Developmental Psych (HDEV) Chapter 8: Early Childhood: Social and Emotional Development

Social play stages

*parallel *associative *cooperative -common by age five -more likely to be found among older and more experienced preschoolers

nonsocial play

*unoccupied play *solitary play *onlooker play *parallel play *associative play *cooperative play -among two- to five-year-old nursery schoolchildren

siblings

-In early childhood, siblings' interactions have positive aspects (cooperation, teaching, nurturance) and negative aspects (conflict, control, competition) (Parke & Buriel, 2006). -Older siblings tend to be more caring but also more dominating than younger siblings. Younger siblings are more likely to imitate older siblings and accept their direction. -There is more conflict between siblings when the parents play favorites (Scharf et al., 2005). Conflict between siblings is also greater when the relationships between the parents or between the parents and children are troubled

Perspective-taking skills (Piaget)

-according to Piaget, preoperational children tend to be egocentric -tend not to be able to see things from the vantage points of others -various cognitive abilities, such as being able to take another person's perspective, are related to knowing when someone is in need or distress

Theories of Aggression-nature and nurture

-aggression in childhood appears to result from a complex interplay of biological factors and environmental factors such as reinforcement and modeling

Development of Aggression

-aggression of preschoolers is frequently instrumental or possession oriented (Persson, 2005) -it emerges early, by 18 months, physical aggression appears and increases in frequency until age 2 -with language, physical aggression decreases and verbal aggression increases; aggressive children -- aggressive adults -younger preschoolers tend to use aggression to obtain the toys and situations they want, such as a favored seat at the table or in the car. -older preschoolers are more likely to resolve conflicts over toys by sharing rather than fighting (Underwood, 2011). -anger and aggression in preschoolers usually cause other preschoolers to reject them (Gower et al., 2014; Walter & LaFreniere, 2000). -by age six or seven, aggression becomes hostile and person oriented. Children taunt and criticize one another and call one another names; they also attack one another physically

aggression

-aggression refers to behavior intended to hurt or injure another person. -children, like adults, not only can be loving and altruistic -they also can be aggressive -aggressive behavior, as other social behavior, seems to follow developmental patterns -some children, of course, are more aggressive than others

prosocial behavior- influences

-although altruistic behavior is defined as prosocial behavior that occurs in the absence of rewards or the expectations of rewards, it is influenced by rewards and punishments -peers of nursery schoolchildren who are cooperative, friendly, and generous respond more positively to them than they do to children whose behavior is self-centered (Grusec & Davidov, 2015; Grusec & Hastings, 2015) -those who are rewarded for acting prosocially are likely to continue these behaviors (Grusec & Davidov, 2015). -parents foster prosocial behavior when they use inductive techniques such as explaining how behavior affects others -("You made Josh cry. It's not nice to hit."). -parents of prosocial children are more likely to expect mature behavior from their children -are less likely to use power-assertive techniques of discipline (Roberts et al., 2014).

aggressive behavior-longitudinal study

-appears to be generally stable and predictive of social and emotional problems later on, especially among boys (Nagin & Tremblay, 2001; Tapper & Boulton, 2004). -toddlers who are perceived as difficult and defiant are more likely to behave aggressively throughout the school years (Olson et al., 2000). -a longitudinal study of more than 600 children found that aggressive eight-year-olds tended to remain more aggressive than their peers 22 years later, at age 30 (Kokko et al., 2014). Aggressive children of both genders are more likely to have criminal convictions as adults, to abuse their spouses, and to drive while drunk.

initiative versus guilt-Erik Erikson (1963)

-as preschoolers continue to develop a separate sense of themselves, they increasingly move out into the world and take the initiative in learning new skills

