Drugs and Behavior Test #4

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due to this potency, the FDA classified LSD as a schedule I controlled substance in

1970

when was the Controlled Substance Act passed

1970

who synthesized LSD in 1943

Albert Hofmann

trailing phenomena

can persist after hallucinogen use; objects appear to be moving in a jerky, discontinuous fashion

effect of cannabis on driving

cannabis can interfere with driving performance; roadside screening tests for marijuana intoxication are being developed

according to the US government, more than 7 million people, aged 12 or older,

need treatment for an illicit drug problem and approximately 19 million people need treatment for an alcohol problem

do withdrawal symptoms develop after discontinuing LSD use

no withdrawal symptoms for LSD or similar drugs have been documented; it is possible that this may be due to the fact that the drug is not taken continuously and does not lead to physical dependence

those who seek help have typically been

jolted by some external force in their lives such as death of a friend from overdose or death-related accident, prison, risk of losing a job, spouse threatening to leave

a major reason for not seeking treatment is

lack of financial means to pay for treatment services and inadequate health insurance coverage

after ingestion of salvia, the drug is effective for

only a short time; the drug-induced experience can last anywhere from 5-30 minutes, which is extremely short in comparison to other hallucinogens

since first-pass metabolism is greatest after oral administration, what might be the most effective route of administration of dextromethorphan

oral consumption

Sativex

oral spray for the treatment of symptoms associated with multiple sclerosis and severe neuropathic-related cancer pain

LSD is typically administered

orally

ecstasy is typically taken

orally

ecstasy and similar synthetics increase transmission at synapses that use

serotonin, norepinephrine, and to a lesser extent, dopamine

buzz phase

short/transient period where the user may feel dizzy or lightheaded

pattern of PCP use

similarly to LSD, PCP is typically used sporadically; when PCP is used daily, tolerance develops, and there is some evidence of dependence and withdrawal symptoms

who was the first commissioner of the U.S. Treasury Department's Federal Bureau of Narcotics that promoted the production of propaganda

Henry J. Aslinger

during the 1960s, the concept developed that marijuana led to

amotivational syndrome; characterized by a feeling of apathy and indifference to long-term planning; unclear as to whether or not there is an evidential basis for cannabis causing amotivational syndrome

cross-tolerance has been observed between LSD, psilocybin, and mescaline, but not between

LSD and amphetamine or THC

are LSD and monoamine-like hallucinogens self-administered by non-humans

LSD and similar monoamine-like hallucinogens are not self-administered by non-humans; LSD appears to have aversive effects and laboratory animals will work to avoid being given LSD

does LSD increase creativity

LSD has not actually been proven to increase creativity

where is LSD metabolized

LSD is metabolized extensively in the liver with its metabolites secreted into the digestive system in the form of bile and feces

hallucinogens related to serotonin include

LSD, psilocybin, morning glory seeds, dimethyltryptamine

source of mescaline

Lephophora williamsii

ecstasy usually refers to

MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine),but may also refer to a mixture of MDMA, MDEA (N-ethyl-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine), and MDA (3,4 methylenedioxyamphetamine)

MDMA was originally synthesized by

Merck drug company and patented in 1914 but was not used until the late 1960s when it appeared on the drug scene

marijuana became associated with which marginalized immigrant group in the 1930s

Mexicans

mental health parity and addiction equity act of 2008

allows individuals in substance abuse treatment to receive reimbursement on par with treatment for medical conditions

the dissociative anesthetics are known to cause

amnesia for events that occur while under the influence of the drug

during oral administration, ketamine is

slowly absorbed and subject to first-pass metabolism, so the drug is often administered intranasally

source of marijuana

Cannabis sativa

ketamine continues to be used as

an anesthetic for children

illusionogenic

illusion-producing

psychotomimetic

psychosis-resembling

by 1970 LSD had become entrenched as a major street drug and became known as

"a monster in our midst"

saying associated with Timothy Leary

"turn on, tune in, drop out"

the estimated costs of substance abuse in the United States exceed

$1 trillion each year

stoned phase

(high dose) indicated by generalized realization, dreamlike state, hallucinations, time perception changes

rats trained to discriminate saline from MDMA will generalize the response to

serotonin 5-HT2A agonists

when do the peak effects after oral administration usually occur

1-3 hours following ingestion

peak effects of PCP typically occur between

10-90 minutes; the effects may last 4-8 hours

is delta-9-THC or 11-hydroxy-delta-9-THC more active

11-hydroxy-delta-9-THC

primary metabolite of delta-9-THC (main active ingredient)

