Discovering Psychology Chapter 4,5,& 6.
The tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than the items in the middle.
Serial Position Effect
The tendency to remember items at the beginning & end of a list compared to items in the middle of a list is referred to as:
Serial-Position Effect
What is NOT a research finding about the content of dreams?
Sexual behavior often occurs as an element of a dream story.
Jonah's parents are trying to teach him to use the bathroom. They first reward him for saying "potty", then only for walking to the bathroom & finally only after he uses the toilet. This is an example of:
Shaping
Reported cases of sleep related eating disorder (SRED) have found people eating all but which of the following?
Shoelaces
Active stage of memory in which information is stored for about 20 seconds.
Short-Term Memory
In ______memory, information is temporarily stored for up to 20 seconds.
Short-Term Memory
Using the principles of observational learning, many countries have television programs that promote healthy behavior & social change. Which of the following is not an example of such programming?
Shows that promote Torah observance in Isreal
Short burst of brain activity that characterizes stage 2 NREM sleep
Sleep Spindles
Bland, uncreative ruminations about real-life event that usually occur during NREM slow-wave sleep.
Sleep Thinking
Term applied to the combination of Stage 3 & Stage 4 sleep:
Slow-Wave Sleep
Mike's wife asked him to go to the store to get grapes, peanuts, olive oil, soda, lemonade, rolls, & diapers. According to the serial position effect, which item is Mike most likely to forget?
Soda
Which stage of NREM sleep is marked by brain activity called sleep spindles and K complexes?
Stage 2
Model that describes memory as consisting of three distinct stages sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Stage Model of Memory
Jimmy was frightened by the barking dog. For the next few months, he was afraid of all dogs. This is an example of:
Stimulus Generalization.
Motivated forgetting that occurs consciously; a deliberate attempt to not think about and remember specific information.
Suppression
The carcadian cycle is the body's biological clock. A tiny cluster of neurons called __________, located in the hypothalamus, helps govern the sleep-wake cycle.
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
The word "carcadian" comes from the Latin words that mean
About & Days
"During the Stone Age cavement slept in their caves every night to hide from predators." This statement is consistent with which theory of why we sleep?
Adaptive Theory of Sleep
Brain-wave pattern associated with relaxed wakefulness & drowsiness.
Alpha Brain Waves
The most common cause of dementia is
Alzheimer's Disease
Severe Memory Loss.
Amnesia
Prolonged use of cocaine can result in auditory hallucinations of voices and bizarre and paranoid ideas, a condition called:
Amphetamine Psychosis
According to the ______ perspective, mental processes as well as external events are an important component in the learning of new behaviors.
Cognitive
Because you have a _______ map of your own home you should be able to get to the kitchen to get a glass of milk at night without turning on the lights.
Cognitive
Tolman's term for the mental representation of the layout of a familiar environment.
Cognitive Map
Ramon was flirting with a girl at a club, and convinced her to give him her telephone number. He had nothing to write it down with, though, so he recited it to himself repeatedly to keep from forgetting it. Which component of working memory was Ramon using?
Phonological Loop
An individual's psychological & physiological response to what's actually a fake treatment or drug.
Placebo response
In _______ reinforcement, a response is strengthened because something is added while in ______ reinforcement, a response is strengthened because something is taken away.
Positive; Negative
A brain structure that plays an important role in working memory.
Prefrontal Cortex
Yvette is a very gifted flute player, but when she tries to learn how to play the clarinet she keeps using the finger techniques for a flute. Yvette's difficulty with the new instrument is explained by:
Proactive Interference.
Category of long-term memory that includes memories of different skills, operations, and actions.
Procedural Memory
Sleep deprivation can result in
REM REBOUND
Phenomenon in which a person is deprived of REM sleep greatly increases the amount of time in REM sleep at the first opportunity for uninterrupted sleep.
REM Rebound
Sleep that's associated with dreaming.
REM Sleep
Jason was involved in a bad car accident on the highway. Ever since then, he always get the "chills" when he drives past that one location. In classical conditioning, this is a:
Conditioned Emotional Response
According to the Principles of Classical Conditioning a ______ refers to a formerly stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflective response while a ______ refers to the natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning.