Playmates and Friends

-by about two years of age, children imitate one another's play and engage in social games such as follow the leader (Bukowski et al., 2011). -by this age, children show preferences for particular playmates—an early sign of friendship (Wentzel & Ramani, 2016). -friendship is characterized by shared positive experiences and feelings of attachment (Grusec & Sherman, 2011). -early friendships can be fairly stable (Rubin et al., 2006). -preschoolers are asked what they like about their friends, they typically mention the toys and activities they share (Holder & Coleman, 2015). -primary schoolchildren usually report that their friends are the children with whom they do things and have fun (Holder & Coleman, 2015). -not until late childhood and adolescence do friends' traits and notions of trust, communication, and intimacy become important.

gender-role stereotypes develop in stages

-children learn to label the genders -about 2 to 2½ years of age, they can identify pictures of girls and boys (Alexander et al., 2009) -age three display knowledge of gender stereotypes for toys, clothing, work, and activities (Campbell et al., 2004) generally agree that boys play with cars and trucks, help their fathers, and tend to hit others. They agree that girls play with dolls, help their mothers, and do not hit others (Cherney et al., 2006). One study found that preschool boys but not girls were rejected by their peers when they showed distress (Walter & LaFreniere, 2000) -between the ages of three and nine or ten become increasingly traditional in their stereotyping of activities, jobs, and personality traits (traits such as "cruel","repairs broken things" are masculine/ "often is afraid", "cooks and bakes" are feminine) -children and adolescents perceive their own gender in a somewhat better light

play

-children's play is meaningful, pleasurable, and internally motivated. Play is fun but also serves important functions in the child. -play helps children develop motor skills and coordination (Burghardt, 2015). It contributes to social development because children learn to share play materials, take turns, and try on new roles through dramatic play.

birth order studies

-differences in personality between first-born and later-born children, let us note that a recent analysis of research in the area charges that most studies have been flawed (Damian & Roberts, 2015).

Personality and Emotional Development

-early childhood, children's sense of self—who they are and how they feel about themselves—develops and grows more complex -begin to acquire a sense of their own abilities and their increasing mastery of the environment -as they move out into the world, they also face new experiences that may cause them to feel fearful and anxious

Theories of Aggression-genetic

-evidence suggests that genetic factors may be involved in aggressive behavior, including criminal and antisocial behavior (Bezdjian et al., 2011). -a greater concordance (agreement) rate for criminal behavior between monozygotic (MZ) twins, who fully share their genetic code, than dizygotic (DZ) twins, who, like other brothers and sisters, share only half of their genetic code (Tehrani & Mednick, 2000). -if genetics is involved in aggression, genes may do their work at least in part through the male sex hormone testosterone. -testosterone is apparently connected with feelings of self-confidence, high activity levels, and—the negative side—aggressiveness (Carre & Olmstead, 2015; Platje et al., 2015).

exceptions to Parten's play theory

-exceptions. Nonsocial play can involve educational activities that foster cognitive development. In fact, many four- and five-year-olds spend a good deal of time in parallel constructive play. For instance, they may work on puzzles or build with blocks near other children. Two-year-olds with older siblings or with group experience may engage in advanced social play

Theories of Aggression-social cognitive explanations

-explanations of aggression focus on environmental factors such as reinforcement and observational learning. -if children repeatedly push, shove, and hit to grab toys or break into line, other children usually let them have their way (Kempes et al., 2005). -children who are rewarded for acting aggressively are likely to continue to use aggressive means -especially if they do not have alternative means to achieve their ends. -aggressive children may also associate with peers who value and encourage aggression (Stauffacher & DeHart, 2006). -children who are physically punished are more likely to be aggressive themselves than children who are not physically punished (Patterson, 2005). -physically aggressive parents serve as models for aggression and also stoke their children's anger.

stages/types of fears (preschoolers)