11-hydroxy-delta-9-THC

half-life of LSD

175-300 minutes

when was the Marijuana Tax Act passed

1937

when does ecstasy peak in blood concentrations

2 hours after ingestion

when do effects of LSD take place

30-90 minutes after ingestion

ketamine is rapidly absorbed with effects lasting

35-40 minutes

moderate dose of PCP

5-10 mg

the smoke from marijuana contains what percent more carcinogenic material than tobacco smoke

50-70%

receptor for LSD

serotonin receptors; particular 5-HT2A

two types of receptors for cannabinoids

CB1 receptor, found primarily in the CNS and the CB2 receptor, located outside the nervous system

the earliest records of marijuana come from

Chinese writings nearly 5,000 years ago

literary works about LSD

Humphrey Osmond: Entactigenic ("touching within"); Aldus Huxley: Doors of Perception (1954)

where did recreational use of cannabis originate

Islamic countries

dextromethorphan affect what receptors

NMDA receptors; dextromethorphan has been shown to be a low-affinity NMDA receptor agonist, similar to PCP and ketamine; when bound, they act as ion channel blockers in a manner similar to alcohol and the dissociative anesthetics and therefore have similar pharmacological properties; dextromethorphan is a sigma-1 and sigma-2 receptor agonist, though it appears to bind with higher affinity to the sigma-1 receptor, which is found predominantly in the CNS

are PCP and ketamine acidic or basic

PCP and ketamine are weak, lipid-soluble bases that can be inhaled, injected, or taken orally

is PCP self-administered by nonhumans

PCP is self-administered by monkeys, dogs, baboons, and rats either by intravenous injection or orally; PCP injected directly into a part of the nucleus accumbens and the frontal cortex has been shown to be reinforcing, an effect that is not diminished by a dopamine antagonist, demonstrating that this effect is independent of dopamine transmission

dissociative anesthetics

PCP, ketamine

rats trained to discriminate dextromethorphan will generalize fully to

PCP, though at a higher dose

active compound in Salvia dinorum

Salvinorin A

dispersion pattern of Salvinorin A

Salvinorin A rapidly crosses the blood-brain barrier and disperses throughout the central nervous system upon infection

main metabolic product of

Salvinorin B, an inert metabolite; the metabolism of Salvinorin A to Salvinorin B occurs very rapidly, explaining the brief duration of intoxication when salvia is ingested

what pharmaceutical company applied for FDA approval of LSD

Sandoz pharmaceuticals; thought LSD might be useful in the treatment of mental disorders or alcoholism and was distributed for testing

effect of cannabis on unconditioned behavior

THC has a biphasic effect on spontaneous motor activity; there is an initial increase in activity followed by a depression in behavior; a taming effect is noted in animals that are normally aggressive and difficult to handle

is THC acidic or basic

THC is a weak acid with a pKa of 10.6 and is consequently not ionized at the pH of body fluids

is THC self-administered

THC is self-administered by nonhumans and humans; humans will work to earn marijuana and will titrate dosage, though not very accurately; even experienced users seem unable to adjust their intake accurately in the face of variations in the potency of the marijuana they are smoking

effect of cannabis on creativity

THC leads to bilateral hemispheric activation with significantly greater right-hemisphere activity, relating to its ability to promote creativity

phase 0

allows for administration of single sub-therapeutic dosages to small number of healthy subjects (10 - 15); no therapeutic or diagnostic intent; objective is to quickly assess pharmacokinetic (PK)/pharmacodynamic (PD) results and determine if expected based on pre-clinical studies

a normal dose of ketamine is called

a bump and contains 75-125 mg

mescaline is the active ingredient in

a cactus known as the peyote (Lephophora williamsii), which is native to the deserts of Mexico and the southwestern United States; peyote has been used by Native Americans in rituals and religious ceremonies for centuries

after chronic use of ecstasy, there is

a depletion of serotonin in the brain that is in proportion to the extent and intensity of ecstasy use; this depletion in serotonin may result in sleep disorders, persistent anxiety, impulsiveness, hostility, and selective impairment of memory and attention

the structure of the mescaline molecule has been altered to form

a family of drugs that is a combination of catecholamine-like hallucinogens and amphetamines

