavior, and that individuals with certain forms of the gene are more likely to become extreme athletes and have more dangerous hobbies. Which of the following theories is supported by these discovery? I. The social cognitive perspective II. The behavioral perspective III. The biological perspective

I and III This research supports a link between genetic expression and behavior, which is a central tenet of the biological perspective. The social cognitive perspective also holds that people's behaviors and traits shape their environments, which in turn have an effect on their identity, so the discovery also supports this perspective. Behaviorism is not supported, as the discovery is not related to rewards and punishments.

Which of the following would be associated with high levels of aggression? I. Increased amygdala activity II. Decreased amygdala activity III. Increased prefrontal cortex activity IV. Decreased prefrontal cortex activity

I and IV aggression is influenced by both the amygdala and prefrontal cortex cortical activity. Activity of the amygdala increases aggression. The prefrontal cortex should control aggression; decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex, therefore, is associated with increased aggression.

Which of the following is true of teaching an animal a complicated, multistage behavior? I. The individual parts of the behavior should not run counter to the animal's natural instincts II. The behaviors must be tied to a food reward of some kind III. Rewarding individual parts of the behavior on their own interferes with reinforcement of the entire behavior

I only complicated, multistage behaviors are typically taught through shaping, so statement III must not be a part of the correct answer. Reinforcers don't necessarily need to be food-based, and instinctive drive can interfere with learning of complicated behaviors

Shortly after a state legalizes gambling in casinos, a formal coalition forms to oppose the building of any casinos in the major cities of the state. This scenario includes: I. Conflict theory II. social institutions III. A social movement

I, II, and III In this scenerio, a group is fighting for social power, which is an aspect of conflict theory. Further, this gorup is an example of a reactive social movement because it is running counter to social change. The fact that gambling had been legalized implies the involvement of the government, a social institution.

Which of the following is an example fo a circumstance that could cause a state-dependent recall effect? I. The individual is outside on a rainy day II. the individual is high on marijiuana III. the individual is in a manic episode

II and III

A Cuban-American man living in the US has the dominant physical features of a black man. He speaks Spanish, prefers Latin foods, and listens to Latin music. His preferences are best defined through which of the following attributes? I. Race II. Ethnicity III. Culture

II and III only Although one's dominant physical features are associated with race, this man's preferences are those of Latino ethnicity and culture. Ethnicity is a social construct that considers language, religion, nationality, and cultural factors. Culture relates to a group's way of life; the preferences listed in the question are examples of material and symbolic culture.

Which of the following is/are true regarding bipolar disorders? I. They have little, if any, genetic heritability II. They are associated with increased levels of serotonin in the brain III. They all require at least one depressive episode for diagnosis

II only highly heritable Bipolar I can be diagnosed with a single manic episode and doesn't require a major depressive episode. Bipolar II requires at least one hypomanic episode and one major depressive episode.

Which of the following is/are true regarding neurulation? I. The neural tube differentiates form the endoderm II. the neural tube becomes the PNS III. neural crest cells migrate from their original site

III only.

what is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?

If an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again, a weak conditioned response can sometimes be exhibited

what is acquisition?

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Explain Vygotsky's theory of cultural and biosexual development

Lev Vygotsky's work was focused on understanding cognitive development. For Vygotsky, the engine driving cognitive development was the child's internalization of various aspects of culture: rules, symbols, language, and so one. As the child internalized these various interpersonal and cultural rules, her cognitive activity developed accordingly. Vygotsky is known for his concept of the zone of proximal development, referring to those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development. Gaining these skills successfully requires the help of a more knowledgeable other, typically an adult. Ex: a child may struggle to ride a bicycle on her own, but with the help and guidance of a parent she may be successful.

MZ twins are _______, sharing _____% of their genes. DZ twins are _______, sharing _____% of their genes.

MZ twins are identical, sharing 100% of their genes. DZ twins are fraternal, sharing 50% of their genes.

Conflict theory

Marxist-based social theory which argues that individuals and groups (social classes) within society have differing amounts of material and non-material resources (such as the wealthy vs. the poor) and that the more powerful groups use their power in order to exploit groups with less power. There's a conflict between classes. Employers want their employers to work longer and for less. This is in direct conflict with what the employees want. This is not a balanced conflict. Because people with money have more control. This also creates conflict between members of the same class. Ex: you go ask you boss to pay you 50/hr and he says he's hiring someone else. Now you're in conflict with members of your own class for who will work for less and be hired.

what is conformity

Matching one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to societal norms

Explain the I vs Me

Me is the part of self that is a response to the environment whereas I is the creative expression of the individual. Ex: going to school and studying hard would be part of the me since this is a societal expectation whereas deciding that studying may not be the only path toward a goal and choosing to find alternative approaches would be part of the I.

Medicalization Vs demedicalization

Medicalization is making something into a medical issue that wasn't previously in history. Ex: ADHD. Demedicalization is the opposite. ex: homosexuality

Explain pull and push factors

Migration can be motivated by both pull factors (positive attributes of the new location that attract the immigrant) and push factors (negative attributes of the old location that encourage the immigrant to leave).

what is the rooting reflex?

Movement of head toward one side if cheek or mouth is stroked (such as a nipple during feeding)

suburbanization

Movement of upper and middle-class people from urban core areas to the surrounding outskirts to escape pollution as well as deteriorating social conditions (perceived and actual).

Explain displacement.

One of the eight Freudian defense mechanisms. describes the transference of an undesired urge from one person or object to another. Someone angry at her boss may hold her tongue at work but snap at her spouse when she gets home.

Explain progression.

One of the eight Freudian defense mechanisms. the defense mechanism by which individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others. I hate my parents, for example, might turn into my parents hate me. Projection is an important part of personality analysis. Test that make use of projection to gain insight into a client's mind are common in psychoanalytic therapy.

Explain rationalization.

One of the eight Freudian defense mechanisms. the justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to the self and society. Drivers who engage in reckless feats such as the cannonball run (a race from LA to NY for which the current record is just under 33 hours) might justify their dangerous pursuits by saying, both to themselves and others: I'm in complete control, and besides, there are plenty of dangerous drivers on the road. What difference will one more make?

Explain sublimation. **Not chemistry***

One of the eight Freudian defense mechanisms. the transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors. Freud might say that pent-up sexual urges may be sublimated into a drive for business success or artistic creativity.

Are these a part of classical or operant conditioning? fixed-ratio vs fixed interval vs variable ratio vs variable interval schedules which is the most powerful for increasing a behavior. which is better, ratio or interval? variable or fixed?

Operant conditioning Trying to get my kid to play piano. fixed ratio- reward every time he sits at the piano fixed interval- reward child for every hour he plays piano variable ratio- gambling. get $5 after an unpredictable number of levers pulled variable interval- he plays for an hour and gets $5, then plays for 20 min and gets $5 and then plays for 30 min and gets another $5, etc. you never know when the reward will come variable ratio is the most powerful. ratio > interval variable > fixed

Explain paternalistic, admiration, contemptuous, and envious stereotype.

Paternalistic: low status, not competitive (housewives, elderly people, disabled people) Low Competence High warmth. Admiration: high status, not competitive. (In-group, close allies). High competence, High Warmth. Contemptuous: Low status, competitive (welfare recipients, poor people) Low Competence. Low Warmth. Envious: high status, competitive (Asians, Jews, rich people, feminists) High Competence. Low Warmth.

Explain the biological perspective of personality.

Personality can be explained as a result of genetic expression in the brain. The biological and trait perspectives are closely linked, as biological theorists maintain that many traits can be shown to result from genes or differences in brain anatomy.

What are the 3 elements of emotion? Explain them.

Physiological response, behavioral response, and cognitive response. Physiological response-when a feeling is first experienced, arousal is stimulated by the autonomic nervous system. The physiological component includes changes in HR, breathing, skin temp, and BP. Some emotions such as fear, aggression, and embarrassment, are associated with more pronounced physiological changes than others. Behavioral response- the behavioral component of an emotion includes facial expressions and body language. Ex: a smile, a friendly hand gesture, or even a subtle head tilt toward someone are commonly recognized as warm and happy signals. Cognitive response- the subjective interpretation of the feeling being experienced. Determination of one's emotion is largely based on memories of past experiences and perception of the cause of the emotion.

Explain Alfred Adler's inferiority complex and his other contributions to psychoanalytic theory.

Psychoanalyst. inferiority complex- an individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially. According to Adler, striving for superiority drives the personality. This striving enhances the personality when it is oriented toward benefiting society, but yield's disorder when it is selfish. The notions of the creative self (the force by which each person shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality) and style of life (the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority) are important to Adler's theory. This family environment is crucial in molding the person's style of life. Another important concept is fictional finalism. This is the notion that an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences. Human goals are based on the subjective or fictional estimate of life's values rather than objective data from the past. "Life would be perfect if only..."

Explain Karen Horney's theory of personality.

Psychoanalyst. argued (Like Freud) that personality is a result of interpersonal relationships, and adamantly disagreed with the concept of penis envy and Freud's other ideas about women. Horney postulated that individuals with neurotic personalities are governed by one of ten neurotic needs. Each of these needs is directed toward making life and interactions bearable. Ex: someone with a neurotic need for self-sufficiency and independence would go to great extremes to avoid being obligated to someone else in any way. Horney's primary concept is that of basic anxiety. This is based on the premise that a child's early perception of self is important and stems from a child's relationship with his or her parents. Inadequate parenting can cause vulnerability and helplessness, which Horney termed basic anxiety, while neglect and rejection cause anger known as basic hostility. To overcome basic anxiety or basic hostility and attain a degree of security, the child uses three strategies in his or her relationships with others: moving toward people to obtain the goodwill of people who provide security; moving against people, or fighting them to obtain the upper hand; and moving away, or withdrawing, from people. Healthy people use all three strategies, depending on the situation

what is dishabituation?

Recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred. -dishabituation is often noted when, late in the habituation of a stimulus, a second stimulus is presented. The second stimulus interrupts the habituation process and thereby causes an inc in response to the original stimulus

What is object relations theory?

Related to psychoanalyst theory. object refers to the representation of parents or other caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy. These objects then persist into adulthood and impact our interactions with others, including the social bonds we create and our predictions of others' behavior.

What is maintenance rehearsal?

Repeating information over and over to hold it in short-term memory longer.

What are the 4 stages of demographic transition

Stage 1: preindustrial society; birth and death rates are both high. Stage 2: improvements in healthcare, nutrition, sanitation, and wages cause death rates to drop. Stage 3: improvements in contraception, women's rights, and a shift from an agricultural to an industrial economy cause birth rates (births per 1000 individuals per year) to drop. Further, with an industrializing society, children must go to school for many years to be productive in society and may need to be supported by parents for a longer period of time than was formerly the case; families thus have fewer children. Stage 4: an industrialized society; birth and death rates are both lwo

Explain the social cognitive perspective or personality.

Takes behaviorism one step further, focusing not just on how our environment influences our behavior, but also on how we interact with that environment. Albert Bandura's concept of reciprocal determinism is a central idea to this perspective. Reciprocal determinism refers to the idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation. people choose environments that suit their personalities, and their personalities determine how they will feel about and reaction to events in those environments. Locus of control is another important concept in the social cognitive perspective: some people feel more in control of their environment while others feel that their environment controls them. For a social cognitive theorist, the best predictor of future behavior is past behavior in similar situations.

cultural lag

Technology moves faster than people do and we can't deal. Ex Facebook and it's influence on elections.

What is kinesthetic sense? (proprioception)

The ability to tell where one's body is in space.

what is neuroplasticity?

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. as infants, we're born with more neurons than we need. As our brains develop, neuroplasticity happens. the brains of young children as so plastic that they can reorganize drastically in response to injury, as evidenced by studies of children who have had entire hemispheres of their brains removed to prevent severe seizures. The remaining hemisphere will change to take over functions of the missing parts of the brain,, allowing these kids to grow up to lead essentially normal lives.

Explain the cochlea and the scalae

The cochlea is a spiral-shaped organ divided into 3 parts called scalae. All 3 scalae run the entire length of the cochlea. The middle Scala houses the actual hearing apparatus, called the organ of Corti, which rests on a thin, flexible membrane called the basilar membrane. The organ of Corti is composed of thousands of hair cells, which are bathed in endolymph. On top of the organ of Corti is a relatively immobile membrane called the tectorial membrane. The other two scalae, filled with perilymph, surround the hearing apparatus and are continuous with the oval and round windows of the cochlea. Thus, sound entering the cochlea through the oval window causes vibrations in perilymph, which are transmitted to the basilar membrane. Because fluids are essentially incompressible, the round window, a membrane-covered hole in the cochlea, permits the perilymph to actually move within the cochlea. Like the rods and cones of the eye, the hair cells in the organ of Corti convert the physical stimulus into an electrical signal, which is carried to the CNS by the auditory (vestibulocochlear) nerve

What are the Freudian defense mechanisms? What are the 8 defense mechanisms?

The ego's recourse for relieving anxiety caused by the clash of the id and superego is thorough defense mechanisms. All defense mechanisms have two common characteristics: first, they deny, falsify, or distort reality; second, they operate unconsciously. There are eight main defense mechanisms: repression, suppression, regression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, and sublimation.

What is Sigmund Freud's model of personality?

The id consists of all the basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce. It functions according to the pleasure principle- the aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension. The "primary process" is the id's response to frustration: obtain satisfactions now, not later. Metal imagery such as daydreaming that fulfills this need for satisfaction is "wish fulfillment." Because this mental image cannot effectively reduce tension on a permanent basis, the ego comes into play. The ego operates according to the "reality principle" taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id's pleasure principle. This guidance is referred to as the "secondary process." The aim of the reality principle is to postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained. It must be emphasized that while the ego suspends the workings of the primary process, it does so only to meet the demands of objective reality. The mutual give and take of the ego and reality promotes the growth of perception, memory, problem solving, thinking, and reality testing. The ego can be understood to be the organizer of the mind: it receives its power from the id. The ego is also responsible for moderating the desires of the superego. Whereas the id's desires are basic needs, those of the superego are refined and focused on the ideal self. The superego is the personality's perfectionist, judging out actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures. The superego can be divided into two subsystems, both of which are a reflection of the morals taught to a child by his caregivers. The conscience is a collection of the improper actions for which a child is punished, and the ego-ideal consists of those proper actions for which a child is rewarded. Ultimately, a system of right and wrong substitutes for parental rewards and punishments. Freud also states that our access to the id, ego, and superego falls into three main categories thoughts to which we have conscious access, thoughts that we aren't currently aware of (preconscious), and thoughts that have been repressed (unconscious). Note that the term subconscious.

What is the monoamine or catecholamine theory of depression?

The monoamine or catecholamine theory of depression holds that too much norepi and serotonin in the synapse leads to mania, while too little leads to depression. recent evidence shown that it is not this simple, but this theory is usually on the MCAT is some form.

Law of Pragnanz

The most general Gestalt principle, which states that the simplest organization, requiring the least cognitive effort, will emerge as the figure.

incidence

The number or rate of new cases of a particular condition per population at risk during a specific time.

what is the one major barrier to class consciousness?

The one major barrier to class consciousness is false consciousness, a misperception of one's actual position within society.

What are the important Jungian archetypes (Carl Jung)? Explain them What is the self?