Conditioned Stimulus; Unconditioned Stimulus
The process of learning associations between environmental events & behavior responses.
Conditioning
Personal awareness of mental activities, internal sensations, and the external environment.
Consciousness
Tendency to recover information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting as the original learning of the information.
Context Effect
Schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of a particular response is reinforced.
Continuous Reinforcement
Test of long-term memory that involves remembering an item of information in response to a retrieval cue.
Cued Recall
Which of the following is NOT one of the manners in which retrieval is tested?
Cued Recognition
Theory that forgetting is due to normal metabolic processes that occur in the brain over time.
Decay Theory
The "Law of Effect" which addresses the likelihood of repeating a behavior based on the consequences of that action, was proposed by:
Edward L. Thorndike
Rehearsal that involves focusing on the meaning of information to help encode and transfer it to long-term memory.
Elaborative Rehearsal
__________ significantly improves memory for new information.
Elaborative Rehearsal
An instrument that uses electrodes placed on the scalp to measure and record the brain's electrical activity.
Electroencephalograph
Which researcher is widely recognized as one of the world's highest authorities on the validity of eyewitness memories?
Elizabeth Loftus
The process of transforming information into a form that can be entered into and retained by the memory system.
Encoding
Inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory.
Encoding Failure
Memory failure that occurs when attention is divided and the relevant information is not encoded.
Encoding Failure
Cognitive processes in classical conditioning have been demonstrated by Robert Rescorla when:
Tones did not predict the coming of UCS
Unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an uncontrolled stimulus.
Unconditioned Response
In Pavlov's experiment the food was the:
Unconditioned Stimulus
Natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning.
Unconditioned Stimulus
A standard Las Vegas or Atlantic City slot machine operates on which of the following schedules of partial reinforcement?
Variable Ratio
A schedule of reinforcement that would require that a reinforcer be delivered for the first response that occurs after an average time interval, which varies unpredictably from trial to trial.
Variable-Interval
Research examining the effect of violence on television has found all but which of the following?
Violence on TV increases violence in girls more than it does in boys.
Iconic Memory is to _______ as echoic memory is to ______.
Vision;Hearing
The use of mental representations, or pictures, especially vivid ones, to enhance encoding.
Visual Imagery
Principle that when the conditions of information retrieval are similar to the conditions of information encoding, retrieval is more likely to be successful.
Encoding Specificity Principle
Memories of personally experienced event that tend to be formed during NREM slow-wave sleep.
Episodic Memories
Category of long-term memory that includes memories of particular events that includes memories of particular events.
Episodic Memory
What is not one of the different types of learning discussed in the chapter on LEARNING?
Experimental Conditioning
The gradual weakening & apparent disappearance of conditioned behavior; in classical conditioning, it occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
Extinction
Reinforcement schedule in which a reinforce is delivered for the first response that occurs after a preset time interval has elapsed.
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses has occurred.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
Recall of very specific images or details surrounding a vivid, rare, or significant personal event.
Flashbulb Memory
Which of the following is true with regard to flashbulb memories?
Flashbulb memories are no more accurate than regular memories.
The inability to recall information previously available.
Forgetting
During REM dreaming the sleeper's _____ _____ are inactive and the _____ is active.
Frontal Lobes; Limbic System
Source confusion can contribute to false memory if the person remembering:
Has a bad memory to begin with.
According to the concept of _________, stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus also elicit the conditioned response, even though they have never been paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
Higher Order Conditioning
Vivid sensory phenomena that can occur during the onset of sleep.
Hypnagogic Hallucinations
Autopsies of the brains of people who suffered from narcolepsy have found greatly reduced numbers of _______- producing neurons.
Hypocretin
A tiny cluster of neurons in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the _________ serves as the body's own internal peacemaker.
Hypothamalus
For years Alicia has envisioned that she was terribly embarrassed at a wedding when she spilled punch all over her blouse. As an adult, she truly believes this event occurred, even though it did not. Which memory error explains this belief?
Imagination Inflation
When we remember how to do something but cannot consciously explain it or even recall how we do it, ______ is involved.