Salvinorin A effect on receptors

a highly selective kappa (κ)-opioid receptor agonist and as a partial D2 dopamine receptor agonist

from the 1600s to the early 1900s, the growing of cannabis for hemp fiber was

a major commercial crop in America along with tobacco

ketamine is

a more potent anesthetic, but has a shorter duration of action than PCP with milder emergence effects

Timothy Leary

a research professor at Harvard who led the psychedelic movement that popularized LSD in the 1960s

ketamine was first synthesized in 1962 and marketed in 1969 as

a safer alternative to PCP

chronic ketamine use is associated with what long-term neurological changes

a significant reduction in gray matter volume

dextromethorphan is

a synthetic antitussive (cough-suppressant) drug which is structurally similar to opioids

phencyclidine (PCP) is

a synthetic drug that was developed and marketed in 1963 as an analgesic and anesthetic by the Parke-Davis Company

ecstasy has a half-life of

about 8 hours, requiring 40 hours for 95% of the drug to be eliminated, accounting for the persistence of its effects several days after use

when administered orally, the cannabinoids are

absorbed from the digestive system very slowly and can be accelerated by adding oil to the plant material prior to consumption

about half of all preventable deaths in the US are accounted for by the abuse of

alcohol products (7%), tobacco products (38%), or illicit drugs (2%)

CASASTART (striving together to achieve rewarding tomorrows)

an example of a successful program; case-manager serves 15 children and their families; coordinates activities, social support, family and educational services, after school and summer activities, mentoring; outcome: 60% less likely to sell drugs, 20% less likely to have used or commit violent act

what is a far more powerful predictor of hard-drug use than simple marijuana use

an individual's degree of drug exposure

two main endogenous cannabinoids

anandamide (AEA), 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG)

in 1965, PCP started to be sold on the street as

angel dust, crystal, and hob but didn't become popular until after the 1960s

entactogenic ("touching within") and empathogenic effects

another commonly reported effect is that the hallucinogens seem to provide insight into one's past and one's own mind, revealing repressed thoughts and unrecognized feelings

withdrawal symptoms from cannabis include

appetite change, restlessness, and thoughts of/cravings for cannabis

for how long can traces of THC be detected in the body

as long as 30 days later

effect of cannabis on conditioned behavior

as with humans, THC appears to interfere with tasks requiring short-term memory

gateway hypothesis

asserts that marijuana sets the stage for future patterns of drug abuse

behavioral effects of dextromethorphan and dextrorphan on humans

at normal therapeutic doses, dextromethorphan has few side effects and no PCP-like effects; SSRIs and MAOs increase the likelihood of unpleasant side effects; at higher doses, dextromethorphan has similar effects to PCP and ketamine including ataxia, dizziness, euphoria, tactile and visual hallucinations, altered time perception, and increased perceptual awareness

enabling behavior

avoiding and shielding, taking over responsibilities, rationalizing and accepting, and cooperation and collaborating

ketamine is a widely used club drug and has a reputation of

being used as a date rape drug

chances of success in drug-abuse treatment can be increased by evaluating the combination of

biological, psychological, and social factors leading to drug abuse; the biopsychosocial model

physiological effects of cannabis

bloodshot eyes, increased appetite, and accelerated heart rate

the acute subjective and behavioral effects of marijuana can be separated into what four phases

buzz phase, marijuana high, stoned phase, come-down phase

how does ecstasy work

by stimulating the release of these neurotransmitters and blocking the reuptake of the neurotransmitters

effect of cannabis on memory

cannabis has no effect on the ability to recall material already well learned, but does disrupt the ability to recall words; while under the influence of cannabis, people frequently show what has been called temporal disintegration; they lose the ability to retain and coordinate information and are easily distracted

dual-diagnosis clients

clients in substance-abuse treatment that have co-occurring mental health problems

effective school-based programs generally incorporate what five components

cognitive component (information about the short-term consequences of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs as well as dispelling myths surrounding drug use); decision-making facilitates critical thinking and independent decision making; stress-reduction helps students develop ways to lessen anxiety in their lives; social-skills teaches social assertiveness and specific techniques to say no; self-directed behavior-change fosters self-improvement and encourages a sense of personal control