The persona- the aspect of our personality we present to the world anima- a man's inner woman animus- a woman's inner man shadow- unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness. self- the point of intersection between the collective unconscious, the personal unconscious, and the conscious mind

what is demographic transition

The process of change in a society's population from a condition of high crude birth and death rates and low rate of natural increase to a condition of low crude birth and death rates, low rate of natural increase, and a higher total population.

gentrification

The rehabilitation of deteriorated, often abandoned, housing of low-income inner-city residents.

what are population pyramids

They are graphs that display the % of each age group divided by sex in a total population.

Explain capitalism.

They focus on free-market trade and laissez-faire policies, where success or failure in business is primarily driven by consumerism with as little intervention from central governing bodies as possible. In capitalism, a private owner or corporation maintains and profits from the success of the business. Capitalist societies encourage division of labor, where specific components of a larger task (say, developing, manufacturing, quality testing, and marketing goods) are separated and assigned to skilled and trained individuals. This promotes specialization and efficiency.

Explain the biomedical approach to psychological disorders.

This approach assumes that any disorder has roots in biomedical disturbances, and thus the solution must be of a biomedical nature. Fails to take into account other sources of disorders such as lifestyle and socioeconomic status. opposed to biopsychosocial approach

What are photoreceptors? What are the types?

This is a type of receptor responds to electromagnetic radiation (light) to allow vision. -rods and cones

Explain Kohlberg's three levels of moral reasoning and the focus of the theory.

This theory focuses not on resolving conflicts or urges, but rather on the development of moral thinking. Kohlberg reasoned that, as our cognitive abilities grow, we are able to think about the world in more complex and nuanced ways, and this directly affects the ways in which we resolve moral dilemmas and perceive the notion of right and wrong. Theory is based on responses of subjects to hypothetical moral dilemmas such as the Heinz dilemma (man steals drug for his dying wife b/c the druggist is selling it for a crazy amount). Stages viewed as a progression in which each stage is adopted and then abandoned for the next as the individual progresses. In other words, we all begin in stage one and the progress to varying degrees as our thinking matures. Phase 1: Preconventional morality. Preadolescence. Stage 1 (obedience)- concerned with avoiding punishment (If I steal the drug, I go to jail) Stage 2- Instrumental Relativist Stage (you scratch my back, I scratch yours)- (self-interest)- about gaining rewards (I need to save my wife because I want to spend more of my life with her). Phase 2: Conventional morality. Early adolescence to adulthood. Based on understanding and accepting social rules. Stage 3- (Conformity)- places emphasis on "good boy, nice girl" orientation in which a person seeks the approval of others (I shouldn't steal the drug because stealing is wrong) Stage 4- (Law and Order)- Maintains the social order in the highest regard (If everyone stole things they couldn't afford, people who produce those items would not be able to continue their business) Phase 3: Postconventional morality. Describes a level of reasoning that Kohlberg claimed not everyone was capable of and is based on social mores, which may conflict with laws. Stage 5- (Social contract)- views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good, with reasoning focused on individual rights (Everyone has a right to live; businesses have a right to profit from their products). Stage 6- (Universal human ethics)- Reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles. (It is wrong for one person to hold another's life for ransom).

Explain Hans and Sybil Eysenck's contribution to personality theory.

Train theorists. They used factor analysis to group behaviors that typically occur together and assigned labels to those groups. Ex: people who are more reserved and less outspoken in groups also tend to enjoy solitary activities and avoid overstimulation. These behaviors fall under the label of introversion. The Eysencks described three trains in the PEN model. Psychoticism is a measure of nonconformity or social deviance. Extroversion is a measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation. Neuroticism is a measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations. More recently, the PEN theory has expanded to the Five Factor Model, the BIG Five. (OCEAN) 1. Openness 2. Conscientiousness 3. Extraversion 4. Agreeableness 5. Neuroticism

What are the difference types of trials in a signal detection experiment? What are the 4 possible outcomes?

Trials: catch trials- trials in which the signal is presented noise trials-trials where the signal is not presented Outcomes: hits-the subject correctly perceives the signal misses-the subject fails to perceive a given signal false alarms-the subject seems to perceive a signal when none was give correct negatives-the subject correctly identifies that no signal was given

Explain regression and reaction formation.

Two of the eight Freudian defense mechanisms. reversion to an earlier developmental state. Faced with stress, older children may return to earlier behaviors such as thumb sucking, throwing temper tantrums or clinging to their mothers. When individuals suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites, they are taking advantage of reaction formation. For example, a man pining after a female celebrity he knows he will never meet may outwardly express hatred for the celebrity as a way of reducing the stress caused by his unrequited feelings.

Explain repression and suppression.

Two of the eight Freudian defense mechanisms. the ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious, and underlies many of the other defense mechanisms, the aim of which is to disguise threatening impulses that may find their way back from the unconscious. While repression is mostly an unconscious forgetting, suppression is a more deliberate, conscious form of forgetting.

Explain William Sheldon's contribution to personality theory.

Type theorist. Proposed personality types based on body type called somatotypes. Sheldon presumed that all short, stocky people were jolly, all tall people were high-strung and aloof, and people in between were strong and well adjusted.

What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law? How does this vary between simple and complex tasks? What about highly cognitive tasks vs tasks involving physical endurance and stamina?

U shaped relation between the level of arousal and performance states that performance is worst at extremely high and low levels of arousal and optimal at some intermediate level. The optimal level of arousal varies between different types of tests: lower levels are optimal for highly cognitive tasks, while higher levels are optimal for activities that require physical endurance and stamina. Further, simple tasks require slightly higher arousal than complex takss

of all the reinforcement schedules, which one has the fastest response rate? which one is the most resistant to extinction? Why? also, which schedules have a brief moment of no responses after the behavior is reinforced and why?

Variable-ratio schedules have the fastest response rate and are the most resistant to extinction. VR (Variable Ration, Very Rapid, Very Resistant to extinction) - ex: gambling is difficult to extinguish because most gambling games are bases on VR schedules. While the probability of winning the jackpot on any individual pull of a slot machine is the same, we get caught in the idea that the next pull will be the "right one" Fixed schedules (FR and FI) because the art will stop hitting the lever until it wants another pellet, once it has figured out what behavior is necessary to receive the pellet

Explain verbal vs nonverbal communication

Verbal communication is the transmission of information via the use of words, whether spoken, written, or signed. It is tied to nonverbal communication and is often dependent on nonverbal cues for the receiver to understand the sender's full meaning. Nonverbal communication refers to how people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words. Ex: facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, touches, eye positioning. Nonverbal communication is often dictated by culture.

Cluster A, B, C

Weird, Wild, Worried A: odd or eccentric behavior (paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal) B: dramatic or impulsive behavior (antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic) C: anxiety in social relationships (anankastic, avoidant, dependent)

What happens when a memory is experienced. Explain in terms of explicit and implicit memory.

When a memory is experienced, sensory systems transmit this info into both the explicit memory system, primarily controlled by the hippocampus, and the implicit memory system, controlled by the amygdala. Both memory systems are used for both the formation and retrieval of emotional memories. The conscious (explicit) memory is the memory of experiencing the actual emotions: remembering that you were happy at your high school graduation. Note that these are episodic memories: they are more properly considered memories about emotions than stored emotions. The unconscious (implicit) memory is referred to as emotional memory; this is the storage of the actual feelings of emotion associated with an event. When experiencing a similar event later on, these emotions may be retrieved. Thus, explicit memory of this emotion produces a conscious memory of the experience (ex: that time you first rode a bike); and implicit memory determines the expression of past emotions (how to ride a bike)

What is Weber's law?

When the jnd (just noticeable difference) between the change in stimulus and its original value, rather than the actual difference between the frequencies. Thus, the jnd for sound frequency is more accurately quantified as 0.86% (3Hz/440Hz). Weber's law states that there is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a jnd and the magnitude of the original tremulous. Thus, for a higher-magnitude stimuli, the actual difference must be larger to produce a jnd. Weber's law appears to be accurate for all sensory modalities, except at the extremely high and low ends of the range.

Explain the main difference in Freud, Jung, and Adler's theories of personality.

While they are all psychoanalysts, Freud's major assumption is that behavior is motivated by inborn instincts and Jung's principal axiom is that a person's conduct is governed by inborn stereotypes. Adler assumes that people are motivated by striving for superiority.

Female great reed warblers are attracted to males with larger song repertoires because they tend to produce offspring with higher viability. This is an example of which of the following? A. Runaway selection B. Sensory bias C. Direct phenotypic benefits D. Indirect phenotypic benefits

`D Phenotypic benefits refer to observed traits in an individual that make them more attractive to the opposite sex. Benefits associated with increased firness through direct material advantages are direct benefits, while indirect benefits involve increased genetic fitness for offspring.

what is a fad

a behavior that is transiently viewed as popular and desirable by a large community. Fad's can include owning certain objects (such as pet rocks) or engaging in certain behaviors (using catchphrases, altered clothing, etc)

What is a stressor? Stressors are classified as either causing ______ or _______. Explain the difference.

a biological element, external condition, or event that leads to a stress response Distress or eustress. Distress-occurs when experiencing unpleasant stressors Eustress-result of positive conditions. Can include life events such as graduating from college

what is generalization in classical conditioning?

a broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response ex: in one experiment, a kid "Little Albert" was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing a white rat with a loud noise. He also began to fear.a white stuffed rabbit, a while sealskin coat, and a man with a white beard

what is ambivalent attachment?

a caregiver has an inconsistent response to a child's distress, sometimes appropriate, sometimes neglectful. the child is distressed on the caregiver's absence but ambivalent on return.

What is the cornea?

a clear, domelike window in front of the eye, which gathers and focuses the incoming light.

what is propaganda?

a common way by which large organizations and political groups attempt to create prejudices in others.

Explain conversion disorder

a conversion disorder is characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions. The symptoms generally begin soon after the individual experiences high levels of stress or a traumatic event but may not develop until some time has passed after the initiating experience. Examples include paralysis or blindness without evidence of neurological damance. The person may be surprisingly unconcerned by this symptom-what is called la belle indifference. Conversion disorder was historically called hysteria.

What is Alzheimer's disease?

a degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to the hippocampus. marked by progressive dimensions and memory loss, with atrophy of the brain. memory loss generally proceeds in a retrograde fashion (loss of recent memories before distant memories) Microscopic findings of Alzheimer's include neurofibrillary tangles and B-amyloid plaques. One common phenomenon that occurs in individuals with middle to late stage Alzheimer's is sundowning, an increase in dysfunction the late afternoon and evening.

Parkinson's disease is associated with a loss of what?

a dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia .these disruptions of dopamine transmission lead to resting tremors and jerky movements as well as postural instability

what is altruism?

a form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at some cost to him- or herself

What is Korsakoff's syndrome?

a form of memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain. The disorder is marked by retrograde amnesia (the loss of previously formed memories) and anterograde amnesia (the inability to form new memories) Another common symptom is confabulation, or the process of creating vivid but fabricated memories, typically thought to be an attempt made by the brain to fill in the gaps of missing memories

what is a ritual

a formalized ceremony that usually involves specific material objects

What is a group/social group? What is the simplest of social groups called? What is this followed by? As the group size increases, the group trades what for what?

a group consists of two or more people who share similar characteristics and a sense of unity. The simplest of social groups is called a dyad (two people) followed by a triad. As group size increases, the group trades intimacy for stability.

What is a peer group?

a group defined by association of self-selected equals around similar interests, ages, and statuses. Peer groups provide an opportunity for friendship and feelings of belonging.

explain group conformity.

a group holds power over its members, creating group pressure that ultimately shapes members' behaviors. Individuals are ompliant with the group's goals even when the group's goals may be in direct contrast to the individual's goal. Individuals conform in an attempt to fit in and be accepted by the group. Individuals will often participate in behavior they normally would not.

What is a church?

a large, universal religious group that can be divided into multiple coexisting denominations

what is inclusive fitness?

a measure of an organism's success in the population this is based on the number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and the ability of the offspring to then support others

what is chunking (clustering) in memory

a memory trick that involves taking individual elements of. large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning.

what is the dramaturgical approach? Explain the front stage and back stage self.

a metaphor for impression management using a theatrical performance. Front stage is where the actor is in front of the audience, and performs according to the setting, role, and script in order to conform to the image he wants others to see. Back stage is where the actor is not being observed by an audience and is free to act in ways that may not be congruent with his desired public image without having to worry about ruining his performance.

what is problem solving

a method of learning that steps outside the standard behaviorist approach. think of the way kids put together a puzzle, often take pieces one-by one and try to make them fit together until they find the correct match. As we get older, we gain the ability to analyze the situation and respond correctly the first time, as when we seek out the correct puzzle piece and orientation based on the picture we are forming.

serotonin is classified as what 2 things?

a monoamine or biogenic amine neurotransmitter

Explain major depressive disorder.

a mood disorder characterized by at least one major depressive episode. A major depressive episode is a period of at least two weeks with at least five of the following symptoms: prominent and relatively persistent depressed mood, loss of interest in all or almost all formerly enjoyable activities (anhedonia), appetite disturbances, substantial weight changes, sleep disturbances, decreased energy, feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt (sometimes delusional), difficulty concentrating or thinking, psychomotor symptoms (feeling "slowed down"), and thoughts of death or attempts at suicide. At least one of the symptoms must be depressed mood or anhedonia.

What is emotion?

a natural instinctive state of mind deriving from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others.

what is discrimination testing (psychophysical discrimination testing)?

a participant is presented with a stimulus that is varied slightly, and then is asked to identify whether there is a difference in the second stimulus. The difference between the current stimulus and the original is increased until the participant reports noticing a change. Ec: a participant may be shown a shade of blue and asked to indicate when the shade has actually changed as the experimenter displays shades that are increasingly different from the reference blue

Explain body dysmorphic disorder.

a person has an unrealistic negative evaluation of his or her personal appearance and attractiveness, usually directed toward a certain body part. This body preoccupation also disrupts day-to-day life, and the sufferer may seek multiple plastic surgeries or other extreme interventions

what is the serial position effect? what is the primacy and recency effect?

a retrieval cue that appears while learning lists. When researchers give participants a list of items to memorize, the participants have much high er recall for both the first few and last few items on the list. the tendency to remember early and late items is known as the primacy and recency effect, respectively. However, when asked to remember the list later, people show strong recall for the first few items while recall of the last few items fads.

What is our self-schema?

a self-given label that carries with it a set of qualities Ex: the athlete self schema usually carries the qualities of youth, physical fitness, and dressing and acting in certain ways

What is a role of a status?

a set of beliefs, values, attitudes, an norms that define expectations for those who hold the status

what is a cultural syndrome?

a shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture organized around a central theme. They influence the rules for expressing or suppressing emotions and can even influence the ways emotions are expressed.

what is mass hysteria?

a shared, intense concern about the threats to society many features of groupthink-collective rationalization, illusion of morality, excessive stereotyping, and pressure for conformity, in particular-lead to a shared delusion that is augmented by distrust, rumors, propogands, and fear mongering. ex: salem witch trials

What is McDonaldization?

a shift in focus toward efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control in societies.

explain groupthink

a social phenomenon in which desire for harmony or conformity results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decision. In an attempt to eliminate or minimize conflict among group members, consensus decisions are reached without alternative ideas being assessed. In these cases, the desire to agree with the group causes a loss of independent critical thinking. The group also begins to isolate and ignore external viewpoints, seeing their own ideas as correct without question.

track a sound wave through the outer ear

a sound wave first reaches the cartilaginous outside part of the ear, called the pinna or auricle the main function of the pinna is to channel sound waves into the external auditory canal, which directs the sound waves to the tympanic membrane (eardrum) the membrane vibrates in phase with the incoming sound waves. the frequency of the sound wave determines the rate at which the tympanic membrane vibrates: it moves back and forth at a high rate for high-frequency sounds and more slowly for low-frequency sounds. Louder sounds have a greater intensity, which corresponds to an increased amplitude of this vibration.

what is the difference between the absolute threshold and and the threshold for conscious perception?

a stimulus below the absolute threshold will not be transducer, and thus never reaches the CNS. A stimulus below the threshold of conscious perception arrives at the CNS, but does not reach the higher-order brain regions that control attention and consciousness.