-fears change as they move from infancy into the preschool years -number of fears seems to peak between two and a half and four years...then taper off (Muris & Field, 2011). -preschool period marked by decline in fears of loud noises, falling, sudden movement, and strangers -fear of social disapproval is not the most common fear among preschoolers -preschoolers most likely to fear animals, imaginary creatures, the dark, and personal danger (Muris & Field, 2011). -fantasies of young children frequently involve stories they are told and media imagery (Pearce & Field, 2016). -frightening images of imaginary creatures can persist -many preschoolers are reluctant to have the lights turned off at night for fear that such creatures may assault them -real objects and situations also cause many preschoolers to fear for their personal safety —lightning, thunder and other loud noises, high places, sharp objects and being cut, blood, unfamiliar people, strange people, and stinging and crawling insects

TV Influences on Aggression

-fertile source of aggressive models, and most organizations of health professionals agree that media violence contributes to aggression in children (Huesmann et al., 2003; 2013). -this relationship has been found for girls and boys of different ages, social classes, ethnic groups, and cultures (Huesmann et al., 2013).

Birth Order Theory

-firstborn children feel inferior to younger children who receive attention; become overachievers. -first-born and only children appear to perform better academically and are more cooperative obtain higher standardized test scores, including IQ and SAT scores -first-born children are more adult-oriented and less aggressive than later-born children -the negative side, first-born and only children show somewhat greater anxiety levels and are somewhat less self-reliant than later-born children. -middle children feel superior to dethroned older children, as well as younger children; tend to be very competitive -younger children feel inferior because they don't have the freedom or responsibility of older children -later-born children may learn to act aggressively to compete for the attention of their parents and older siblings -later-born's self-concepts tend to be lower than those of first-born or only children, but the social skills later-born children acquire from dealing with their family position seem to translate into greater popularity with peers (Carey, 2007b). They also tend to be somewhat more rebellious and liberal than first-born children (Beck et al., 2006). -parents are more relaxed and flexible with later-born children

stages/types of fears (middle childhood)

-in middle childhood, children become less fearful of imaginary creatures -fears of bodily harm and injury remain common. -grow more fearful of failure and criticism in school and social relationships (Underwood & Rosen, 2011). -girls report more fears and higher levels of anxiety than boys

Gender Differences in Play

-infants show visual preferences for gender-stereotyped toys as early as three to eight months of age -preferences for gender-typed toys are well developed by the ages of 15 to 36 months -girls are more likely to stray from the stereotypes -girls ask for and play with "boys' toys" such as cars and trucks more often than boys choose dolls and other "girls' toys." -girls and boys differ not only in toy preferences but also in their choice of play environments and activities -preschool and early elementary school years, boys prefer vigorous physical outdoor activities such as climbing, playing with large vehicles, and rough-and-tumble play (Underwood & Rosen, 2011). -middle childhood, boys spend more time than girls in play groups of five or more children and in competitive play -girls are more likely than boys to engage in arts and crafts and domestic play. Girls' activities are more closely directed and structured by adults

perspective-taking skills link to prosocial behavior

-perspective-taking skills improve with age, and so do prosocial skills. -among children of the same age, those with better developed perspective-taking ability also show more prosocial behavior and less aggressive behavior (Hastings et al., 2000).

Adjusting to the birth of a sibling

-preschoolers feel stressed -older child feel resentful due to the attention of a new baby -regression to baby-like behaviours, such as increased clinging,crying -these same children show increased independence to help take care of new baby -parents can assist a child in coping by preparing them beforehand for what is to come -regression

Gender Differences in Play-Crossing the Line

-studies find that children who "cross the line" by showing interest in toys or activities considered appropriate for the other gender are often teased, ridiculed, rejected, or ignored by their parents, teachers, other adults, and peers. Boys are more likely than girls to be criticized (Zosuls et al., 2011). -another well-documented finding is that children begin to prefer playmates of the same gender by the age of two. Girls develop this preference somewhat earlier than boys (Hay et al., 2004). The tendency strengthens during middle childhood. -two factors may be involved in the choice of the gender of playmates in early childhood. 1. boys' play is more oriented toward dominance, aggression, and rough play (Hines, 2011). 2. is that boys are not very responsive to girls' polite suggestions. Boys may avoid girls because they see them as inferior (Caplan & Larkin, 1991).

violent video games and aggression

-violent video games may create the greatest risk of violence because they require audience participation -cultural stereotyping of males and females, possible biological gender differences, and moderating variables like academic achievement also figure into the effects of media violence. -there is no simple one-to-one connection between media violence and violence in real life. -a circular relationship between exposure to media violence and aggressive behavior (Anderson et al., 2015). -TV violence and violent video games contribute to aggressive behavior -aggressive youngsters are also more likely to seek out this kind of "entertainment."