the hallucinatory effects of LSD begins with

colored visions of tunnel, spiral, and lattice shapes that move

phase III

confirm safety & efficacy; 2 pivotal studies generally required; demonstrates reproducibility of results; larger number of subjects required (1000s); typically global, multi-centre studies; provides basis for labeling; broad demographics required for generalization; ethnic and geographic representation required

contemplation

contemplators acknowledge that they have a problem and begin to think about solving it; contemplators struggle to understand their problems, to see its causes, and wonder about possible solutions; many contemplators have indefinite plans to take action within the next few months

medically useful effects of cannabis

decreases eye pressure (useful in the treatment of glaucoma), anticonvulsant, anti-epileptic (Parkinson's, multiple sclerosis)

major psychoactive ingredient in cannabis resin

delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

where is the binding site of PCP and ketamine

embedded in the ion channels normally activated by NMDA receptors; when the binding site is occupied by PCP or ketamine, the NMDA receptor ion channel is blocked, preventing these transmitters from producing any effect

family systems can jeopardize successful treatment through

enabling behavior

during the 1960s, many other synthetics were invented and manufactured in clandestine labs in an attempt to circumvent the law; these drugs became known as

designer drugs; generally more potent and toxic than mescaline and have unpleasant side effects such as headaches and nausea

similarly to LSD, psilocybin, and mescaline, tolerance to the effects of ecstasy

develops rapidly in humans

nonhumans readily self-administer both

dextromethorphan and dextrorphan

behavioral effects of dextromethorphan and dextrorphan on nonhumans

dextromethorphan causes a decrease in locomotor activity, whereas dextrorphan caused an increase along with stereotyped behavior

dextromethorphan is converted rapidly to

dextrorphan during first-pass metabolism in the liver; because the effects of dextrorphan are greater than dextromethorphan, the most intense effects of consuming dextromethorphan may be delayed until this transformation occurs

metabolite of dextromethorphan

dextrorphan; has a greater affinity for the NMDA receptor than dextromethorphan and consequently has a much greater PCP-like effect

once the acute effects of ecstasy have subsided, several effects are often reported including

difficulty in concentration, irritability, insomnia, fatigue, and depression

temporal disintegration

difficulty retaining and organizing information; attention and concentration issues

stages of drug development

discovery, preclinicals, phase I, phase II, phase III, review and approval, phase IV (post-marketing)

hallucinogens are commonly defined as

drugs that distort perception and alter the user's sense of reality (at low dosage)

the most well known of these drugs is

ecstasy

come-down phase

effects dissipate

sometimes, abusers of illicit drugs arrested for violating drug-control laws are given the option of

entering a treatment program rather than prosecution and imprisonment; less than 20% of prisoners with drug abuse problems receive treatment in US while incarcerated

botanical sources of hallucinogenic drugs

ergot, atropine (related to acetylcholine) from Atropa belladonna, ibotenic acid from Amanita muscaria, Datura stamonium

phase II

evaluate both safety efficacy/effectiveness; dose tolerance (drug); dose ranging - multiple doses; seeking maximum benefit with minimal dose; subjects: greater numbers (200 - 1500); diagnosed with condition you want to treat; 2 - 7 studies

in order to be considered evidence-based, primary and secondary prevention programs must be

evaluated against a control group that did not receive the intervention

marijuana high

feeling of euphoria, well-being, and peacefulness

marijuana propaganda

films such as Reefer Madness and Devil's Harvest

phase I

first time in humans; evaluates safety only; small number of subjects (20 - 80); usually healthy volunteers; dose tolerance/escalation, ADME, PK/PD, potential toxicity; duration: several days to several weeks; closely monitored; 1 - 3 studies

cannabinoids

general term for the 66 chemicals found in cannabis

effects during the third and final phase (approximately 3-5 hours after administration)

great mood swings in emotions or feelings of panic, a feeling of timelessness, a feeling of ego disintegration, or separation of one's mind from one's body

phantasticant and perceptual effects

hallucinogenic drugs can cause users to feel that the experiences they are having are of great emotional or worldly significance; often these experiences can be spiritual in nature; for this reason, drugs such as LSD have been widely used in traditional religious ceremonies (peyote in Native American churches)

the subjective effects of LSD can be encompassed by what three categories

hallucinogenic effects, phantasticant and perceptual effects, entactogenic and empathogenic effects