What is a social structure?

a system of people within a society organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships.

What is signal detection theory?

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness. Ex: how loud would someone need to yell your name in a crowd to get your attention? The answer is not merely a yes or no, but would depend on the size of the crowd and your comfort with the other individuals; and personality: highly sociable, extroverted individuals tend to hear their names more easily than quieter, introverted individuals

what is the mere exposure effect?

aka the familiarity effect. says that people prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently. ex: you dislike a song the first time you hear it, only to find yourself singing along and saying, I like this song! after hearing it many more times.

what is classical conditioning? give an example why does it work?

a type of associative learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events -takes advantage of biological, instinctual responses to creates associations between 2 unrelated stimuli -Ex: Ivan Pavlov dogs - the process of taking advantage of a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus - it works because some stimuli cause an innate or reflexive physiological response (ex: salivation when smelling food)

what is parallel processing?

ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape, and motion then, these features can be compared with our memories to determine what is being viewed.

What are biological markers associated with depression?

abnormally high glucose metabolism in the amygdala. Hippocampal atrophy after a long duration of illness. Abnormally high levels of cortisol. Decreased norepi, serotonin, and dopamine (monoamine theory of depression) It has been found that both these neurotransmitter and their metabolites are decreased, meaning that their actual production is decreased (rather than production staying the same and their degradation increasing).

what is the appraisal model?

accepts that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but that there is a cognitive ancedent to emotional expression.

the neural tube has what 2 things? what do they do?

alar plate-differentiates into sensory neurons basal plate- differentiates into motor neurons

How does Max Weber describe social action?

actions and behaviors that individuals are conscious of and performing because others are around

what is the word explaining why our detection of a stimulus can change over time?

adaptation

what is esteem support?

affirming the qualities or skills of a person. bolstering confidence

what is material (tangible) support?

aiding with financial or material contributions

epi and norepi are involved in controlling what? what else do they do? what are some differences?

alertness and wakefulness. as the primary neurotransmitter of the sympathetic nervous system, they promote fight or flight. whereas norepi more commonly acts at a local level as a neurotransmitter, epi is more often secreted from the adrenal medulla to act systemically as a hormone. low levels of norepi are associated with depression; high levels with anxiety and mania

What is sensation? Sensation is performed by receptors where? What happens then?

aligns with transduction- the conversion of physical, electromagnetic, auditory, and other information from our internal and external environment to electrical signals in the nervous system. Sensation is performed by receptors in the peripheral nervous system, which forward the stimuli to the CNS in the form of action potentials and neurotransmitters. Sensation can therefore be thought of as a raw signal, which is unfiltered and unprocessed until it enters the CNS

What is the Schachter-Singer Theory?

also termed the cognitive arousal theory or the two-factor theory. states that both arousal and the labeling of arousal based on environment must occur in order for an emotion to be experienced. Ex: I am excited because my heart is racing and everyone else is happy. unique to this theory: to feel an emotion, one must consciously analyze the environment in relation to nervous system arousal To study: they gave injections of epilepsy or placebo to groups of subjects that were either informed, ignorant, or misinformed. They also manipulated external cues in the study by having an actor act either happy or angry. Result: Epi did result in inc physiological arousal but the environment and cognitive processing affected the emotion experienced by the subjects. The misinformed and ignorant groups experienced the highest level of emotion. Explanation: they said that a subset experiencing physiological arousal with no explanation or with a misleading explanation will attribute that arousal to the surrounding environment and label herself as happy or angry based on the behavior of the actor.

What is prestige?

amount of positive regard society has for a given person or idea

what is a reflex?

an action that is performed as a response to a stimulus and without conscious thought.

what is an attitude? how does it develop? what are the 3 primary components of attitude? Explain them.

an expression of positive or negative feelings toward a person, place, thing or scenario attitudes develop from experiences with others who affect our opinions and behaviors. 3 components Affective component- the way a person feels toward something, and the emotional component of attitude. Ex: snakes scare me, I love my family. Behavioral component-the way a person acts with respect to something. Ex: avoiding snakes and spending tie with one's family Cognitive component-the way an individual thinks about something, which is usually the justification for the other two components. Ex: knowing that snakes can be dangerous provides a reason to be afraid of snakes and to avoid them

What is exchange theory?

an extension of rational choice theory. focuses on interactions in groups. anticipated rewards, punishments. whereas rational choice theory can be applied to an individual independently of social interactions, exchange theory focuses on interactinos in groups. exchange theory posits that an individual will carry out certain behaviors because of anticipated reqards and will avoid certain behaviors because of anticipated punishments. Exchange theory assumes that a behavior that is met with approval by others will reinforce that behavior and encourage its continuation.

what is long term potentiation?

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

What is an instinct (Freudian)? What are the two types? Explain them.

an innate psychological representation of a biological need. Instincts are the propelling aspects of Freud's dynamic theory of personality, and fall into two types: life and death instincts. Life instincts (Eros) promote an individual's quest for survival through thirst, hunger, and sexual needs. Death instincts (Thanatos) represent an unconscious wish for death and destruction.

What is a phobia?

an irrational fear of something that results in the compelling desire to avoid it.

what is prejudice?

an irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, prior to an actual experience with that entity

what is discrimination in classical conditioning?

an organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli. (opposite of generalization)

what is preparedness (in relation to learning)

animals are most able to learn behaviors that coincide with their natural behaviors; birds naturally peck when searching for food, so rewarding them with food in response to a pecking-based behavior works well. This predisposition is known as preparedness.

what are context effects?

another common retrieval cue. Memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place. psychologists have shown a person will score better will take an exam in the same room in which they learned the info.

Which disorders are Cluster B personality disorders? What do they all have in common?

antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic they are all marked by behavior that is labeled dramatic, emotional, or erratic by others.

What is agoraphobia and why does it often co-occur with panic disorder?

anxiety disorder characterized by fear of being in places or in situations where it might be hard for an individual to escape. These individuals tend to be uncomfortable leaving their homes for fear of a panic attack of exacerbation of another mental illness. panic disorder is frequently accompanied by agoraphobia because of the fear of having a panic attack in a public location

Define animal communication

any behavior of one animal that affects the behavior of another.

what is deviance?

any violation of norms or expectations within a society can vary in severity from jaywalking to murder also includes any act that meets with disapproval from the larger society, such as promiscuous sexual behavior

what is a stimulus?

anything to which an organism can respond

what is the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia?

argues that delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated with the disorder arise from excess dopamine or oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain.

What is the Cannon-Bard theory?

arousal and emotion occur simultaneously thus, severing the feedback should not alter the emotion experienced when exposed to a stimulus, sensory info is received and sent both to the Cortex and the sympathetic nervous system simultaneously by the thalamus. Ex: I am afraid because I see a snake and my heart is racing. Fails to explain the vagus nerve, a cranial nerve that functions as a feedback system, conveying info from the peripheral organs back to the CNS

what happens at the optic chasm?

as the signal travels through the optic nerves toward the brain, the fibers from the nasal half of each retina cross paths. These fibers carry the temporal visual field (further toward the side of the head) from each eye. Because the temporal fibers (which carry the nasal visual field) do not cross in the chasm, this reorganization means that all fibers corresponding to the left visual field from both eyes project into the right side of the brain, and all fibers corresponding to the right visual field from both eyes project into the left side of the brain. These reorganized pathways are called optic tracts once they leave the optic chasm.

what is synaptic pruning?

as we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of our brains' ability to process info

explain ascribed status vs achieved status

ascribed status derives from clearly identifiable characteristics, such as age, gender, and skin color. achieved status is acquired via direct, individual efforts. ascribed status is involuntary, achieved status is obtained through hard work and merit

What are the 3 types of statuses? Explain each.

ascribed, achieved, and master statuses An ascribed status is one that is given involuntarily, due to such factors as race, ethnicity, gender, and family background. An achieved status is one that is gained as a result of one's efforts or choices, such as being a doctor. A master status is the status by which a person is most identified. This status is typically the most important status the individual holds and affects all aspects of that person's life. It is also generally how people view themselves and often holds a symbolic value. Master statuses can also cause pigeonholing: we may view an individual only through the lens of his or her master status, without regard to any other personal characteristics (ex: president)

Explain the biopsychosocial approach to psychological disorders.

assumes that there are biological, psychological, and social components to a persons disorder. The goal is often to provide not only direct therapy (treatment that acts directly on the individual) such as medications or periodic meetings with a psychologist, but indirect therapy, which aims to increase social support by educating and empowering family and friends of the affected individual. opposed to biomedical approach

Explain the social construction model.

assumes there is no biological basis for emotions. Instead, emotions are based on experiences and the situational context alone. It also suggests that certain emotions can only exist within social encounters and that emotions are expressed differently- thus play different roles - across cultures. In this model, one must be familiar with social normal for certain emotion to perform the corresponding emotional behaviors in a given social situation.

what is the stereotype content model?

attempts to classify stereotypes with respect to a hypothetical in-group using two dimensions: warmth and competence. Warm groups are those that are not in direct competition with the in-group for resources; competent groups are those that have high status within society.

what is strain theory

attempts to explain deviance as a natural reaction to the disconnect between social goals and social structure Ex: the American dream, acquiring wealth and personal stability through achievement and hard work. It is considered a desirable social goal, but the structure of society is unable to guarantee the education and opportunity needed to achieve this goal to all citizens. Therefore, deviant behavior such as theft ma arise as an attempt to achieve the social goal outside of the limiting social structure.

explain learning theory

attitudes are developed through different forms of learning. Direct contact with the object can influence attitudes. Ex: children form a positive attitude toward sweets almost immediately after tasting them. Direct instruction from others can also influence attitudes. Ex: a child who is taught by her parents not to use curse words may form a negative attitude towards curse words and indirectly a negative attitude towards those who use curse words. Our attitudes can also be influenced by others attitudes. Ex: a teen may begin to have a positive attitude toward smoking if his friends all smoke. Finally, attitudes may be formed through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning

what is the difference between automatic processing and controlled (effortful) processing?

automatic processing is when info is gained without effort controlled (effortful) processing is active memorization

What are the Cluster C personality disorders? What do they all have in common?

avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive they are all marked by behavior that is labeles as anxious or fearful by others.

what is conflict theory?

based on the works of Karl Marx, focuses on how power differentials are created and how these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order. Further, power differentials can lead to the dominance of a particular group if it successfully outcompetes other groups for economic, political, and social resources.

why is the endocrine system slower than the nervous system

because hormones travel to their targets via the bloodstream

What is incentive theory?

behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but by the desire to pursue rewards and to avoid punishments

what is stereotype threat?

being concerned about confirming a negative stereotype about one's group

Explain the Yerkes-Dodson Law

being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at (simple tasks), and hinders the performance of less familiar tasks (complex tasks) Ex: an expert pianist may perform netter in concert than when alone in practice sessions. However, someone with very limited knowledge of music would perform worse in a social setting than when alone.

Exchange-rational choice theory

believes that decisions are made by rational beings who have weighed all aspects of the problem, and who the proceed to make the rational choice When I do something for you I expect something in return.

Explain bipolar disorder. What is the difference between type I and type II. What is cyclothymic disorder?

bipolar disorders are a major type of mood disorder characterized by both depression and mania. Manic episodes are characterized by abnormal and persistently elevated mood lasting at least one week with at least three of the following: increased distractibility, decreased need for sleep, inflated self-esteem or grandiosity, racing thoughts, increased goal-directed activity or agitation, pressured speech or increased talkativeness, and involvement in high-risk behavior. Manic episodes generally have a more rapid onset and a briefer duration than depressive episodes and may include psychosis. Bipolar I disorder has manic episodes with or without major depressive episodes. Bipolar II disorder has hypomania with at least one major depressive episode. In contrast to mania, hypomania typically does not significantly impair functioning, nor are there psychotic features, although the individual may be more energetic and optimistic. Cyclothymic disorder consists of a combination of hypomanic episodes and periods of dysthymia that are not severe enough to qualify as major depressive episodes.

modern theories of object recognition assume at least two major types of psychological processing. What are they? explain them>

bottom up (data driven) processing- refers to object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection. Essentially the brain takes the individual sensory stimuli and combines them together to create a cohesive image before determining what the object is top down (conceptually driven) processing- driven by memories and expectations that allow the brain to recognize the whole object and then recognize the components based on these expectation. - in other words, this kind of processing allows us to quickly recognize objects without needing to analyze their specific parts. neither system is sufficient by itself.

social exclusion

can arise from this sense of powerlessness when poor individuals feel segregated and isolated from society. The problem is that this attitude can create further obstacles to achieving self-help, independence, and self-respect.

what is depth perception? Explain monocular and binocular cues.

can rely on both monocular and binocular cues (processes that involve one or both eyes, respectively). - Monocular cues include the relative size of objects, partial obscuring of one object by another, the convergence of parallel lines at a distance, position of an object in the visual field, and lighting and shadowing. - binocular cues are the slight differences in images projected on the two retinas and the angle required between the two eyes to bring an object into focus the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

What is role performance? Explain how it relates to the role partner and role set.

carrying out of behaviors associated with a given role. Individuals can vary in how successful they are at performing a role. For example, part of a doctor's role is to translate medical info into language their patients can understand; however, some doctors are far better at this skill than others. Role performance can also change depending on the social situation and context of the interaction. When doctors interact with each other, the pertinent parts of their role are quite different than when interacting with patients. Behaviors and expectations thus change as a result of the role partner- the person with whom one is interacting. Doctors have many role partners: patients, nurses, patients' relative, other doctors, residents, and hospital administration. the various roles associated with a status are referred to as a role set.

epinephrine, norepi, and dopamine are 3 closely related neurotransmitters known as ___________

catecholamines. also monoamines or biogenic amines

world system theory

categorizes countries and emphasizes the inequalities of the division of labor at the global level

What is social class

category of people who share a similar socioeconomic position in society. This can be identified by looking at the economic opportunities, job positions, lifestyles, attitudes, and behaviors of a given slice of society

what is the babinski reflex?

causes toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated

what are demographic shifts

changes in the makeup of a population over time

what is compliance

changing one's behavior as a result of other people directing or asking for the change

what is obedience. how is this difference from compliance?

changing one's behavior in response to a direct order from an authority figure. compliance deals with requests made by people without actual authority over an individual. If a teacher demands that you provide your notes from class to him, you would be obeying rather than complying. People are far more likely to obey than comply due to the real or perceived social power of the individual.

Explain dissociative amnesia

characterized by an inability to recall past experiences. dissociative means that the amnesia isn't due to a neurological disorder. This disorder is often linked to trauma. Some individuals with this disorder may also experience dissociative fugue: a sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering away from one's home or location of usual daily activities. Individuals in a fugue state are confused about their identity and can even assume a new identity.