Theories of Aggression-cognitive research

-with primary schoolchildren finds that children who believe in the legitimacy of aggression are more likely to behave aggressively when they are presented with social provocations (Yaros et al., 2014). -aggressive children are also often found to be lacking in empathy and the ability to see things from the perspective of other people (Gini et al., 2014; Underwood & Rosen, 2011). -fail to conceptualize the experiences of their victims and are thus less likely to inhibit aggressive impulses

authoritarian parenting

A parenting style in which the parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children's desires, and communicate poorly with their children. Baumrind found the sons of authoritarian parents to be relatively hostile and defiant and the daughters to be low in independence and dominance. Children of authoritarian parents are less competent socially and academically than those of authoritative parents.

authoritative parenting

A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior but also respect their children and are warm toward them. Children of authoritative parents tend to show self-reliance and independence, high self-esteem, high levels of activity and exploratory behavior, and social competence.

regression

A reversion to immature patterns of behavior to baby-like behaviors, such as increased clinging, crying, and toilet accidents. Anger and naughtiness may increase. But the same children may also show increased independence and maturity, insisting on feeding or dressing themselves and helping to care for the baby (Underwood & Rosen, 2011).

psychological androgyny

A state characterized by possession of both stereotypical masculine traits and stereotypical feminine traits

Baumrind's Patterns of Parenting

Baumrind's Patterns of Parenting Parental Style: Authoritative Restrictiveness & Control:High Warmth & Responsiveness:High Parental Style: Authoritarian Restrictiveness & Control:High Warmth & Responsiveness:Low Parental Style: Permissive-Indulgent Restrictiveness & Control:Low Warmth & Responsiveness:High Parental Style: Rejecting-Neglecting Restrictiveness & Control:Low Warmth & Responsiveness:Low

Gender Differences in Play-Reasons

Biological factors may play a role, for example, boys' slightly greater strength and activity levels and girls' slightly greater physical maturity and coordination. But adults treat girls and boys differently. Children, moreover, tend to seek out information on which kinds of toys and play are "masculine" or "feminine" and then to conform to the label (Martin & Ruble, 2004).

initiative versus guilt-Erik Erikson -stages

Children in this stage strive to achieve independence from their parents and master adult behaviors. - curious -try new things -test themselves -learn that not all their plans, dreams, and fantasies can be realized -adults prohibit children from doing certain things -children begin to internalize adult rules -fear of violating the rules may cause the child to feel guilty -may curtail efforts to master new skills -parents can help children develop and maintain a healthy sense of initiative by encouraging their attempts to learn and explore -not being unduly critical and punitive

Ways TV Influences Aggression

Consider a number of ways that depictions of violence make their contribution (Anderson et al., 2015; Huesmann et al., 2013) *Observational learning. Children learn from observation. TV violence supplies models of aggressive "skills," which children may acquire. *Disinhibition. Punishment inhibits behavior. -conversely, media violence may disinhibit aggressive behavior, esp. when characters "get away" with it. *Increased arousal. Media violence and aggressive video games increase viewers' level of arousal. We are more likely to be aggressive under high levels of arousal. *Priming of aggressive thoughts and memories. Media violence "primes" or arouses aggressive ideas and memories. *Habituation. We become used to repeated stimuli. Children exposed to violence are more likely to assume that violence is acceptable or normal and become desensitized to it.

Fears-Erikson

Erikson's view: fear of violating parental prohibitions can be a powerful force in the life of a young child.