DARE in its original form, has been shown to

have little effect in primary prevention, although later versions have incorporated many of the components that have been demonstrated to be effective

simple possession

having any illegal or non-prescribed controlled substance for one's personal use

unlike LSD, some occasional users of PCP become

heavy chronic users

three regions in which the CB1 receptor is densely located

hippocampus, substantia nigra, and globus pallidus

LSD is sold on the street as

hits in blotters, gelatin, and sugar cubes

in 2009, it was found that what were the most common causes of death related to ecstasy

hyperthermia and hyponatremia

the Controlled Substance Act

ignored the previous century of accumulating medical evidence and declared that marijuana had no potential medical use but had a high potential for abuse

heavy cannabis users may be at a risk of developing what condition

schizophrenia

effects 30 mins-2 hours after LSD administration

images seen with the eyes closed, synesthesia (intermingling of senses), perception of a multilevel reality, strange and exaggerated configurations of common objects

LSD is now taken

in smaller doses and used more as a phantasticant or entactogen as opposed to a hallucinogen

pattern of cannabis use in the US

in the US, the vast majority of users are casual; most westerners who start using cannabis eventually decrease their use and stop whereas in countries where use is more extensive; it may persist for 20-40 years

short-term physiological effects of ecstasy include

increased body temperature, perspiration, headache, pupil dilation, and muscular tension which causes jaw clenching and tooth grinding

the average THC content has

increased substantially over the past 50 years

three functions of CB1 receptor

inhibit cAMP, inhibit Ca+ channels, activate K+ channels (ultimately inhibits neurotransmitter release)

are cannabinoid receptors involved in an excitatory or inhibitory mechanism

inhibitory mechanism

behavioral effects of Salvinorin A

intense hallucinations that come with a host of varied behavioral and physiological effects; common effects include uncontrollable laughter, loss of motor coordination, changes in perception, emotional swings, and synesthesia

does Salvinorin A have any action at the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor

interestingly, Salvinorin A has not been found to have any action at the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor, which is instrumental in the psychedelic response to the monoamine-like hallucinogens

what effects make LSD useful in psychotherapy

its entactogenic ("touching within") and empathogenic effects

LSD is molecularly similar to what neurotransmitter

serotonin

long-term cannabis use may produce what effects on cognitive function

long-term cannabis use may produce subtle impairments in higher cognitive functions of memory, attention, and the organization/integration of complex information, however the nature and extent of cognitive deficits are related primarily to the amount of recent cannabis use

compared to the endocannabinoids, THC is

longer lasting and has a much greater effect on cannabinoid receptors

the goal of any prevention program (particularly primary prevention), is to

lower the numbers of new drug users or to at least delay the first use of alcohol and tobacco to an age at which the young people are considered adult

LSD stands for

lysergic acid diethyl amide

what is currently the most common illicit drug in the United States

marijuana

effects of marijuana on reproduction

marijuana seems to lower the levels of testosterone in nonhumans and humans; the effects of cannabis on sexual behavior and arousability are generally dose-dependent and observed in males and females; males report increased sexual desire but a detrimental effect on erectile functioning whereas female report an increase in sexual desire, satisfaction, pleasure, and orgasm quality

association question

marijuana use and the subsequent use of other illicit drugs are statistically correlated

trend in marijuana use

marijuana use has been increasing and its perceived risk has declined, which suggests that the trend will continue upwards

ecstasy produces a

marked increase in wakefulness, endurance, energy, a sense of euphoria, an increased sense of well-being, sharpened sensory perception, greater sociability/extraversion, and a heightened sense of closeness to other people

learning how the family has coped with having a drug abuser as a family member is crucial not only in understanding the origins of abuse but also in

maximizing the chances of successful treatment

hallucinogens related to norepinephrine include

mescaline, MDMA/MDA, DOM

population studies have shown that there is considerable individual variation in the ability to

metabolize dextromethorphan into dextrorphan; the cytochrome P450 enzyme plays a critical role in the metabolism of dextromethorphan, and slow metabolizers tend to have low levels of this enzyme; this metabolic difference accounts for the individual variation in effects of taking dextromethorphan