Implicit Memory
With his hippocampus removed, H.M. could solve a logical puzzle that he previously worked on more quickly, but he did not recall having seen it before. This illustrates that the surgery had the most impact on his
Implicit Memory
Condition in which people repeatedly complain about the quality or duration of their sleep, have difficulty going to sleep or staying asleep, or wake up before it is time to get up.
Insomnia
Keller & Marian Breland observed that some animals resisted being taught certain behaviors, & they \posited that _____ could interfere with operant conditioning.
Instinctive Drift
The tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors, which can interfere with the performance of an operant conditioned response.
Instinctive Drift
The theory that forgetting is caused by one memory competing with one or replacing another.
Interference Theory
The three fundamental processes of memory include all but which of the following?
Interpretation.
Verbal, self-reports that try to capture the "structure" of conscious.
Introspection
Albert Bandura contends that most human behavior:
Is acquired through observational learning.
Of the Various explanations for why people experience deja vu, which of the following has the least scientific support?
It is likely a paranormal experience.
Which of the following has research demonstrated about the decay theory of forgetting?
It is the best theory we have for why we forget information.
Watson's experiment with Little Albert was criticized because:
It is unethical to cause such distress to an infant.
Symptoms such as physical and mental fatigue, depression or irritability, disrupted sleep, and fuzziness in concentration, thinking, and memory that result from carcadian rhythms being out of sync with daylight and darkness cues.
Jet Lag
Single but large high-voltage spikes of brain activity that characterize stage 2 NREM sleep
K Complexes
What drug has never been available legally & for medical purposes in the USA?
LSD
In Freud's psychoanalytic theory, ______ ______ refers to the unconscious wishes, thoughts, and urges that are concealed in the content of a dream.
Latent Content
Through his experiments running rats through mazes, Edward Tolman observed that sometimes learning is not immediately demonstrated in overt behavior. This is called:
Latent Learning
Tolman's term for learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement but is not behaviorally demonstrated until a reinforcer becomes available.
Latent Learning
A phenomenon in which exposure to inescapable & uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior.
Learned Dissonance
A phenomenon in which exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behaviors.
Learned Helplessness
Martin Seligman demonstrated the concept of ________ by exposing dogs to electrical shocks that they were unable to control or stop.
Learned Helplessness
A process that produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of experience.
Learning
More recent investigations into the process of classical conditioning suggest that it involves:
Learning how events are related.
According to Sigmund Freud, the actual story we dream about is the ______ content, and the meaning that it represents is ______ content.
Manifest; Latent
Hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.
Melatonin
The mental process that enables us to acquire, retain, and use information over time.
Memory
The gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring long-term memory codes.
Memory Consolidation
The process of permanently "setting" a new memory is called
Memory Consolidation
Memory distortion phenomenon in which a person's existing memories can be altered if the person is exposed to misleading information.
Misinformation Effect
Encoding specifically phenomenon in which a given mood tends to evoke memories that are consistent with that mood.
Mood Congruence
Max & Noah went to a football game together. Max's favorite team won, while Noah's lost. Later, Max told his mother now nice the weather was, while Noah complained that it was too cold. This is an example of:
Mood Congruence.
Researchers have found that when people dream:
Most dreams are in color.
Involuntary muscle spasm of the whole body that jolts the person completely awake & often accompanies the hypnagogic hallucination of falling:
Myoclonic Jerk
The parasomnias include all but which of the following?
Narcolepsy (Sleep Attacks)
A vivid & disturbing dream that typically involves fear, anxiety, or terror, & that often awakes the sleeper.
Nightmare
Learning that occurs through observing the actions of others.
Observational Learning
A sleep disorder in which a person repeatedly stops breathing during sleep.
Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Sleep disorder in which the sleeper's airway becomes narrowed or blocked causing shallow breathing or repeated pauses in breathing.
Obstructive Sleep Apnea
According to Ebbinghaus, most of forgetting:
Occurs soon after learning.
What have researchers determined about the correlation of TV viewing and imitative behavior?
We can decrease violence in our society if we decrease the amount of violence on TV.
In this stage of memory, information transferred from sensory memory and information retrieved from long-term memory becomes conscious.