Saying you are honest is an example of categorical self

FALSE

Theories of the Development of Gender Differences Gender-Schema Theory

Gender-schema theory proposes children use gender as one way of organizing their perceptions of the world (Leaper, 2013; Martin & Ruble, 2004) -gender schema is a cluster of concepts about male and female physical traits, personality traits, and behaviors. -according to gender-schema theory, once children come to see themselves as female or male, they begin to seek information concerning gender-typed traits and try to live up to them (Liben et al., 2014; Tenenbaum et al. 2010). (Jack will retaliate when provoked because boys are expected to do so. Jill will be "sugary and sweet" if such is expected of little girls.)

empathy - genders

Girls show more empathy than boys (Roberts et al., 2014). -it is unclear whether this gender difference reflects socialization of girls to be attuned to the emotions of others or genetic factors -some researchers argue that prenatal exposure to testosterone has a suppressive effect on empathy (Durdiakova et al., 2015; Zilioli et al., 2014).

Parten's Six Types of Play

In classic research on children's play, Mildred Parten observed the development of six types of play among two- to five-year-old nursery schoolchildren: unoccupied play, solitary play, onlooker play, parallel play, associative play, and cooperative play (see Table 8.3) (Dyson, 2015; Henricks, 2015). Solitary play and onlooker play are considered nonsocial play, that is, play in which children do not interact socially. Nonsocial play occurs more often in two- and three-year-olds than in older preschoolers. Parallel play, associative play, and cooperative play are considered social play; in each case, children are influenced by other children as they play. Parten found that associative play and cooperative play become common by age five. These types of play are more likely to be found among older and more experienced preschoolers (Bukowski et al., 2011). Girls are somewhat more likely than boys to engage in social play (Underwood & Rosen, 2011).

play and cognitive development (Jean Piaget)

Jean Piaget ([1946] 1962) identified kinds of play, each characterized by increasing cognitive complexity (De Lisi et al., 2015): -Functional play. Beginning in the sensorimotor stage, the first kind of play involves repetitive motor activity, such as rolling a ball or running and laughing. -Symbolic play. Also called pretend play, imaginative play, or dramatic play, symbolic play emerges toward the end of the sensorimotor stage and increases during early childhood. In symbolic play, children create settings, characters, and scripts (Mottweiler & Taylor, 2014). -Constructive play. Children use objects or materials to draw something or make something, such as a tower of blocks. -Formal games. Games with rules include board games, which are sometimes enhanced or invented by children, and games involving motor skills, such as marbles and hopscotch, ball games involving sides or teams, and video games.

Theories of the Development of Gender Differences Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Kohlberg, gender typing)

Lawrence Kohlberg (1966) proposed a cognitive-developmental view of gender typing. -this perspective, children form concepts about gender and then fit their behavior to the concepts (Zosuls et al., 2011). These developments occur in stages and are entwined with general cognitive development. -gender typing involves the emergence of three concepts: gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy 1. attaining gender identity (2 years)many children can discriminate anatomic gender differences by 3yrs 2. around four or five, most children develop the concept of gender stability -recognize people retain their gender for a lifetime. 3. By the age of five to seven years most children develop the more sophisticated concept of gender constancy -recognize people's gender does not change, even if they change their dress or behavior -once children have established concepts of gender stability and constancy, they seek to behave in ways that are consistent with their gender

Effects of the Situation and the Child on Parenting Styles

Parenting styles also depend partly on the situation and partly on the characteristics of the child. -parents are most likely to use power-assertive techniques when dealing with aggressive behavior (Larzalere et al., 2013). Parents prefer power assertion to induction when they believe that children understand the rules they have violated and are capable of acting appropriately. Stress also contributes to use of power.