CB1 receptor

metabotropic receptor for cannabinoids located in the brain

CB2 receptor

metabotropic receptor for cannabinoids located in the spleen and immune system

psychodysleptic

mind-disrupting

psycholytic

mind-dissolving

psychdelic

mind-expanding

overall prevention strategy is to

minimize the risk factors in a person's life with respect to drug-taking behavior and to maximize the protective factors

preparation

most people in the preparation stage are planning to take action and are making the final adjustments before they begin to change their behavior

are PCP and ketamine generally toxic

no; a lethal dose of ketamine is 25 times the effective dose for intranasal administration; although toxic effects may vary, high doses can cause coma, convulsions, and respiratory arrest; the lethal effects of PCP and ketamine are potentiated by the presence of depressant drugs, such as alcohol or barbiturates, in the body

do the stages of change apply only to drug abuse

no; stages of change apply not only to drug abuse recovery but to any life change (losing weight, exercise, ending an unhappy relationship)

the dissociative anesthetics appear to alter the functioning of what four neurotransmitters

norepinephrine, dopamine, acetylcholine, and serotonin

purpose of clinical trials is to

obtain information on investigational products (IP) or drug products

does cannabis cause violence

one of the oldest beliefs about cannabis is that it directly causes violence and aggression and is associated with crime, but there are absolutely no systematic data to support this myth

general guidelines in deciding a mode of treatment

outpatient preferred over inpatient treatment; a pharmacological approach should be combined with psychotherapy or behavioral counseling when possible; self-help groups such as alcoholics anonymous or similar organizations should be considered

more recently, there have been numerous reports of people consuming large quantities of

over the counter cough medicines such as Robitussin for the psychological effects, a practice sometimes called roboing

ecstasy also affects the release of

oxytocin, a hormone involved in bonding and building trust; this neurohormonal effect may be the cause of ecstasy's empathogenic and entactogenic properties

in 1965, PCP was removed from the market because

patients reported that while recovering from the drug, the experienced a delirium, disorientation, and agitation referred to as emergence delirium

the Marijuana Tax Act

placed a tax on the sale of cannabis; markedly decreased prescribed medicinal uses of marijuana

instead of thinking of the stages of as linear model, it is more accurate to think of them as

points along a spiral

effective treatment programs should address

polydrug abusers as well as monodrug abusers

primary prevention focuses on

populations that have had only minimal or no exposure to drugs

tertiary prevention focuses on

populations who have entered treatment; the goal is to prevent relapse

secondary prevention focuses on

populations whose drug experience has not yet been associated with serious long-term problems

phase IV

post-marketing study; predominantly to collect long-term safety data; better defines toxicities/adverse device effects; very large subject numbers (10,000s); medical, educational studies; cost/benefit of the drug

five stages of change

pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance

pre-contemplation

precontemplators usually show up in therapy because of external pressures and resist change; when their problem comes up, they change the topic of conversation; they place responsibility for their problems on external factors

effects of PCP

produces a trance-like state as opposed to a loss of consciousness and has been classified as a dissociative anesthetic because it seemed to separate people from sensory experience

benefits of drug court

provide effective rehabilitation; decreased rate of criminal recidivism (repeated arrests); cost-effective; increase time an individual remains in treatment

before the 1960s, LSD was being administered to humans under what limited conditions

psychiatric hospitals and psychotherapy sessions top secret CIA experiments evaluated LSD for espionage work (MK-ULTRA)

Salvia dinorum

psychoactive plant native to Oaxaca, Mexico that produces visions and dissociative effects, much like LSD and other hallucinogens

at higher doses, the dissociative anesthetics may produce

psychotic behavior that may include anything from manic excitation to catatonia; this psychotic state often disappears as drug levels decline, but sometimes the psychosis requires hospitalization and lasts for several weeks

hash oil

purified variation of hashish, prepared by boiling the hashish in alcohol, filtering out the residue, and then allowing the alcohol to evaporate

ineffective prevention approaches

reducing drug availability; only a small fraction of drugs are intercepted at US borders (reducing drug availability can cause people to perceive the drug as more valuable); punitive measures that entail mandatory prison sentences for people involved in drug taking or trafficking; scare tactics/negative education (1960s) including "Reefer Madness"; affective education and values clarification imposes a system of morality without considering individual and cultural background

incarceration has what two objectives

rehabilitation and deterrence

taken at usual doses, the dissociative anesthetics cause

relaxation, warmth, a tingling feeling, and a sense of numbness

does Salvinorin A produce tolerance

repeated exposure to salvia does not appear to lead to the development of tolerance

sequencing question

research studies have indicated that the use of alcohol and cigarettes precedes marijuana use and that marijuana use precedes the use of other illicit drugs

goal of primary prevention is to enhance

resilience; inclination to resist the effects of risk factors for drug-taking behavior through the action of protective factors