What is social anxiety disorder?

characterized by anxiety due to social situations. Persistent fear when exposed to social or performance situations that may result in embarassment

Explain illness anxiety disorder

characterized by being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition. Individuals with this disorder are quick to become alarmed about their health, and either excessively check themselves for signs of illness of avoid medical appointments all together.

Explain Parkinson's disease. What is it characterized by? Explain these.

characterized by bradykinesia (slowness in movement), resting tremor (tremor that appears when muscles are not being used), pill-rolling tremor (flexing and extending the fingers while moving the thumb back and forth, as of rolling something in the fingers), masklike facies (a facial expression consisting of static and expressionless facial features, staring eyes, and a partially open mouth), cogwheel rigidity (muscle tension that intermittently halts movement as an examiner attempts to manipulate a limb), and a shuffling gain with stooped posture. A common but not characteristic symptom is depression. Dementia is also common.

What is disorganized thought characterized by? Is it a positive or a negative symptom? What might this look like?

characterized by loosening of associations. This may be exhibited as speech in which ideas shift from one subject to another in such a way that a listener would be unable to follow the train of thought. A patient's speech may be so disorganized that it seems to have no structure- as though it were just words thrown together incomprehensibly. This is sometimes called word salad. In fact, a person with schizophrenia may even invent new words, called neologisms. This is a positive symptom.

Explain OCD

characterized by obsessions (persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses), which produce tension, and compulsions (repetitive tasks) that relieve tension but cause significant impairment in a person's life. The relationship between the two is key: obsessions raise the individual's stress level, and the compulsions relieve the stress.

smell is considered a _____ sense, meaning what? specifically, smell responds to what?

chemical sense, means that it responds to incoming chemicals from the outside world. smell responds to volatile or aerosolized compounds

what is working memory?

closely related to short-term memory and is supported by the hippocampus. enables us to keep a few pieces of info in our consciousness simultaneously and to manipulate that info. To do this, one must integrate short-term memory, attention, and executive function; accordingly, the frontal and parietal lobes are also involved.

Explain paranoid personality disorder. Which cluster is it in?

cluster A marked by a pervasive distrust of others and suspicion regarding their motives. In some cases, these patients may actually be in the prodromal phase of schizophrenia and are termed premorbid.

Early psychologists believed that the ________ component of emotion led to the __________ component, which then produced the __________ component.

cognitive --> physiological --> behavioral

what is the halo effect?

cognitive bias in which judgements about a specific aspect of an individual can be affected by overall impression of the person

our visual pathways contain cells specialized in detection of color, shape, or motion. explain the cells for each

color- cones shape- parvocellular cells- have a high color spatial resolution (they permit us to see very fine detain when thoroughly examining an object). however, parvocellular cells can only work with stationary or sloe-moving objects because they have very low temporal resolution motion- magnocellular cells- have high temporal resolution. They have low spatial resolution, so much of the rich detail of an object can no longer be seen once it is in motion. Magnocellular cells therefore provide a blurry but moving image of an object

What is generalized anxiety disorder?

common in the population and is defined as a disproportionate and persistent worry about may different things- making mortgage payments, doing a good job at work, returning emails, etc-for at least 6 months. These individuals often have physical symptoms like fatigue, muscle tension, and sleep problems that accompany the worry.

what is multiculturalism

communities or societies containing multiple cultures, diversity is celebrated

what are adoption studies?

compare the similarities between biological relatives and the adopted child to similarities between adoptive relative and the adoptive child.

what are twin studies?

comparing concordance rates for a trait between monozygotic (MZ-identical) and dizygotic (DZ-fraternal) twins. These studies are better able to distinguish the relative effects of shared environment and genetics. the assumption (though flawed) sis that both MZ and DZ twins share the same environment; thus, difference between MZ and DZ twins are though to reflect hereditary factors.

what is the difference between cones and rods? the retina is made up of approx ___ cones and ___ rods

cone-color vision and to sense fine detail. most effective in bright light and come in 3 forms which are named for the wavelengths of light they best absorb S (short, blue), M (medium, green), L (long, red) rods-more function and only allow sensation of light and dark because they all contain a single pigment called rhodopsin. Rods have low sensitivity to details and are not involved in color vision but permit night vision 6 million cones and 120 million rods

opposite side of the brain

contralateral

what are display rules?

cultural expectations of emotions

What is the biological basis of Parkinson's disease? How can it be managed?

decreased dopamine production in the substantia nigra, a layer of cells in the brain that functions to produce dopamine to permit proper functioning of the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia are critical for initiating and terminating movements, as well as sustaining repetitive motor tasks and smoothening motions thus, the symptoms of Parkinson's disease flow logically from its underlying cause. This condition can be partially managed with L-DOPA, a precursor that is converted to dopamine once in the brain, replacing that which is lost due to Parkinson's disease. There have also been attempts to regenerate dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra using stem cells placed into the CNS. Similar stem cell-based therapies have been used in other contexts, such as after a spinal cord injury or stroke to attempt to regenerate function in the CNS, with limited results.

Explain delusions. Are they positive or negative symptoms? What are the common delusions? Explain them

delusions are false beliefs discordant with reality and not shared by others in the individuals culture that are maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary. positive symptoms Common delusions include delusions of reference, persecution, and grandeur. Delusions of reference involve the belief that common elements in the environment are directed toward the individual. For example, a person with a delusion of reference may believe that characters in a TV show are talking to him directly. Delusions of persecution involve the belief that the person is being deliberately interfered with, discriminated against, plotted against, or threatened. Delusions of grandeur, also common in bipolar I disorder, involve the belief that the person is remarkable in some significant way, such as being an inventor, historical figure, or religious icon. Other common delusions involve the concept of thought broadcasting, which is the belief that one's thoughts are broadcast directly from one's head to the external world, and thought insertion, the belief that thoughts are being placed in one's head.

what is the iron law of oligarchy?

democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift toward being ruled by an elite group over time. This shift is due to a number of factors, including the necessity of a core body of individuals to carry out the day-to-day activities of the organization, increased need for specialization, and leadership characteristics of certain members of the group. Thus, even a group established with democratic principles and complete egalitarianism will ultimately centralize, placing power in the hands of a few key leaders.

What is Paul Ekman famous for?

described a set of basic emotions that are recognized by societies around the world, and further identified that 6 emotions are associated with consistent facial expressions across culture. Then revised the list to include 7 universal emotions: happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, anger.

What is gender identity? What is androgyny? What does it mean to be undifferentiated? What age is gender identity usually established by? What is the theory of gender schema? How does gender identity relate to biological sex? Sexual orientation?

describes a person's appraisal of him or herself on scales of masculinity and femininity. While these concepts were long thought to be two extremes on a single continuum, theorists have reasoned that they must be two separate dimensions because individuals can achieve high scores on scales of both masculinity and femininity. Androgyny is defined as the state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine, while those who achieved low scores on both scales are referred to as undifferentiated. Gender identity is usually well established by age three, although it may morph and change over time. Some theories, such as the theory of gender schema, hold that key components of gender identity are transmitted through cultural and societal means. Gender identity is not necessarily tied to biological sex or sexual orientation.

what is symbolic ethnicity

describes a specific connection to one's ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain important, even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life. Ex: many Irish-American in the US celebrate "Irishness" on St. Patrick's Day. In all other facets of life, these individuals' Irish-American ethnicity does not play a significant role

What is personality? How is it different from identity?

describes the set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors that are characteristics of an individual across time and different locations. While identity describes who we are, personality describes how we act and react to the world around us.

what is differential association theory

deviance can be learned through interactions with others intimate exposure to others who engage in deviant behavior lays the groundwork for one to engage in deviant behavior. However, this same person will also likely come into contact with norm-abiding individuals Differential association is the degree to which one is surrounded by ideals that adhere to social norms vs ideals that go against them. In this theory, when associations with others engaging in deviant behavior are more numerous or intense than those engaging in normative behavior, the individuals begins to gravitate toward deviant behavior themselves.

what is the difference between deviance and anomie?

deviance is breaking rules. if you break a folkway, more, or taboo, you're a deviant. anomie is societal breakdown of rules. ex: after WWII, a bunch of women entered the workplace because all the men went out to war. before this, women were expected to stay home and not work.

what are three causes of deviance? explain them.

differential association- if you start to associate with a different group of people, what becomes normal for that group will become normal for you. labeling theory- if you keep getting labelled as something, you may just start doing it. Ex: you're black, so people label you as a criminal and eventually you have all the problems of a criminal but none of the benefit so you become a criminal. strain theory- you can't fit the expectations society has for you. ex: you're 30 and you work hard but you still can't buy a house or get your wife a new car. so you say screw it, if i can't get where society wants me to be by playing by the rules, I'm going to break the rules.

what is instinctive drift?

difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviors.

explain dispositional attributions vs situational attributions?

dispositional (internal) attributions are those that relate to the person whose behavior is being considered, including his or her beliefs, attitudes, and personality characteristics. situational (external) attributions are those that relate to features of the surroundings, such as threats, money, social norms, and peer pressure.

What is the difference between distal and proximal stimuli?

distal stimuli originate outside of the body. (ex: a campfire is a distal stimulus. the photons that reach the observer's rods and cones, as well as the heat the observer feels are proximal stimuli proximal stimuli directly interact with and affect the sensory receptors, and inform the observer about the presence of distal stimuli

What are the negative symptoms of schizophrenia? Explain them.

disturbance of affect and avolition. Affect refers to the experience and display of emotion. Affective symptoms include blunting, in which there is a severe reduction in the intensity of affect expression; flat affect (emotional flattening), in which there are virtually no signs of emotional expression; or inappropriate affect, in which the affect is clearly discordant with the content of the individual's speech. Avolution is marked by decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions.

What are secondary drives? Where are these drives thought to originate from?

drives that are not directly related to biological processes. these drives are thought to stem from learning. The drive to matriculate into medical school and become a physician is a good example.

Explain education as a social institution.

education systems aim to arm the population with information. this info may be in the form of facts, figures, and mental processes, but the education system also emphasizes the social role of education, creates statuses within society, and stimulates learners to add to their knowledge base. Education includes not only the info and cognitive skills students learn but also the hidden curriculum of transmitting social norms, attitudes, and beliefs to students. Education is also susceptible to inequalities across socioeconomic class. Lower socioeconomic status is associated with decreased accessibility and quality of education.

Why are social movements organized? What are they often motivated by?

either to promote or to resist social change. These movements are often motivated by perceived relative deprivation, or a decrease in resources, representation, or agency relative to the past or to the whole or society.

What is self-determination theory? (SDT)

emphasizes the role of three universal needs: 1. autonomy (the need to be in control of one's actions and idea) 2. competence (the need to compete and excel at difficult tasks) 3. relatedness (the need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships) These three needs must be met to develop healthy relationships with oneself and others

the hypothalamus and pituitary gland maintain control through what into where

endocrine release of hormones into the hypophyseal portal system that directly connects the 2 organs

what are organizations? Explain how formal organizations are different from groups.

entities that are set up to achieve specific goals and are characterized by having a structure and a culture. formal organizations are different from groups in many ways. Organizations continue despite the departure of an individual member, This means that the organization can have a history before and after an individual member. Organizations have expressed goals. These are generally recorded in a written format and guide the members and their activities. Organizations have enforcement procedures that seek to control the activities of their members. Organization are characterized by the hierarchical allotment of formal roles or duties to members. Formal organizations can be very large.

what are the two subdivisions of negative reinforcers (operant conditioning)? explain them

escape learning and avoidance learning escape learning-the role of the behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists (ex: taking an aspirin for a headache) avoidance learning-meant to prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen. (ex: studying for the MCAT leads to doing well on the MCAT which will lead to studying for the USMLE in the future)

What is ethnic identity? What is nationality and national identity?

ethnic identity refers to one's ethnic group, in which members typically share a common ancestry, cultural heritage, and language. Nationality is based on political borders. National identity is the result of shard history, media, cuisine, and national symbols such as a country's flag. Nationality need not be tied to one's ethnicity or even to legal citizenship.

second sickness

exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice

What is the opponent process theory?

explains motivation for drug use: as drug use increases, the body counteracts its effects, leading to tolerance and uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms can explain tolerance: a decrease in perceived drug effect over time.

What is drive reduction theory?

explains that motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states. Theorists hypothesize that certain physiological conditions result in a negative internal environment. This internal environment then drives motivation and seeks homeostasis in order to reduce the uncomfortable internal state.

Explain family as a social institution.

family is influenced by a number of different factors including culture, value systems, beliefs, practices, gender, age, race, ethnicity, and others. It does not have a fixed definition across cultures or through time; what is accepted as a family in the current day does not necessarily match expectations from even a few generations ago.

what are the six major social institutions?

family, education, religion, government, economy, medicine

describe the path of light as it enters the eye

first, light passes through the cornea, the front of the eye is divided into the anterior chamber, which lies in front of the iris, and the posterior chamber, between the iris and the lens the iris, the colored part of the eye, is composed of two muscles: the dilator papillae (which opens the pupil under sympathetic simulation) and the constrictor papillae (which constricts the pupil under parasympathetic stimulation) the iris is continuous with the choroid, as is the ciliary body, which produces the aqueous humor that bathes the front part of the eye before draining into the canal of Schlemm. The lens lies right behind the iris and helps control the refraction of the incoming light. contraction of the ciliary muscle, a component of the ciliary body, is under parasympathetic control. As the muscle contracts, it pulls on the suspensory ligaments and changes the shape of the lens, a phenomenon known as accommodation. Behind the lens lies the vitreous, a transparent gel that supports the retina the retina is in the back of the eye and is like a screen consisting of neural elements and blood vessels. It's function is to convert incoming photons of light to electrical signals. It is actually considered part of the CNS and develops as an outgrowth of brain tissue.

Explain rational choice theory.

focuses on decision-making in an individual and attempts to reduce this process to a careful consideration of benefits and harms to the individual. Every outcome in a given social interaction can be associated with particular rewards (such as money, accolades, honor, prestige, and social approval) and with particular punishments (such as embarrassment, humiliation, and stigmatization). In this theory, an individual carefully considers all of the possible rewards and punishments of each social action and chooses the option that has the highest benefit-to-harm ratio. Thus, this theory can be likened to a mental pros and cons list., and the course of action an individual takes is that which maximizes personal benefit. This theory is problematized by concepts like altruism.

What is social constructionism?

focuses on how individuals put together their social reality. Social constructs arise from humans communicating and working together to agree on the significance of a concept or principle. Social constructionism can be applied to intangible concepts; how a society defines honor and justice is dependent on the interactions and decisions of the individuals within that society. Notably, because these concepts depend on the society itself, they are subject to change as social norms and opininos develop over time. Social constructionism can also be applied to physical objects, such as money. Paper money and coinage do not inherently have significant value; it is only because we, as a society, imbue them with value that they can be used to trade for goods and services. Other examples include work ethic, acceptable dress, and gender roles.

Explain Malthusian theory. What is a Malthusian catastophe?

focuses on how the exponential growth of a population can outpace growth of the food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder. A Malthusian catastrophe is the prediction that as third-world nations industrialize and undergo demographic transition, the pace at which the world population will grow is much faster than the ability to generate food and mas starvation will occur.

Malthusian Theory

focuses on how the exponential growth of a population can outpace growth of the food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder. We're going to overpopulate the world and everyone will die.