Self-Concept and Self-Esteem - evaluative judgments

Preschool children begin to make evaluative judgments about two different aspects of themselves by the age of four (Underwood & Rosen, 2011). 1. cognitive and physical competence (e.g., being good at puzzles, counting, swinging, tying shoes) 2. social acceptance by peers and parents (e.g., having lots of friends, being read to by Mom) -preschoolers do not yet clearly distinguish between different areas of competence. A preschooler is not likely to report being good in school but poor in physical skills. One is either "good at doing things" or one is not

media influences on aggression-Bandura/Bobo

TV, music, video games, pornography; creates physiological arousal such as heart rate, blood pressure and skin conductance; thus, reducing the reaction to aggression -classic experiment by Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963) suggests the powerful influence of televised models on children's aggressive behavior. One group of preschool children observed a film of an adult model hitting and kicking an inflated Bobo doll, while a control group saw an aggression-free film. The experimental and control children were then left alone in a room with the same doll as hidden observers recorded their behavior. The children who had observed the aggressive model showed significantly more aggressive behavior toward the doll themselves (see Figure 8.1). Many children imitated bizarre attack behaviors devised for the model in this experiment—behaviors that they would not have thought up themselves.

gender typing-nature and nurture

Today, most scholars would agree that both biology and social cognition interact to affect most areas of behavior and mental processes—including the complex processes involved in gender typing.

rejecting-neglecting parenting

a disengaged parenting style that is low in both responsiveness and demandingness. Rejecting-neglecting parents do not set limits for or monitor their children's behavior, are not supportive of them, and sometimes are rejecting or neglectful. They tend to be focused on their own needs rather than their children's needs. Children of neglectful parents are the least competent, responsible, and mature.

Theories of the Development of Gender Differences Evolution and Heredity

according to evolutionary psychologists, gender differences were fashioned by natural selection in response to problems in adaptation that were repeatedly encountered by humans over thousands of generations -men: hunters, breadwinners, and warriors & likely to be seen as adventurous, aggressive, and assertive -women: homemakers and caretakers, are more likely to be seen as affectionate, agreeable, and emotional -genetic codes for survival traits

prosocial behavior (altruism)

actions that benefit another person without any expected reward for the self -includes sharing, cooperating, and helping and comforting others in distress -shown by the preschool and early school years and is linked to the development of empathy and perspective taking (Grusec & Sherman, 2011).

sibling conflict

can enhance social competence

self-regulation in early childhood

children become increasingly capable of self-regulation in early childhood -become more and more capable of controlling their eliminatory processes -controlling aggressive behavior -engaging in play with other children -focusing on cognitive tasks (learning to count or sound out letters) -self-regulatory abilities are connected with brain maturation and rearing practices of caregivers.

Self-Concept and Self-Esteem

children with high self-esteem are more likely to be: -securely attached -have parents who are attentive to their needs (Roisman & Groh, 2011). -are more likely to show prosocial behavior (Grusec & Davidov, 2015).

Theories of the Development of Gender Differences Cognitive-Developmental Theory

consider both the roles of rewards and punishments (reinforcement) in gender typing and the ways in which children learn from observing others and decide which behaviors are appropriate for them. -children learn much about what society considers "masculine" or "feminine" by observing and imitating models of the same gender. -models may be their parents, other adults, other children, even characters in electronic media such as TV and video games -socialization also plays a role (Maccoby, 2015). Parents, teachers, other adults—even other children—provide children with information about the gender-typed behaviors expected of them (Leaper & Farkas, 2015). Children are rewarded with smiles and respect and companionship when they display "gender-appropriate" behavior. Children are punished with frowns and loss of friends when they display "inappropriate" behavior. -primary schoolchildren show less stereotyping if their mothers frequently engage in traditionally "masculine" tasks such as washing the car, taking children to ball games, or assembling toys (Leaper & Farkas, 2015). -maternal employment is associated with less polarized gender-role concepts for girls and boys

gender differences

differences in the roles and behaviors of males and females prescribed by culture -gender differences in infancy are small and rather inconsistent -gender differences in infancy are small and rather inconsistent -

peer relationships

foster social skills—sharing, helping, taking turns, and dealing with conflict (Wentzel & Ramani, 2016). -groups teach children how to lead and how to follow. -physical and cognitive skills develop through peer interactions. -peers also provide emotional support (Bukowski et al., 2011).