three major goals of rehabilitation

reverse the decline in physical and psychological functioning; use of all psychoactive substances must permanently stop; a lifestyle free of alcohol and other drugs must be rebuilt and maintained

many users of LSD report seeing

small animals or human figures that are friendly and caricature-like as well as religious imagery; these images are projected on whatever they are looking at, or against a black background if they close their eyes

most efficient route of administration of marijuana

smoking cannabis plant material is an efficient route of administration and is usually smoked in a joint, bowl, or bong

another adverse effect of many hallucinogens is that

some effects may be briefly experienced long after the drug has worn off; these episodes are commonly known as flashbacks and are termed "Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (Flashbacks)" in the DSM-IV

LSD is a selective agonist at

some serotonin receptors; particularly the 5-HT2A receptor

street name of ketamine

special K, K

action

stage where people overtly modify their behavior and their surroundings; requires the greatest commitment of time and energy

stimulus properties of THC

stimulus properties generalize to other cannabinoids but not to other classes of drugs; animals trained to discriminate THC generalized poorly to anandamide and then only when anandamide was given in high doses

endocannabinoids

substances that occur naturally in the body and activate the cannabinoid receptors

specific judicial proceedings called drug courts (adult, nonviolent offenders) send individuals to

supervised treatment as a "sentence" instead of incarceration

initial physiological effects of LSD

sympathetic activation; dilation of pupils, increased heart rate/blood pressure, nausea

ecstasy is most often used by

teens and young adults at dance clubs to enhance social intimacy

what is evaluated in preclinicals

teratogenicity, carcinogenicity, bioavailability, mutagenicity, toxicology

recreational use became popular amongst musicians in major US cities in

the 1920s

federal and state regulation of marijuana began in

the 1930s, at which point marijuana became associated with Mexican immigrants and criminalized these individuals

drug trafficking laws were primarily established in

the 1970s and attempt to control the unauthorized manufacture, distribution (sale/gift), and possession with the intent to distribute any controlled substance

what caused marijuana to gain limited popularity in Western Europe in the 1840s

the Clud des Hachinchins (Club of Hashish Eaters)

LSD peaked in use at

the Woodstock Music Festival in 1969

a common effect of low medical concern is

the acute psychotic reaction or psychedelic crisis, which occurs when the user is having an unpleasant experience or bad trip

where is the CB1 receptor located on the neuron

the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron

the principal effect for the reinforcing properties of dissociative anesthetics is

the blocking of NMDA receptors for glutamate and aspartate, which are excitatory transmitters located in many parts of the brain, including the cortex

are the cannabinoids lipid-soluble

the cannabinoids are highly lipid-soluble

three major risk factors in the life of teenagers with regard to substance abuse

the degree of stress they feel that they are under (high stress teens are twice as likely to smoke, drink, and use illicit drugs); bored teens are 50% more likely to smoke, drink, and use illegal drugs; teens with $25 or more per week were twice as likely to smoke, drink, and use illicit drugs

marijuana is made from

the dried leaves and flowers of the cannabis plant

hashish

the dried resin from the top of the female plant; it is a pale yellow sap when harvested but turns almost black when dried and may be smoked (alone or in a mixture with tobacco) or it may be cooked into cookies

where does Salvinorin A reaches its highest concentrations

the drug reaches highest concentrations in the cerebellum and visual cortex, accounting for its hallucinogenic properties and difficulty integrating sensory experience and motor control

deterrence

the effort to prevent future behavior by conveying the message that a punishment will be given to others for similar behavior

rehabilitation

the effort to reduce the likelihood that the individual will behave in a similar way in the future

what led to a more lenient approach to marijuana in the 1970s

the emergence of marijuana on American college campuses and among American youth during the late 1960s forced a reexamination of public policy regarding this drug

LSD is synthetically derived from

the ergot fungus

maintenance

the extent to which the learner continues to perform the target behavior after a portion or all of the intervention has been completed

NMDA receptors are vital in

the formation of long-term memories; PCP and ketamine are NMDA receptor antagonists and, it is therefore not surprising that they are powerful amnesic drugs