What is feminist theory?

focuses on social inequalities that take place on the basis of gender. focuses on the subordination of women through social structures and institutional discrimination. this subordination takes many forms, including expected gender roles, sexuality, financial opportunity and social mobility.

spatial inequality

focuses on social stratification across territories and their populations.

Explain dissociative identity disorder

formerly multiple personality disorder. there are two or more personalities that recurrently take control of a persons behavior. This disorder results when the components of identity fail to integrate. In most cases, the patients have suffered severe physical or sexual abuse as young children. After much therapy, the personalities can sometimes be integrated into one. The existence of dissociative identity disorder is debated within the medical community.

What are mirror neurons?

frontal and parietal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so largely involved in motor processes, but also are thought to be related to empathy and vicarious emotion and also when we observe another experiencing the same emotion.

explain gender inequality and gender segregation

gender inequality is the intentional or unintentional empowerment of one gender to the detriment of the other. gender segregation is the separation of individuals based on perceived gender. This includes division into male, female, and gender-neutral bathrooms; separating male and female sports teams; and establishment of single-sex schools.

What is a family group?

group into which an individual is born, adopted, or married. It joins members of various ages, sexes, and generations through emotional ties. The family group can be filled with conflict at times, this is often true in adolescence when peer groups begin to compete with family groups for time and loyalty. Family groups may also struggle with cultural gaps and social differences between generations, such as speaking in different languages.

what are subcultures explain counterculture.

groups of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong in the case of counterculture, the subculture group gravitates toward an identity that is at odds with the majority culture and deliberately opposes the prevailing social mores.

what is a reference group? (type of group)

groups that establish the terms by which individuals evaluate themselves: to determine how strong of a medical school applicant you are, you may consider yourself in relation to the reference group of all medical school applicants

What is Darwin's theory of emotions?

he argued that emotions are a result of evolution; thus, emotions and their corresponding expressions are universal. He explained that all humans evolved the same set of facial muscles to show the same expressions when communicating emotion, regardless of their society or culture.

What is the Kinsey scale

heterosexual-homosexual rating scale. few people fall at the extremes, most are falling somewhere between the two. 0= heterosexual. 6= homosexual

strain theory

how anomic conditions can lead to deviance. Anomie refers to lack of social norms, or the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and society. Anomic conditions include excessiv eindividualism, social inequality, and isolation; these all erode social solidarity.

what is mate bias

how choosy members of the species are while choosing a mate

What is the looking glass self?

how we think others think of us

what is the primacy effect?

idea that first impressions are often more important than subsequent impressions

What is David McClelland's contribution to personality theory?

identified a personality trait that is referred to as the need for achievement (N-Ach). People rated high in N-Ach tend to be concerned with achievement and have pride in their accomplishments. These individuals avoid high risks (to avoid failing) and low risks (Because easy tasks will not generate a sense of achievement). Additionally, they set realistic goals, and stop striving toward a goal if success is unlikely.

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

if the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus enough times, the organism can become habituated to the conditioned stimulus

Explain immigration vs emigration

immigration is movement INTO a new geographic space. Emigration is movement AWAY from a geographic space.

in terms of developmental milestones, how do gross motor skills progress?

in a head to toe order starting with the ability to life the head, stabilize the trunk, and finally walking

explain primary versus secondary groups.

in a primary group, the interactions are direct, with close bonds providing warn, personal, and intimate relationships to members. These groups often last a long period of time and may include a core circle of friends, a tightly knit family, or members of a team. In a secondary group, the interactions are superficial, with few emotional bonds. Secondary groups typically last for a short period of time, and they form and dissolve without any special significance, such as students working together on a group project.

what is punishment? explain positive and negative punishment.

in contrast to reinforcement, punishment uses conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behavior. Positive punishment-adds an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to reduce that behavior (ex: a thief may be flogged for stealing) Negative punishment-the reduction of a behavior when a stimulus is removed. (ex: a parent may forbid her child from watching TV as a consequence for bad behavior, with the goal of preventing the behavior from happening again)

explain social interaction

in contrast to social action, social interaction explores the ways I which two or more individuals can both shape each other's behavior

what is an in-group and an out-group

in group is a social group with which a person experiences a sense of belonging or identifies as a member. out group refers to a social group with which an individual does not identify

Explain in groups and out groups.

in groups are groups to which an individual belongs and can be contrasted with out-groups, with which an individual competes or is in opposition.

olfactory chemoreceptors (olfactory nerves) are located where in the nose? Are chemoreceptors specific or generalized? how can smell carry interpersonal info? Explain this?

in olfactory epithelium in the upper part of the nasal cavity. Chemical stimuli must bind to their respective chemoreceptors to cause a signal. There are a tremendous # of specific chemoreceptors, which allows us to recognize subtle differences in similar scents. through pheromones. debatable effects on humans, but play an enormous role in many animals behavior. Secreted by one person or animal, and once bonded with chemoreceptors, compel or urge another to behave in a specific way

what is cult

in rare cases, a religious sect may take on extreme or deviant philosophies and transform into a cult

where are high concentrations of dopamine found?

in the basal ganglia, which help smooth movements and maintain postural stability

what is a discriminative stimulus?

indicates that reward is potentially available in an operant conditioning paradigm

What is identity? what's the difference between identity and self-concept?

individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong whereas we have one all-encompassing self-concept, we have multiple identities that define who we are and how we should behave within any given context. Religious affiliation, sexual orientation, personal relationships, and memberships in social groups are just a few of the identities that sum to create our self-concept. In fact, our individual identities do not always need to be compatible.

Explain depersonalization/derealization disorder.

individuals feel detached from their own mind and body (depersonalization) or from their surroundings (derealization). This often presents as a feeling of automation, and can have findings like a failure to recognize one's reflection. An out-of-body experience is an example of depersonalization. Derealization is often described as giving the world a dreamlike or insubstantial quality. They may also experience depersonalization and derealization simultaneously. These feelings cause significant impairment of regular activities. However, even during these times, the person does not display psychotic symptoms like delusions or hallucinations.

Explain somatic symptom disorder.

individuals have at least one somatic symptom which may or may not be linked to an underlying medical condition and that is accompanied by disproportionate concerns about its serious, devotion of an excessive amount of time and energy to it, or elevated levels of anxiety.

what is self-serving bias?

individuals will view their own success based on internal factors, while viewing failures based on external factors.

what is privilege?

inequality of opportunity

What is the grasping reflex?

infant grabs anything put into his or her hand

what is the Moro reflex?

infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting their arms and crying. Remember the song toMORO in Annie. When she sings MORO, she flings out her arms wide.

what is power?

influence over other poeple

what is the difference between innate and learned behaviors?

innate behavior is genetically programmed as a result of evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience. Learned behaviors are not based on heredity but instead on experience and environment.

What are instincts?

innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli

What are drives? Where are drives thought to originate? What are primary drives?

internal states of tension that beget particular behaviors focused on goals thought to originate within an individual without requiring any external factors to motivate behavior. In other words, drives help humans survive by creating an uncomfortable state, ensuring motivation to eliminate this state or to relive the internal tension created by unmet needs. primary drives, including the need for food, water, and warmth, motivate us to sustain bodily processes in homeostasis. Homeostasis is the regulation of the internal environment to maintain an optimal, stable set of conditions.

what are the two distinct types of conformity? explain them

internalization and identification internalization involves changing one's behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group. identification refers to the outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally taking on these ideas

explain intragenerational changes vs intergenerational changes.

intragenerational changes in social status happen within a person's lifetime while intergenerational changes are from parents to children.

the nondominant hemisphere is associated with what?

intuition, creativity, music cognition, spatial processing. it permits us to recognize others' moods based on visual and auditory cues, which adds to communication

what does the hippocampus do? How does it relate to emotion?

involved in creating long-term memories. the storage and retrieval of emotional memories is key in producing an emotional response. The hippocampus also aids in creating context for stimuli to lead to an emotional experience.

what is polyandry?

involves a female having exclusive relationships with multiple males

fine motor skill

involves the smaller muscles of the body such as those in the fingers, toes, and eyes, providing more specific and delicate movement. fine motor abilities inc. tracking motion, drawing, catching, and waving

what is interference or the interference effect?

it is a retrieval error caused by the existence of other, usually similar, information. interference can be classified by it's direction - proactive interference: old info is interfering with new learning (ex: trying to learn a new address but your old one keeps coming to you) - retroactive interference: when new info causes forgetting of old info. (ex: teachers learning new students names forget the names of their old students)

what are ethnic enclaves?

locations (usually neighborhoods) with a high [ ] of one specific ethnicity. slows assimilation.

What is the hierarchy of salience? What determines salience?

it is believed that our identities are organized according to a hierarchy of salience, such that we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment. For instance, male and female college students in same-sex groups are less likely to list gender in the self-descriptions than students in mixed-gender groups. Furthermore researchers have found that the more salient the identity, the more we conform to the role expectations of the identities. Salience is determined by a number of factors, including the amount of work we have invested into the identity, the rewards and gratification associated with the identity, and the amount of self-esteem we have associated with the identity.

Anomie

lack of social norms, or the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and society

what is associative learning?

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). -the creation of a pairing, or association, either between two stimuli or between a behavior and response

What is latent learning?

learning that occurs without reward, and is then spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced. eg rats in a maze. rats that were carried through the maze and then incentivized with a food reward for completing the maze on their own performed just as well-and in some cases better-than those rats that had been trained to run the maze using more standard operant conditioning techniques by which they were rewarded along the way

the dominant hemisphere (usually which side) is primarily _____ in function, making it well suited for what? What skills are located in the dominant hemisphere?

left side, primarily analytic, making it well suited for managing details language, logic, and math skills located here (so are Broca's and Wernicke's areas)

Each eye's right visual field projects onto the ___ half of each eye's retina

left, and vice versa.

what is prestige

level of respect shown to a person by others

The eye is a specialized organ used to detect ______ in the form of ______. Most of the exposed portion of the eye is covered by a thick structural layer known as what? The eye is supplied with nutrients by two sets of blood vessels, what are they? The innermost layer of the eye is what? What is this?

light in the form of photons the sclera the choroidal vessels and retinal vessels the retina. contains the actual photoreceptors that transduce light into electrical info

what is another word for threshold?

limina

what is operant conditioning? give an example

links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviors -BF skinner (father of behaviorism)- the theory that all behaviors are conditioned

what is emotional support?

listening, affirming, and empathizing with someone's feelings

the central portion of the retina, called the _______, has a high concentration of _____. It's centermost point, called the ______, contains only _______.

macula, high [ ] of cones fovea contains cones only

what is the life course approach to health

maintaining and considering a comprehensive view of the patient's history beyond the immediate presenting symptom.

Explain seasonal affective disorder.

major depressive disorder with seasonal onset. Not a freestanding diagnosis in the DSM-5. In this case, depressive symptoms are present only in the winter months. This disorder may be relate to abnormal melatonin metabolism; it is often treated with bright light therapy.

what is stereotyping?

making assumptions about people based on the category in which they are placed

What is approach-approach conflict?

making decisions between two appealing choices

Functions can be either manifest or latent. Explain both.

manifest or latent. If an action is intended to help some part of a system, it is a manifest function. However, manifest functions can also have unintended positive consequences on other parts of society; these are called latent functions. Latent functions may flow logically from manifest functions, but are unstated or unrecognized. For example, annual meetings of medical societies ahve the manifest function of educating a group of physicians, sharing research findings, and setting goals for the next year. Latently, they create stronger interpersonal bonds between physicians and provide a sense of identity for the group.

what is intersexual selection?

mate choice.

what are artifacts

material items that societies make, possess and value

prevalence

measure of the number of cases of an illness overall - whether new or chronic - per population in a given amount of time

Explain medicaid and medicare

medicare covers patients over 65, those with end-stage renal disease, and those with ALS, Medicaid covers patients in significant financial need.

what is promiscuity?

members of one sex mating with opposite sex without exclusivity

what are the 2 mnemonic techniques? explain them.

method of loci- involves associating each item in the list with a location along a route through a building that has already been memorized. (Ex: in memorizing a grocery list, someone might picture a carton of eggs sit-in non their doorstep, a person spilling milk in the front hallway, a giant stick of better in the living room, and so on. Later, when the person wishes to recall the list, they simply take a mental walk through the locations and recall the images they formed earlier) peg-word system- associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers. (Ex: one might be associated with the sum, two with a shoe, three with a tree, and so on). As ground work, the individual memorizes their personal peg-list. When another list needs to be memorized, the individual can simply pair each item in the list with their peg-list. In this example, the individual may visualize eggs being fried by the sin (1), a pair of shoes (2) filled with milk and a tree (3) with leaves made of butter.

what is a threshold?

minimum amount of a stimulus that renders a difference in perception -ex: the temp may noticeably change from warm to cool when the sun sets, but subtle fluctuations in temp throughout the day are generally unnoticeable b/c they are below the difference threshold

what is the absolute threshold?

minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate a sensory system -therefore a threshold in sensation, not perception. ex: the absolute threshold for sweet taste is a teaspoon of sucrose dissolved in 2 gallons of water. On a clear, dark night with no other lights shining, the eye can just detect the light of one candle burning thirty miles away

explain morbidity and mortality

morbidity is the burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease, while mortality refers to deaths caused by a given disease

the auditory cortex is the primary site of what?

most sound processing, including speech, music and other sound info

What are needs?

motivators that influence human behavior

endorphins are ______. what do they do, where are they produced?

neuropeptide. they are natural painkillers produced in the brain (similar actions to morphine or other opiods)

neuromodulators (______) are relatively ___ and have ______ effects of the postsynaptic cell than neurotransmitter.

neuropeptides are relatively slow and have longer effects than neurotransmitters

glutamate acts as what, where, how?

neurotransmitter in the CNS. it is an excitatory neurotransmitter, in contrast to glycine

The development of the nervous system starts with what? when does this occur?

neurulation, at 3-4 weeks

What is disorganized attachment?

no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver's absence or presence. often associated with erratic behavior and social withdrawal by the caregiver. may be a red flag for abuse.

pain perception is part of the somatosensory system and can result from signals sent form a variety of sensory receptors, most commonly _______. what is the gate theory of pain?

nociceptors. proposes that there is a special "gating" mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off, affecting whether or not we perceive pain. In this theory, the spinal cord is able to preferentially forward the signals from other touch modalities (pressure, temP_) to the brain, thus reducing the sensation of pain. Gate theory has been superseded by other theories, but still provides a useful model of understanding touch processing at the spinal cord level

what is symbolic culture

nonmaterial culture. the ideas that represent a group of people.

what are folkways?

norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular social interactions ex: shaking hands after a sporting match

how are rods and cones connected to the optic nerve? as the number of receptors that converge through the bipolar neurons onto one ganglion cell increase, what happens to resolution?

not a direct connection. several layers of neurons in between: bipolar cells, ganglion cells, horizontal cells, and acmacrine cells. Rods and cones connect with bipolar cells, which highlight gradients between adjacent rods or cones. Bipolar cells synapse with ganglion cells, which group together to form the optic nerve. These bipolar, horizontal, amacrine, and ganglion cells fall "in between" the rods and cones and the optic nerve, and are located in front of the rods and cones closer to the front of the eye this means that info is being transmitted "forward" towards the lens from the rod and cone cells, through a series of integration steps, until the signal reaches the ganglion cells. Because there are many more receptors than ganglion cells, each ganglion cell has to represent the combined activity of many rods and cones. This results in a loss of details as info from the photoreceptors is combined. as the number of receptors that converge through the bipolar neurons onto one ganglion cell increase, resolution decreases. on avg, the number of cones converging onto an individual ganglion cell is smaller than for rods. Therefore, color vision has a greater sensitivity to fine detail than black-and-white vision does acmacrine and horizontal cells receive input from multiple retinal cells in the same area before the info is passed onto ganglion cells. They can thereby accentuate slight difference between the visual info in each bipolar cell. These cells are important for edge detection, as they can inc our perception of contrasts.