Working Memory
Short-Term memory as analogous to __________.
Working Memory
The temporary storage and active, conscious manipulation of information needed for complex cognitive tasks, such as reasoning, learning, and problem solving.
Working Memory
The two general types of meditation involve
concentration & opening up techniques.
Of the following sources of caffeine, which has the highest dose?
Coffee (Grande, 16 ounces)
People usually have around _______ dreaming episodes each night.
4-5
The application of learning principles to help people develop more effective or adaptive behaviors.
Behavior Modification
School of psychology & theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes the scientific study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning.
Behaviorism
According to John Garcia human beings have a greater tendency to be afraid of dangerous, potentially harmful stimuli due to:
Biological Preparedness
Which device is used to treat moderate to severe cases of sleep apnea?
CPAP
_____is the most widely used psychoactive drug in the world, but ______ is the most widely abused substance in the USA.
Caffeine; Alcohol
A sudden loss of voluntary muscle strength & control that is usually triggered by an intense emotion and often occurs during episodes of narcolepsy.
Cataplexy
Jen has narcolepsy. She experiences a sudden loss of muscle strength and control, resulting in collapsing when excited. This symptom is called
Cataplexy
Katherine was asked to remember the letters "E-H-I-J-J-J-M-N-N-O-O-Y." She chose to use the names of 3 of her friends- Joe, Johnny, & Jim- to remember the letters. Which strategy did Katherine employ?
Chunking
Organizing items into related groups during recall from long-term memory.
Clustering
A large involuntary automatic response to an external stimulus.
Reflex
Which of the following is not one of the crucial cognitive processes involved in imitating a behavior according to Albert Bandura?
Reinforcement
Hailey's parents are using punishment by _______ when they take away her dolls away from her for pulling her little sister's hair.
Removal
Motivated forgetting that occurs unconsciously; a memory that is blocked and unavailable to consciousness.
Repression
While considered a cornerstone of psychoanalysis, _____ is an extremely controversial topic among psychologists because it is difficult to distinguish from normal forgetting.
Repression
The process of accessing store information.
Retrieval
The process of recovering information stored in memory so that we are consciously aware of it.
Retrieval
Clue, prompt, or hint that helps trigger recall of a given piece of information stored in long-term memory.
Retrieval Cue
After she was in a very serious car accident. Aisha was unable to remember anything that had happened for days before the injury. She has no difficulty in encoding and remembering new data, however. This is an example of:
Retrograde Amnesia
Organized cluster of information about a particular topic.
Schema
False memories may be the result of a preconceived _____, which refers to the typical sequence of actions and behaviors that occur at a common event.
Script
According to research into academic learned helplessness, what's the first step in helping students develop a sense of mastery over their academic demands?
Seeking knowledge about course requirements & setting goals.
Memory that's closely related to episodic memory and involves memories of events in our lives and our personal life story.
Semantic Memory
Model that describes units of information in long-term memory as being organized in a complex network of associations.
Semantic Network Model
Classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food.
Taste Aversion
Marla got a batch of bad shrimp at her favorite restaurant one evening, and thereafter never ate shrimp again. This is an example of:
Taste Aversion
Which of the following brain structures has not been identified as playing a role in memory?
The Medulla Oblongata
What are you absolutely sure that you know the name of the old classmate, but you have a temporary problem accessing that memory, it is called:
The Tip-of-the-tongue experience
When hypnosis influences behavior after the hypnotic state has ended, the subject was given
a posthypnotic suggestion
Graphic record of brain activity produced by an electroencephalograph
brain waves
Research into hypnosis has found that:
hypnosis can help you lose weight, stop smoking, or stop biting your fingernails.
The best time to deliver a positive reinforcer is:
immediately after explaining the relationship to the preferred behavior.
According to Ernest Hilgard's theory of hypnosis:
the subject's consciousness is split and includes a hidden observer.
Police Chief Jeffries is considering using a hypnotist on an eye-witness to help recall the events of a crime. The chief needs to know that
there is an increased risk of false memories with hypnosis.
Two factors involved in determining physical dependence are:
tolerance & withdrawal.