Cannabis sativa is also known as

the hemp plant

three regions of the brain involved in the hallucinogenic effect of LSD

the locus coeruleus, the cortex, and the raphe nuclei (LCR)

one of the dangerous effects of ecstasy is

the loss of heat regulation in the body, causing an increase in body temperature; in a club where the user is dancing in a warm environment, this dysregulation can cause heatstroke, muscle tissue damage kidney failure, and liver damage; dancers often attempt to compensate by drinking water excessively, which results in an electrolyte imbalance that can cause organs, including the brain, to swell, resulting in seizures

pattern of human self-administration of LSD

the self-administration of LSD in humans is different from the use of most other drugs; LSD is not taken continuously; it is indulged in sporadically and on special occasions; LSD use does not increase over time in an individual; LSD use among teenagers in the US remained fairly high throughout the 1990s but has since been steadily declining

pattern of ecstasy use

the use of ecstasy has steadily increased among young people in the US and Europe throughout the 1990s until 2000; this decline was accompanied with a general increase in perceived risk of using the drug

during a psychedelic crisis,

the user often forgets that their experience is drug-induced and undergo reactions ranging from vague anxiety to prolonged terror or panic; panicked users can usually be calmed down if put in close contact with someone who talks quietly and assures them that their state is drug induced

causation question

there is little evidence that some property of marijuana exposure itself leads to physical or psychology dependence on other drugs

metabolism of cannabinoids

there is some metabolism of cannabinoids in the lungs if the drug is inhaled and some in the intestines if the drug is administered orally, but most of the metabolism occurs in the liver

harmful effects of psilocybin, LSD, and mescaline

these drugs are not very toxic; there are no recorded cases of anyone dying from an overdose of any of these drugs

Siegel proposed that the nature and structure of hallucinations must be determined by the nature and structure of the visual system and the brain, not by the drug because

these hallucinatory experiences are similar among vastly different drugs; the experiences resemble the effects produced by other non drug hallucinations, such as those from fever, hypoglycemia, and migraine headaches; the experiences are similar cross-culturally

do the dissociative anesthetics generalize to other drugs

they generalize only to other drugs known to block NDMA receptors, such as dextromethorphan, indicating that this effect is likely the basis for their stimulus properties

long-lasting psychotic behavior has been reported after PCP use, even in individuals without any psychotic tendencies

this PCP psychosis may last for several months in some individuals and is indistinguishable from schizophrenia

what accounts for why LSD is seldom taken continuously

this rapid development and disappearance of tolerance

does tolerance to the effects of THC develop

tolerance effects among marijuana human users do not generally occur; users report becoming sensitized (reverse tolerance) to the drug, but this can be accounted for with the users ability to get more drug into their bodies from a given amount of marijuana

the majority of the drug is either excreted

unchanged in the urine or metabolized to MDA

levels of Salvinorin B are

undetectable in the urine of rhesus monkeys even shortly after ingestion, indicating that the metabolite is ether immediately cleared or stored in organ and tissue

is MDMA self-administered by nonhumans

unlike LSD, MDMA is readily self-administered by primates and mice; the reinforcing effects of MDMA are strongest at moderate doses; lower and higher doses are ineffective reinforcers

safest way to smoke cannabis

using a vaporizer is a safer and equally effective alternative when administering cannabis; cannabinoids vaporize at a lower temperature than tars and other carcinogens and therefore make up the majority of the vapor

PCP and ketamine have an unfounded reputation for causing

violence and uncontrollable behavior

withdrawal symptoms from PCP include

vocalizations, grinding of the teeth, diarrhea, difficulty staying awake, anxiety, confusion, and tremors

does tolerance to LSD develop

when LSD is taken repeatedly for 2-3 days, tolerance develops and the drug no longer produces the desired effect; this tolerance dissipates quickly and sensitivity returns in approximately a week

synesthesia

when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another; intermingling of the senses

ecstasy is sold in

white or colored tablets and each pill may contain up to 100 mg or more of MDMA and may have varying amounts of MDEA, MDA, PMA, and MBDB

do withdrawal symptoms arise after discontinuation of cannabis use

withdrawal symptoms have been reported in nonhumans and humans only after continuous administration of fairly high doses; only a mild psychological dependence

when do blood levels of THC peak

within 15 minutes and effects begin 30-60 minutes after administration

when are effects of PCP felt

within a minute of inhalation or intravenous injection and from 20-40 minutes after oral administration

does THC cause dissociation

yes; THC causes dissociation in humans and nonhumans

is LSD highly potent

yes; producing hallucinogenic effects at as little as 200-400 micrograms


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