What is a network? What is network redundancy? Explain immediate networks vs distant networks.

observable pattern of social relationships among individuals or groups. Patterns of relationship can be determined by mapping the interaction s between individual units, the nature of which can be highly variable. network redundancy is if there are overlapping connections with the same individual. immediate networks are dense with strong ties whereas distant networks are looser and contain weaker ties; immediate networks may be composed of friends, whereas distant networks may include acquaintances. The combination of immediate and distant networks provides the most benefit to individuals, which is augmented if the networks work complementarily to provide different resources.

what is a mating system?

organization of a group's sexual behavior

explain PTSD and the symptoms associated with it. how is it different from acute stress disorder?

occurs after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event such as war, a home invasion, rape, or a natural disaster, and consists of intrusion symptoms, avoidance symptoms, negative cognitive symptoms, and arousal symptoms. Intrusion symptoms- include relevant reliving of the event, flashbacks, nightmares, and prolonged distress Avoidance symptoms- deliberate attempts to avoid the memories, people, places, activities, and objects associated with the trauma Negative cognitive symptoms- inability to recall key features of the event, negative mood or emotions, felling distanced from others, and a persistent negative view of the world Arousal symptoms- an increased startle response, irritability, anxiety, self-destructive or reckless behavior, and sleep disturbances To meet the criteria of PTSD, a particular number of these symptoms must be present for at least one month. If the same symptoms last for less than one month but more than three days it may be called acute stress disorder

What is neurulation?

occurs when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by 2 neural folds

What is the olfactory pathway to the brain?

odor molecules are inhaled into the nasal passages and then contact the olfactory nerves in the olfactory epithelium. These receptor cells are activated, sending signals to the olfactory bulb. These signals are then relayed via the olfactory tract to higher regions of the brain

social mobility is typically the result of what

of an economic and occupational structure that allows one to acquire higher-level employment opportunities given proper credentials and experience requirements.

explain poverty on an absolute and relative level

on an absolute level, poverty is a socioeconomic condition in which people do not have enough money or resources to maintain a quality of living that includes basic life necessities such as shelter, food, clothing, and water. This absolute poverty view applies across locations, countries, and cultures. Poverty can also be defined as relative, in which one is poor in comparison to the larger population in which they live.

The adrenal glands are located where and are divided into 2 parts: ____ and _____.

on top of the kidneys. the adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex

what is the empathy-altruism hypothesis

one individual helps another person when he or she feels empathy for the other person, regardless of the cost

what is polygyny?

one male, multiple females

law of proximity

one of Gestalt's principles. elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit

law of good continuation

one of Gestalt's principles. elements that appear to follow the same pathway tend to be grouped together

law of similarity

one of Gestalt's principles. objects that are similar tend to be grouped together

subjective contours

one of Gestalt's principles. refers to the perception of nonexistent edges/shapes in figures, based on surrounding visual cues

law of closure

one of Gestalt's principles. when a space is enclosed by a group of lines, it is perceived as a complete or closed line

What is impression management? Describe the three "selves"

our attempts to influence how others perceive us. This is done through regulation or controlling of info in social interactions. Often used synonymously with self-presentation. 3 selves: authentic self, ideal self, and tactical self. Authentic self describes who the person actually is, including both positive and negative attributes. Ideal self refers to who we would like to be under optimal circumstances. Tactical self refers to who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us.

What personality disorders are in Cluster A? What do they all have in common?

paranoid, schizotypal, and schizoid personality disorders all marked by behavior that is labeled as odd or eccentric by others.

most sound info passes through the what to the brainstem, where it ascends what? explain the auditory pathways from there

passes through the vestibulocochlear nerve to the brainstem, where it ascends to the medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) of the thalamus. From there, it projects to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe for sound processing. Some fo the info is also sent to the superior olive, which localizes the sound, and the inferior colliculus, which is involved in the startle reflex and helps keep the eyes fixed on a point while the head is turned (vestibule-ocular reflex)

What is a personality disorder? Are they considered ego-sytonic or ego-dystonic? Explain each. In addition to general personality disorder, there are 10 personality disorders grouped into what? List each.

pattern of behavior that is inflexible and maladaptive, causing distress or impaired functioning in at least two of the following: cognition, emotions, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control personality disorders are considered ego-syntonic, meaning that the individual perceives her behavior as correct, normal, or in harmony with her goals. This is in contrast to the other disorders that are considered ego-dystonic, meaning that the individual sees the illness as something thrust upon her that is intrusive and bothersome. 10 personality disorders grouped into 3 clusters Cluster A: paranoid, schizotypal, and schizoid personality disorders Cluster B: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic Cluster C: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive

what are sanctions? what can they be used to maintain?

penalties for misconduct or rewards for appropriate behavior. social control. can be formal (enforced by social institutions) or informal (enforced by social behaviors)

What is reciprocal liking?

people like others better when they believe the other person likes them

What is arousal theory?

people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal: seeking to increase arousal when it falls below their optimal level, and to decrease arousal when it rises above their optimal level. We are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal. We seek excitement when we're bored and less stimulation when we're overwhelmed. The optimal level of arousal differs between individuals and is said to be genetically influenced.

what is social facilitation?

people tend to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others supports the idea that people naturally exhibit a performance response when they know they are being watched

what is subliminal perception?

perception of a stimulus below a given threshold -the threshold of conscious perception.

what is place theory

place theory states that the location of a hair cell on the basilar membrane determines the perception of pitch when that hair cell is vibrated. The highest-frequency pitches cause vibration of the basilar membrane very close to the oval window, whereas low-frequency pitches cause vibrations at the apex, away from the oval window. Thus, the cochlea is tonotopically organized: which hair cells are vibrating gives the brain an indication of the pitch of the sound

What are statuses? Are all personal characteristics considered social statuses?

positions in society that are used to classify individuals. No, ex: being left handed is not a status.

Explain positive vs negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

positive symptoms are behaviors, thoughts, or feelings added to normal behavior. Examples include delusions and hallucinations, disorganized thought, and disorganized or catatonic behavior. Positive symptoms are considered by some to be two distinct dimensions, the psychotic dimension (delusions or hallucination) and the disorganized dimension (disorganized thought and behavior). negative symptoms are those that involve the absence of normal or desired behavior, such as disturbance of affect and avolition.

what is racial formation theory

posits that racial identity is fluid and dependent on concurrent political, economic, and social factors

what is labeling theory

posits that the labels given to people affect not only how others respond to that person, but also the person's self image. This can lead to channeling of behavior into deviance or conformity. Ex: if members of society label a woman as promiscuous this could either lead to further promiscuity or to a change in behavior toward something more in line with what is accepted in that society.

what is the fundamental attribution error?

posits that were generally biased toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions, especially in negative contexts. Ex: suppose you are working on a team project and another team member doesn't complete his assignment. Our immediate response may be to assume that this team member is lazy, unreliable, or even stupid- all of which are dispositional attributions. We may ignore the possibility that the team member got ill, has too many concurrent assignments , or suffered a personal tragedy- all of which are situational attributions.

explain social cognitive theory

postulates that people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others. According to this idea, behavior is not learned by trial-and-errors, but develops through direct observation and replication of the actions of others, and in tandem with the influence of personal factors (such as thoughts about the behavior) and the environment in which we observe the behavior. These three factors-behavior, personal factors, and environment-are not independent concepts, but influence each other. Ex: the work ethic of employees in a company (behavior) is affected by how hard their colleagues work, their previous attitudes toward hard work (personal), and the systems and infrastructure of the company (environment). Reciprocally, this behavior may create a change in the employee's attitude toward work (personal) and the systems within the company (environment).

Explain Carl Jung's psychoanalytic theory.

preferred to think of libido as psychic energy in general, not just psychic energy rooted in sexuality. Jung identified the ego as the conscious mind and he divided the unconscious into two parts, the personal unconscious (similar to Freud's notion of the unconscious) and the collective unconscious. The collective unconscious is a powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors. Its building blocks are images of common experiences, such as having a mother and a father. These images invariably have an emotional element, and are referred to as archetypes in Jung's theory

What doe the prefrontal cortex do? What is the difference between the left and right prefrontal cortex? What is the difference between the dorsal and ventral prefrontal cortex?

prefrontal cortex-anterior portion of the frontal lobes associated with planning intricate cognitive functions, expressing personality, and making decisions. -also receives arousal input from the brainstem, coordinating arousal and cognitive states. -left prefrontal cortex is associated with positive emotions and the right prefrontal cortex with negative emotions dorsal prefrontal cortex-attention and cognition ventral prefrontal cortex- connects with regions of the brain responsible for experiencing emotions -specifically, ventromedial prefrontal cortex is thought to play a substantial role in decision-making and controlling emotional responses from the amygdala.

What is discrimination?

prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently

What was Gordon Allport's contribution to personality theory?

primarily a trait theorist. Listed three basic types of traits or dispositions: cardinal, central, and secondary. Cardinal traits are traits around which a person organizes his or her life. (EX: Mother Teresa's cardinal trait may be self-sacrifice). While not everyone develops a cardinal trait, everyone does have central and secondary traits. Central traits represent major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, such as honesty or charisma. Secondary traits are other personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence: aspects of one's personality that only appear in close groups or specific social situations. A major part of his theory is functional autonomy, in which behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior.

explain the difference between primary and secondary socialization

primary socialization occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through observation of our parents and other adults in close proximity. In children, this sets the stage for future socialization and provides the foundation for creating personal opinions secondary socialization is the process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society. This type of socialization occurs outside the home and is based on learning the rules of specific social environments. Ex: the behavior necessary to thrive in school is different than the home setting, and also from that which is acceptable on a sports field or in church. Secondary socialization is typically associated with adolescents and adults and includes smaller changes and refinements to behavior that were established in primary socialization

what is resocialization?

process by which one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change the method by which members of the armed forces are trained to obey orders and commands without hesitation is a prime example of resocialization, but so is attracting and indoctrinating members into a cult

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) produces what and is thought to play a role in what? how does GABA exert its effects?

produces inhibitory post-synaptic potentials and is thought to play a role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain. Gaba exerts its effects by causing hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane

the adrenal cortex does what?

produces many hormones called corticosteroids, including the stress hormone, cortisol. also contributes to sexual functioning by producing sex hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen

Explain marxist theory

proposes that the have-nots, called the proletariat, could overthrow the haves, called the bourgeoise, as well as the entire capitalist economy by developing class consciousness (Organization of the working class around shared goals and recognition of a need for collective political action). By working together as one unit, the proletariat could revolt and take control of the political and economic system, laying the groundwork for a socialist state. The one major barrier to class consciousness is false consciousness, a misperception of one's actual position within society.

what is informational support?

providing information to help someone

what is response bias?

refers to the tendency of subjects to systematically respond to a stimulus in a particular way due to non sensory factors

What is a panic disorder?

recurrent unexpected panic attacks. symptoms of a panic attack include fear and apprehension, trembling, sweating, hyperventilation and a sense of unreality.

What are visual pathways?

refer to both the physical anatomical connections between the eyes and the brain and the flow of visual info along these connections.

what are gender roles?

refer to the behaviors expected of a given gender; in the US, the Industrial Revolution begat a doctrine of "separate spheres," in which men served as breadwinners and protectors of the family's finances and safety whereas women served as caretakers of the children and home.

what are concordance rates?

refer to the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait

what is monogamy

refers to an exclusive mating relationship

explain urbanization

refers to dense areas of population creating a pull for migration. In other words, cities are formed as individuals move into and establish residency in these new urban centers

what is teacher expectancy?

refers to the idea that teachers tend to get what they expect from students.

what is the difference threshold (just-noticeable difference [jnd])

refers to the minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference ex: most individuals without formal ear training find it impossible to discriminate between two sound waves at 440 Hz and 441 Hz.

What is the two-point threshold?

refers to the minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli the size of the two-point threshold depends on the density of nerves in the particular area of skin being tested

What is perception?

refers to the processing of sensed info to make sense of its significance. These complex manipulations include both external sensory experience and the internal activities of the brain and spinal cord. Perception thus helps us make sense of the world.

the adrenal medulla does what?

releases episode and norepinephrine as part of the sympathetic nervous system

Explain religion as a social institution.

religion is considered to be a pattern of social activities organized a set of beliefs and practices that seek to address the meaning of existence. As an organization, religion persists over time and has a structure into which members are resocialized. Religious groups can be organized in many ways. Large umbrella regions can be divided into multiple denominations or sects that may share certain beliefs and practices but not others.

what are family studies? how are they limited?

rely on the assumption that genetically related individuals are more similar genotypical than unrelated individuals. Researchers may compare rates of a given trait among family members to among unrelated individuals. Family studies are limited bc families share both genetic and the environment.

what are taste receptors?

respond to dissolved compounds (taste)

Hair cells in the inner ear respond to what?

respond to movement of fluid in the inner ear structures (hearing, rotational and linear acceleration)

what are nociceptors?

respond to painful or noxious stimuli (somatosensation) - brain receptors

what are osmoreceptors?

respond to the osmolarity of the blood (water homeostasis)

what are olfactory receptors?

respond to volatile compounds (smell)

What is self-disclosure?

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others. sharing one's fears, thoughts, and goals with another person and being met with non-judgmental empathy.

what is shaping in operant conditioning?

rewarding increasingly specific behaviors Ex: if you wanted to train a bird to spin around in place and then peck a key on a keyboard, you might first give the bird a treat for turning slightly left, then turning for 90 degrees, then 180 degrees, so on. Then you might only reward this behavior if done near the keyboard until eventually the bird is only rewarded once the full set of behaviors is performed.

as one moves further away from the fovea, the [ ] of rods ______ while the [ ] of cones _____. Therefore, visual acuity is best where? where is there a blind spot?

rods inc cones dec. visual acuity best at the fovea blind spot where the optic nerve leaves the eye, as there are no photoreceptors here

Role conflict vs role strain

role conflict is when roles start conflicting with one another. Ex: i want to be a good medical student and daughter. if its my moms bday and also the day of a big exam I can't do both. role strain is when you have difficulty with a role. I want to be a doctor but i suck at math so I can't do the math on the MCAT. this creates role strain

how do medications treat schozophrenia? what type of medications are used?

schizophrenia is highly associated with excess of dopamine in the brain. neuroleptics block dopamine receptors. the term neuroleptic (anti-psychotic) arises from the side effects, most commonly sedation (remember patient Terry S had him on neuroleptics at GT hospital)

What is a psychotic disorder according to the DSM-5? What is the prototypical psychotic disorder?

schizophrenia is the prototypical psychotic disorder individuals with a psychotic disorder suffer from one or more of the following conditions: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized behavior, catatonia, and negative symptoms.