Theories of the Development of Gender Differences Sex Hormones

gender differences in personality plus development of anatomical gender differences, may be related to prenatal levels of sex hormones -Bonnie Auyeung- found higher-than-normal levels of testosterone in the fetal environment (due to maternal stress) were related to more masculine-typed play among girls at the age of eight and a half years. -Emily Barrett - (2014) found exposure to the prenatal environments of stressed mothers can boost masculine-typed play in girls and decrease it in boys. -Other studies have shown that children display gender-typed preferences —as early as the age of 13 months -boys preferring transportation toys -girls preferring dolls(Knickmeyer et al., 2005). -another study investigated gender-typed visual preferences of 30 human infants at ages three to eight months (Alexander et al., 2009). The researchers assessed interest in a toy truck and a doll by using eye-tracking technology to indicate the direction of visual attention. Girls showed a visual preference for the doll over the truck (i.e., they made a greater number of visual fixations on the doll), and boys showed a visual preference for the truck.

Theories of the Development of Gender Differences Organization of the Brain

largely genetically determined Matthias Riepe-study (humans and rats) hippocampus involved in formation of memories and relay of incoming sensory information to other parts of the brain -males use hippocampus - both hemispheres when navigating -females rely on hippocampus - right hemisphere along with the right prefrontal cortex (area of the brain that evaluates information and makes plans) -different patterns of brain activities might contribute to preference for using landmarks or maps

Genetic factors (antisocial behavior)

may contribute to criminal behavior

permissive/indulgent parenting

parents set few limits or demands, but are highly involved and emotionally connected. Children from permissive-indulgent homes are fairly high in social competence and self-confidence.

The Self

self-concept -emerges gradually during infancy -infants and toddlers visually begin to recognize themselves and differentiate themselves from other individuals such as their parents. -the preschool years, children continue to develop their sense of self. -almost as soon as they begin to speak, they describe themselves in terms of certain categories, such as age groupings (baby, child, adult) and gender (girl, boy) categorical self -self-definitions that refer to concrete external traits have been -children as young as three years are able to describe themselves in terms of behaviors and internal states that occur often and are fairly stable over time (Rosen & Patterson, 2011). -in response to the question "How do you feel when you're scared?" young children frequently respond, "Usually like running away" (Eder, 1989). -answer to the question "How do you usually act around grown-ups?" a typical response might be, "I mostly been good with grown-ups."

empathy

sensitivity to the feelings of others and is connected with sharing and cooperation -infants frequently begin to cry when they hear other children crying, although this early agitated response may be largely reflexive (Roberts et al., 2014) -promotes prosocial behavior and decreases aggressive behavior, and these links are evident by the second year (Hastings et al., 2000). -during the second year, many children approach other children and adults who are in distress and try to help them. They may hug a crying child or tell the child not to cry. -toddlers who are rated as emotionally unresponsive to the feelings of others are more likely to behave aggressively throughout the school years (Olson et al., 2000).

Development of Gender Roles and Gender Differences

stereotype- I AM WOMAN (vulnerable woman needs protection of a man/chivalrous, protective man) -stereotype is a fixed, oversimplified, and conventional idea gender roles-cultural stereotypes of males and females broad expectations of behavior -Researchers who investigate perceptions of gender differences in personality have found that people in our culture agree on certain groups of "masculine" and "feminine" traits

dramatic play

supports the development of such cognitive qualities as curiosity, exploration, symbolic thinking, and problem solving (Bergen, 2015; Christie & Roskos, 2015). Play may even help children learn to control impulses (Bergen, 2015).

dramatic play (Piaget)

symbolic

Induction

the process that moves from a given series of specifics to a generalization

parenting styles can best be described as a

two-way street

Parents tend to use power-assertive techniques

when they believe children are being aggressive