Attachment. Secure vs avoidant vs ambivalent vs disorganized

secure- kid crys when parent leaves and is comforted when they come back. avoidant- kid doesnt care when the parent leaves or comes back (child is neglected) ambivalent- kid cares when the parent leaves and does not care when the parent comes back (inconsistent carefiver) disorganized- other type of attachment. some weird behavior. kid rocks and hums to herself when parent leaves. doesn't fit into any other category.

what is foraging?

seeking out and eating food

what is secure attachment?

seen when a child has a consistent caregiver and is able to go out and explore, knowing that he or she has a secure base to return to. The child will be upset at the departure of the caregiver an will be comforted by the return of the caregiver. The child trusts that the caregiver will be there for comfort, and while the child can be comforted by a stranger, he or she will clearly prefer the caregiver. Having a secure attachment pattern is thought to be a vital aspect of a child's social development.

what is a semantic network? what is spreading activation? what is priming?

semantic network- consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts spreading activation-when one node of our semantic network is activated, such as seeing the work red on a sign, the other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated priming- spreading activation is at the heart of a retrieval cue known as priming, in which recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory

What are sensory receptors?

sensory neurons or cells that are able to respond to environmental stimuli and trigger electrical signals.

Explain the elaboration likelihood model

separates individuals on a continuum based on their processing of persuasive info. At one extreme are those who elaborate extensively; that is, those who think deeply about info, scrutinize its meaning and purpose, and draw conclusions or make decisions based on this thought. This deep thinking is referred to as central route processing. At the other end are those who do not elaborate, focusing on superficial details: the appearance of the person delivering the argument, catchphrases and slogans, and credibility. This is known as peripheral route processing. Consider two voters watching a political campaign: while one may be swayed by the cogent arguments made by one candidate (high elaboration, central route processing), the other may be swayed by the perception that the other candidate is more personable (low elaboration, peripheral route processing). Most individuals fall in the middle of this continuum, and the degree to which we elaborate on info can vary depending on the situation

Glycine serves as what, where, how?

serves as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS by inc chloride influx into the neyron. this hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane, like GABA

What does the amygdala do? How does it relate to emotion?

signals the cortex about stimuli related to attention and emotions. It processes the environment, detects external cues, and learns from the person's surroundings in order to produce emotion. region is associated with fear and also plays a role in human emotion through interpretation of facial expressions.

how does the nondominant hemisphere perceive a stimulus

simultaneously processes the pieces of a stimulus and assembles them into a holistic image.

The inner ear sits within what, which contains which things? The structures are continuous with each other and are mostly filled by what, which is what? The membranous labyrinth is suspended within the bony labyrinth by a thin layer of another fluid called ________. This fluid does what?

sits within a bony labyrinth, which contains the cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals The structures are continuous with each other and are mostly filled by the membranous labyrinth, which is bathed with a potassium-rich fluid called endolymph called perilymph, which simultaneously transmits vibrations from the outside world and cushions the inner ear structures.

social networks can create two types of social inequality. what are they?

situational (socioeconomic advantage) and positional (based on how connected one is within a network and one's centrality within that network).

in terms of developmental milestones what is the correlation between development of motor skills and proximity to the center of the body?

skills are developed at the core prior to extremities

what is ethnicity. what is the distinction between race and ethnicity?

social construct which sorts people by cultural factors including language, nationality, religion. the distinction between race and ethnicity can be important because one can choose whether or not to display ethnic identity, while racial identities are always on display. Ex: a person could be considered black due to physical characteristics; however, this same person's ethnicity could be Latino, African, African American, or a number of other ethnic identities

social reproduction

social inequality, especially poverty, can be reproduced or passed on from one generation to the next. This idea is referred to as social reproduction

Explain proactive vs reactive social movements

social movements that promote social change are termed proactive; those that resist social change are reactive.

What is deindividualization?

social phenomenon that occurs when individuals are in groups. Individual behavior can be dramatically different in social environments. This is thought to be due to the presence of a large group that provides anonymity and causes a loss of individual identity. Deindividuation can lead to antinormative behavior (behavior against the norm). This aspect of deindividuation attempts to provide an explanation for violent behavior seen in crowds and riots: In group settings, the individual loses his sense of individuality and becomes an anonymous part of a group. With anonymity, he is more likely to act in a manner that is inconsistent with his normal self. This is further enhanced when the group is in uniform or masked, disguising the individual within the group and increasing anonymity.

Explain socialism.

socialist economies treat large industries as collective, shard businesses, and compensation is provided based on the work contribution of each individual into the system. Profit, then, is distributed equally to the work force.

what is taboo?

socially unacceptable, disgusting, or reprehensible

what are norms

societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior

what are norms? they serve as a means of what?

societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior. they serve as a means of social control

Explain the difference between primary reinforcers and conditioned reinforcers (secondary reinforcers) using dolphin training. how can you explain a discriminative stimulus using dolphin training?

sometimes, the trainers will feed the dolphin a fish after it performed a trick. The fish is a primary reinforcer because the fish is a treat that the dolphin responds to naturally. Dolphin trainers also use tiny handheld devices that emit a clicking sound. This clicker would not normally be a reinforces on its own, but the trainers use classical conditioning to pair a clicker with fish to elicit the same response. The clicker is thus a conditioned reinforcer (secondary reinforcer). Eventually, the dolphin may even associate the presence fo the trainer with the possibility of reward, making the presence of the trainer a discriminative stimulus. (indicates that reward is potentially available in an operant conditioning paradigm)

what is cultural diffusion

spread of norms, customs, and beliefs throughout the culture

what is the duplexity (duplicity) theory of vision

states that the retina contains two types of photoreceptors: those specialized for light-and-dark detection and those specialized for color detection

what are demographics

statistical data relating to the population and particular groups within it.

hair cells are named for the long tufts of _____ on their top surface. as vibrations reach the basilar membrane underlying the organ of Corti, what happen to the hair cells

stereocilia as vibrations reach the basilar membrane underlying the organ of Corti, the stereocilia adorning the hair cells begin to sway back and forth within the endolymph. The swaying causes the opening of ion channels, which cause a receptor potential. Certain hair cells are also directly connected to the immobile tectorial membrane, these hair cells are involved in amplifying the incoming sound.

the occipital lobe contains the visual (_______) cortex

striate

communities are joined together through what are called strong and weak ties. explain both.

strong ties refer to peer group and kinship contacts, which are quantitatively small but qualitatively powerful. Weak ties refer to social connections that are personally superficial, such as associates , but that are large in number and provide connections to a wide range of other individuals.

What is cognitive appraisal? What are the stages?

subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress Stage 1- primary appraisal-the initial evaluation of the environment and the associated threat. This appraisal can be identified as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful. -If primary appraisal revealed a threat, then stage 2 begins. Stage 2- Secondary appraisal- directed at evaluating whether the organism can cope with the stress. Involves evaluation of 3 things: 1. Harm (damage caused by the event) 2. Threat (the potential for future damage caused by the event) 3. Challenge (the potential to overcome and possibly benefit from the event) Individuals who perceive themselves as having the ability to cope with the event experience less stress than those who don't. In general, appraisal and stress level are personal, as individuals have different skills, abilities, and coping mechanisms.

What are the 5 basic tastes? What is flavor? explain taste detection.

sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami (savory) flavor is not synonymous with taste, refers to the complex interplay between smell and taste, which can be affected by non chemical stimuli like texture and the individuals mood tastes are detected by chemoreceptors (like smell). however, unlike olfactory chemoreceptors, taste chemoreceptors are sensitive to dissolved compounds. the receptors for taste are groups of cells called taste buds, which are found in little bumps on the tongue called papillae. Taste info travels from the taste buds to the brainstem, and then ascends to the taste center in the thalamus before traveling to higher-order brain regions.

what is culture lag

symbolic culture is usually slower to change than material culture

Explain the that's not all technique

technique to gain compliance an individual is made an offer, but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than she expected. Ex: infomercials! For the low price of $19.99 you will receive two bottles of salon grade shampoo. But, if you call in the next 30 minutes, you will receive not only those two bottles, but also a bottle of conditioner!

Explain the lowball technique

technique to gain compliance the requestor will get an initial commitment from an individual, and then raise the cost of the commitment. The cost need not only include money, but also could include effort and time. Ex: boss asks you to head a committee with a time commitment of 5 hours per month of meetings. You agree, but discover after that the commitment also includes written reports form each meeting and a quarterly presentation

what is physiological zero?

temp is judged relative to physiological zero, or the normal temp of the skin (between 86 and 97F). thus, an object feels "cold" because it is under physiological zero, and vice verca

What is attribution theory?

tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior

what are the sex hormones? what effects do they have?

testosterone and estrogen. These sex hormones inc libido and contribute to mating behavior and sexual function. higher levels of testosterone also inc aggressive behavior

What does the thalamus do? What about the hypothalamus? How does it relate to emotion?

thalamus- sensory relay station. routes info to the cortex and other appropriate areas of the brain. hypothalamus- synthesizes and releases a variety of neurotransmitters. It serves many homeostatic functions, and is involved in modulating emotion. Indeed, by controlling the neurotransmitters that affect mood and arousal, the hypothalamus largely dictates emotional states.

what are the semicircular canals in the ear?

the 3 semicircular canals are sensitive to rotational acceleration. They are arranged perpendicularly to each other, and each ends in a swelling called an ampulla, where hair cells are located. When the head rotates, endolymph in the semicircular canal resists this motion, bending the underlying hair cells, which send a signal to the brain.

The neural tube will ultimately form what?

the CNS

what is communication?

the ability to convey info by speech, writing, signals, or behavior. It is the foundation of social interaction and is often used to elicit changes, generate action, create understanding, share a point of view, or inform. Effective communication occurs when the desired message is received by the recipient.

What is theory of mind?

the ability to sense how another's mind works

what is perceptual organization?

the ability to use top down and bottom up processing in tandem with all of the other sensory clues about an object to create a complete picture or idea.

what is empathy

the ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another

What is expectancy-value theory?

the amount of motivation needed to recah a goal is the result of both the individual's expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which he or she values success at that goal

what is fertility rate

the average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime in a population

the pituitary gland is located where in the brain? Which pituitary is the "master" and why?

the base. the anterior pit because it releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands.

what is a characteristic institution? What is ours now?

the basic organization of society is found in its character institution. Throughout history this has changed. In prehistoric times, the characteristic institution was primarily the kin, clan, or sib. In modern times, as we have transformed our cities into urban centers of trade and commerce, we have moved to bureaucracy as the characteristic institution.

What is culture? How is it learned?

the beliefs, behaviors, actions, and characteristics of a group or society of people. culture is learned by living within a society, observing behaviors and traits, and adopting them. It is also passed down from generation to generation. culture is universal throughout humanity

What is avoidant attachment?

the caregiver has little or no response to a distressed child. Given the choice, children will show no preference between a stranger and a caregiver. They show little or no distress when the caregiver leaves and little or no relief when the caregiver returns.

What is bureaucracy? What are the 6 characteristics?

the characteristic institution of our modern society. It is a rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control. It generally has these 6 characteristics: paid, nonelected officials on a fixed salary; officials who are provided rights and privileges as a result of making their career out of holding office; regular salary increases, seniority rights, and promotions upon passing exams or milestones; officials who enter the organization by holding an advanced degree or training; responsibilities, obligations, privileges, and work procedures rigidly defined by the organization; and responsibility for meeting the demands of one's position. Due to these characteristics, bureaucracies are often slow to change and are less efficient than other organizations.

what is racialization

the definition or establishment of a group as a particular race ex: while Judaism was historically viewed only as a religion, the concept of a Jewish race has become more prevalent

What is normative conformity

the desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection

What is cultural relativism?

the perception of another culture as different from one's own, but with the recognition that the cultural values, mores, and rules of a culture fit into that culture itself

Explain the difference between the dispositional approach and situational approach in personality theory

the dispositional approach says that behavior is primarily determined by an individual's personality the situational approach is that behavior is determined by a persons environment and context

all the catecholamines play important roles in what?

the experience of emotions

what is religiosity

the extent of a person's commitment to a religion. how religious one considers him or herself to be, includes strength of religious beliefs, engagement in religious practices, and attitudes about religion itself.

what are distinctiveness cues?

the extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios

what is adaptive value?

the extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species, thus leading to adaptation through natural selection

what is stigma

the extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society

how is the form of an object determined? how is the motion of an object perceived? what is constancy?

the form of an object is usually determined through parallel processing and feature detection, and the motion of an object is perceived through magnocellular cells. constancy refers to the idea that we perceive certain characteristics of objects to remain the same, despite differences in the environment. ex: perceive a piece of whit paper as white whether or not it is illuminated by fluorescent lights, incandescent bulbs or sunlight (color constancy)

Explain the Hawk Dove game

the game focuses on access to shared food resources. in each round, a player chooses one of two strategies: hawk or dove. Hawk= fight. Dove= fight avoidance. If the dove is not faced with a fight he will attempt to share food. There are 3 potential outcomes: 1. Hawk vs Hawk: one will win and own will lose 2. Hawk vs Dove: Hawk wins 3. Dove vs Dove: share The payoff is based on both the value of the reward and the cost of fighting: If the reward is significantly larger than the cost of fighting, hawks have an advantage. If the cost of fighting is larger, doves have an advantage. There is an equilibrium point where, based on the magnitude of the reward and cost of fighting, the hawk and dove strategies can coexist as evolutionary stable strategies (ESSs)

Explain the government and economy as social institutions.

the government and economy can be defined as systematic arrangements of political and capital relationships, activities, and social structures that affect rule making, representation of the individual in society, rights and privileges, division of labor, and production of goods and services. Notable, political and economic institutions impact all other institutions to some extent. That is, the government may sanction or define specific family structures, may finance and regulate education, may recognize some religions but not others, and may play a key role in funding and certifying healthcare and medicine.

what is the ant pit controlled by?

the hypothalamus

what part of the brain controls the sensation of hunger? what are the two parts of this thing and explain the difference between the two.

the hypothalamus the lateral hypothalamus promotes hunger the ventromedial hypothalamus responds to cues that we are full and promotes satiety.

what is sensory memory? what are the 2 types? How can the nature of sensory memory be demonstrated experimentally?

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system consists of both iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory. -lasts generally under one second but within that time our eyes and ears take in an incredibly detailed representation of our surroundings that we can recall with amazing precision. -sensory memories are maintained by the major projection areas of each sensory system (such as the occipital lobe (vision) and temporal lobe (hearing)). -fades very quickly, will be lost unless attended to. - a research participant is presented with a 3x3 array of letters that is flashed onto a screen for a fraction of a second. When asked to list all of the letters she saw, the participant is able to correctly identify 3 of 4 (whole-report). However, when asked to list the letters of a particular row immediately after the presentation of the stimulus (partial-report), such can do so with 100% accuracy no matter which row is chosen.

what is social support?

the perception or reality that one is cared for by a social network

Explain the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the thematic apperception test.

the inkblot test relies on the assumption that the client projects his or her unconscious feelings onto the shape the thematic apperception test consists of a series of pictures that are presented to the client, who is asked to make up a story about each one. The story, presumably, will elucidate the client's own unconscious thoughts and feelings.

Explain healthcare and medicine as a social institution.

the institutions of healthcare and medicine are aimed at maintaining or improving the health status of the individual, family, community, and society as a whole.

what is intersectionality

the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender as they apply to a given individual or group, regarded as creating overlapping and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage.

what is social capital

the investments people make in their society for economic or collective rewards

what are the 2 muscles of the iris and what is the difference between them?

the iris, the colored part of the eye, is composed of two muscles: the dilator papillae (which opens the pupil under sympathetic simulation) and the constrictor papillae (which constricts the pupil under parasympathetic stimulation_

what is agnosia?

the loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds, though usually only one of the three. usually caused by physical damage to the brain, such as that caused by a stroke or a neurological disorder such as MS

what is cultural transmission/cultural learning

the manner in which a society socializes its membres

explain the identity shift effect.

the mechanism behind peer pressure when an individuals state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms of the group. Upon doing so, the individual will begin to experience internal conflict because the behavior is outside the normal character of the individual. To eliminate the sense of internal conflict the individual experiences an identity shift wherein the individual adopts the standards of the group as her own.

what is the recency effect?

the most recent info we have about an individual is the most important in forming impressions

what is retrieval?

the name given to the process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained.

what is self-enhancement?

the need to maintain self-worth

cells are the leading edge of the neural fold are called _______ and will do what?

the neural crest, they will migrate throughout the body to form disparate tissues, including dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes, and calcitonin-producing cells of the thyroid.

what are mortality rates

the number of deaths in a population per unit time.

What does the amygdala do? What happens if its activated?

the part of the brain responsible for telling whether or not something is a threat. If it is activated, this increases aggression.

what are the three primary components of social perception? explain them

the perceiver, the target and the situation the perceiver is influenced by experience , motives, and emotional state. The targer refers to the person about which the perception is made.

what are dissociative disorders? give examples

the person avoids stress by escaping from his identity. The person otherwise has an intact sense of reality. Ex: dissociative amnesia, dissociative identity disorder (formerly multiple personality disorder) and depersonalization/derealization disorder

what is material culture

the physical things created by members of a society

what is the vestibule in the ear?

the portion of the bony labryinth that contains the utricle and saccule. These structures are sensitive to linear acceleration, so are used as part of the balancing apparatus and to determine one's orientation in 3-dimensional space. The utricle and saccule contain modified hair cells covered with otoliths. As the body accelerates, these otoliths will resist that motion. This bends and stimulates the underlying hair cells, which send a signal to the brain.

cultural relativism

the practice of judging a culture by its own standards. Opposite of ethnocentrism

what is ethnocentrism

the practice of judging another culture by the standards of one's own culture

what is anticipatory socialization?

the process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations, or relationships ex: a couple living together in preparation for married life

what is assimilation. what does it look like? In terms of immigrant assimilation, what are the 4 factors that can be used to assess the completeness of assimilation?

the process by which an individual's or group's behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group. this can also mean that groups with difference cultures begin to merge into one. integrates new aspects of a society and culture with old ones, transforming the culture itself. while one society melds into another, it is typically not an even blend. One group will generally have more power and influence than the other, resulting in more traits of that culture being displayed after transformation. In terms of immigrant assimilation, there are four primary factors that can be used to assess the completeness of assimilation: socioeconomic status, geographic distribution, language attainment, and intermarriage.

what is socialization?

the process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs individuals gain the knowledge, skills, habits, and behaviors that are necessary for inclusion in society.

What is self-presentation? What is another term for it?

the process of displaying oneself to society through culturally accepted behaviors. Impression management.

what is reinforcement in classical conditioning? explain positive vs negative reinforcement

the process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior positive reinforcement- increase a behavior by adding a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behavior (Ex: money) negative reinforcement- act similarly in that they increase the frequency of a behavior, but they do so by removing something unpleasant (ex: aspirin to reduce a headache, so the next time you have a headache you are more likely to take one) NOT PUNISHMENT remember that both neg and pos reinforcement inc the likelihood that a behavior will be performed

what is globalization

the process of integrating the global economy with free trade and the tapping of foreign markets. This is a relatively recent phenomenon spurred on by improvements in global communicaiton technology and economic interdependence.

what is observational learning? -give famous experiment example

the process of learning a new behavior or gaining info by watching others -Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment: kids watched an adult in a room full of toys punching and kicking an inflatable clown toy. When the kids were allowed to play in the room later, may of them ignored the other toys in the room and inflicted similar violence on the Bobo doll just as the adult did. **observational learning is not the same as imitation because it can be used to teach individuals to avoid behavior as well. In later iterations of the Bobo doll experiment, kids who watched the adult get scolded after attacking the Bobo doll were less likely to be aggressive toward the Bobo doll themselves

what is recognition?

the process of merely identifying a piece of info that was previously learned, is far easier than receall.

what is modeling?

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

what is encoding?

the process of putting new info into memory.

what is arousal?

the psychological and physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimuli

what is long term memory? what is it controlled by? what are the two types? explain them.

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system primarily controlled by the hippocampus, it should be noted that memories are moved, over time, back to the cerebral cortex. Thus, very long-term memories-our names and birthdays and faces of our parents- are generally not affected by damage to the hippocampus. 1. implicit (non declarative or procedural) memory- consists of our skills and conditioned responses 2. explicit (declarative) memory- consists of those memories that require conscious recall. Can be further divided into semantic memory (facts that we know) and episodic memory (our experiences)

what is the function of the retina?

the retina is in the back of the eye and is like a screen consisting of neural elements and blood vessels. It's function is to convert incoming photons of light to electrical signals. It is actually considered part of the CNS and develops as an outgrowth of brain tissue.

what is recall

the retrieval and statement of previously learned info, but learning can be additionally demonstrated by recognizing or quickly relearning info

what are the gonads? what do they do?

the sex glands of the body- ovaries in females and testes in males. they produce sex hormones in higher concentrations, leading to inc levels of testosterone in males and inc levels of estrogen in females.

explain cognitive dissonance

the simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions. This generally leads to an internal state of discomfort, which may manifest as anxiety, fear, anger, or confusion. Individuals will try to reduce this discomfort by changing, adding to, or minimizing one of these dissonant thoughts.

what is social perception?

the study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people

What is functionalism (functional analysis)? What is function and dysfunction?

the study of the structure and function of each part of society. Early functionalists viewed society as a living organism. Like an organism, if society is to function smoothly, its parts and systems must work together in harmony. When all the parts of society fulfill their functions, society is in a normal state. If they do not fulfill their functions, society is in an abnormal or pathologic state. Later theorists used the term function to refer to the beneficial consequences of people's actions. According to these theorists, functions help keep society in balance. In contract, dysfunctions are harmful consequences of people's actions as they undermine a social system's equilibrium

what is symbolic interactionism?

the study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols. the central idea is that symbols (things to which we attach meaning), are the key to understanding how we view the worlds and communicate with one another.

the auditory cortex and Wernicke's area are located where?

the temporal lobe

what is group polarization? what can it lead to? explain the hypothesis underlying polarization. what are risky shift and choice shift?

the tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members. it can lead to riskier or more cautious decisions based on the initial tendencies of the group members toward risk or caution. This phenomenon has shown that individuals in group situations will form opinions that are more extreme than they would if making the same decision alone. The hypothesis underlying polarization is that initial ideas tend not to be extreme, but that through discussion within the group, these ideas tend to become more and more extreme. This concept was originally termed risky shift because ti was noted that groups tended to make riskier decisions than individuals. However, when psychologists began to realize that groups could also shift toward caution, the term became choice shift. Choice shift and polarization refer to the same idea; however, polarization is used to describe behavior at the individual level while choice shift describes the behavior change of the group as a whole

what is the spacing effect?

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Explain social loafing.

the tendency of individuals to put in less effort when in a group setting than individually. This may apply in many contexts: physical effort, mental effort, or initiative. hello, collective action problem

What is reliance on central traits?

the tendency to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics that matter to the perceiver

What is the James-Lange theory?

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli stimulus results first in physiological arousal which leads to a secondary response in which the emotion is labeled. When peripheral organs receive info and respond, that response is then labeled as an emotion by the brain. Ex: a car cuts you off and that is stimulus for elevated HR and BP, dry mouth, and inc skin temp. These physiological responses result in the cognitive labeling of anger: I must be angry because mu skin is hot and my BP is high this theory predicts that an emotion would not be processed without feedback from the peripheral organs can't explain how spinal cord injury subjects continue to show the same level emotion after their injuries as before

the fetus is attached to the uterine wall and placenta by what?

the umbilical cord

What is locus of control? What are the variants?

the way we characterize the influences in our lives. People with an internal locus of control view themselves as controlling their own fate, whereas those with an external locus of control feel that the events in their lives are caused by luck or outside influences.

what is social cognition

the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior

what is implicit personality theory?

there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, personality traits, and actions are related to each other

in pavlovs dog experiment, what is the unconditioned response? what about the conditioned response?

they are BOTH salivating. In classical conditioning, the unconditioned and conditioned response will ALWAYS BE THE SAME. That is the point.

What are symbols?

things to which we attach meaning. include everything from how we codify concepts in language to hand gestures and body language to the role of certain behaviors.

Explain persistent depressive disorder.

this is for people who suffer from dysthymia, a depressed mood that isn't severe enough to meet the criteria of a major depressive episode, most of the time for at least two years. Individuals with major depressive disorder that lasts at least two years can also be given this diagnosis.

what are cultural barriers

when a cultural difference impedes interaction with others

What is the general adaptation syndrome? Explain the process?

three distinct stages. 1. Alarm stage 2. Resistance stage 3. Exhaustion stage First is alarm, the initial reaction to a stressor and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Shortly after, the hypothalamus stimulates the pit to secrete ACTH, which stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol, which maintains the steady supply of blood sugar needed to respond to stressful events. The hypothalamus also activates the adrenal medulla, which secretes epic and norepinephrine to activate the sympathetic NS. The next stage is resistance, in which the continuous release of hormones allows the sympathetic NS to remain engaged to fight the stressor. Last, a person will experience exhaustion when the body can no longer maintain an elevated response with sympathetic NS activity. At this point, individuals become more susceptible to illnesses and medical conditions (such as ulcers and high BP), organ systems can begin to deteriorate (inc heart disease), and death can result in extreme cases.

what does it mean to be objectified?

to be viewed as a sexual object rather than as a person

explain the door in the face technique

to gain compliance opposite of the foot in the door technique a large request is made first and if refused, a second smaller request is made. Often, this smaller request is the actual goal of the requestor. Ex: a student asks to make a copy of your notes from class and bring them to the next class. If you deny the request, the student might follow up with asking you to borrow your notes so he can make copies for himself. the second, more reasonable request, may be granted

explain the foot in the door technique

to gain compliance of others a small request is made, and after gaining compliance, a larger request is made. Ex: classmate asking to borrow notes b/c he missed class. You agree. Later in the day you see the student again and he asks you if you would be willing to make copies of your notes because he does not have access to a copier. Many people will still agree at this point, as the first request opened the door to continued compliance

what does the placenta do

transmits food, oxygen, and water to the fetus while returning water and waste to the mother

What are some biological indicators for schizophrenia?

trauma at birth, esp hypoxemia (low oxygen [ ] in the blood) excessive marijuana use in adolescence partially inherited (if a person has this disorder, the risk that his or her first degree relatives will also have the disorder is 10x that of an unrelated person) highly associated with excess of dopamine in the brain.

What divides the outer ear from the middle ear? The middle ear houses the three smallest bones in the body called what? What is the job of these things? Explain the 3 bones. The middle ear is connected to the nasal cavity how. what does this thing do?

tympanic membrane (eardrum) ossicles. the ossicles help transmit and amplify the vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear. The malleus (hammer) is affixed to the tympanic membrane; it acts on the incus (anvil), which acts on the stapes (stirrup). The baseplate of the stapes rests on the oval window of the cochlea, which is the entrance to the inner ear. The middle ear is connected to the nasal cavity through the Eustachian tube, which helps equalize pressure between the middle ear and environment.

What is Alzheimer's disease? Explain it. What are later stages of the disease characterized by? Who is this disease most common in? Explain the genetic component.

type of dementia characterized by gradual memory loss, disorientation to time and place, problems with abstract thought, and a tendency to misplace things. Later stages associated with changes in mood or behavior, changes in personality, difficulty with procedural memory, poor judgement, and loss of initiative. The disease is most common in patients over 65 and women are at a greater risk than men. Family history is a significant risk factor. There is a lower risk of developing the disease with higher levels of education. There is a genetic component. Mutations in the presenilin genes on chromosomes 1 and 14 contribute to having the disease and mutations in the apolipoprotein E gene on chromosome 19 can also alter the likelihood of acquiring the disease. Finally, the B-amyloid precursor protein gene on chromosome 21 is known to contribute to Alzheimer's disease, explaining the much higher risk of Alzheimer's in individuals with Down syndrome.

what is network support?

type of social support that gives a person a sense of belonging

what are the differences between an unconditioned stimulus a conditioned stimulus, a neutral stimuli, and a signaling stimulus? what about the difference between an unconditioned response and a conditioned response?

unconditioned stimulus- a stimulus that brings about a reflexive/innate response neutral stimulus- stimuli that don't produce a reflective response signaling stimulus- neutral stimuli that have the potential to be used as a conditioning stimulus conditioned stimulus- a normally neutral stimulus that, through association, now causes a reflexive response (called a conditioned response) unconditioned response- the innate/reflective response coming from an unconditioned stimulus

What is the five ethnicities model?

use by the NIH. white, black, Asian, Latino, and Native American

what is the correspondent inference theory?

used to describe attributions made by observing the intentional (especially unexpected) behaviors performed by another person

what are values vs beliefs

values are what a person deems important in life, which dictates one's ethical principals and standards of behavior. A belief is something that an individual accepts to be truth.

explain vertical and horizontal mobility

vertical mobility is movement from one social class to the other. horizontal mobility is change in occupation or lifestyle that remains within the same social class.

what are the 3 ways to encode the meaning of info that requires controlled processing? explain them of the 3, which one is the strongest and which is the weakest

visual encoding- is visualizing info (weakest) acoustic encoding-storing info the way it sounds semantic encoding-putting it into a meaningful context (strongest)

What are the Gestalt principles?

ways for the brain to infer missing parts of a picture when a picture is incomplete law of proximity, law of similarity, law of food continuation, subjective contours, law of closure

what is the cognitive neoassociation model?

we are more likely to respond to others aggressively whenever we are feeling negative emotions, such as when we're in pain, sick, frustrated, etc. This can also be seen on a large scale: riots are more likely to happen on hot days than cold ones.

what is the self-reference effect?

we recall information best when we can put it into the context of our own lives. (type of semantic encoding)

what are social institutions?

well-established social structures that dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships and are accepted as a fundamental part of culture. they regulate the behavior of individuals in core areas of society. Ex: family is a social institution that encourages learning of acceptable behavior, socialzation, and bonding.

what is attribute substitution?

when individuals must make judgements that are complex, but instead substitute a simpler solution or heuristic

explain culture shock

when traveling outside one's own society, cultural difference can seem very dramatic

explain deja vu

when we believe we are experiencing something for the first time, we expect to rely on bottom-up processing; however, wen the mind finds that it is able to recognize an experience more quickly than expected (through top-down processing), it searches for a reason for this recognition.

Explain Abraham Maslow's contribution to personality theory.

who studied Beethoven, Einstein, Roosevelt, who he felt were self-actualizes and had lived rich and productive lives. He identified several characteristics that these people had in common, including a non-hostile sense of humor, originality, creativity, spontaneity, and a need for some privacy. He believed self-actualized people are more likely than people who are not self-actualized to have "peak experiences"- profound and deeply moving experiences in a person's life that have important and lasting effects on the individual.

what is the glass ceiling phenomenon?

women are less frequently promoted in the workplace and may have more difficulty attaining top-level administrative positions within a company