Drugs and Behavior Test #4
due to this potency, the FDA classified LSD as a schedule I controlled substance in
1970
when was the Controlled Substance Act passed
1970
who synthesized LSD in 1943
Albert Hofmann
trailing phenomena
can persist after hallucinogen use; objects appear to be moving in a jerky, discontinuous fashion
effect of cannabis on driving
cannabis can interfere with driving performance; roadside screening tests for marijuana intoxication are being developed
according to the US government, more than 7 million people, aged 12 or older,
need treatment for an illicit drug problem and approximately 19 million people need treatment for an alcohol problem
do withdrawal symptoms develop after discontinuing LSD use
no withdrawal symptoms for LSD or similar drugs have been documented; it is possible that this may be due to the fact that the drug is not taken continuously and does not lead to physical dependence
those who seek help have typically been
jolted by some external force in their lives such as death of a friend from overdose or death-related accident, prison, risk of losing a job, spouse threatening to leave
a major reason for not seeking treatment is
lack of financial means to pay for treatment services and inadequate health insurance coverage
after ingestion of salvia, the drug is effective for
only a short time; the drug-induced experience can last anywhere from 5-30 minutes, which is extremely short in comparison to other hallucinogens
since first-pass metabolism is greatest after oral administration, what might be the most effective route of administration of dextromethorphan
oral consumption
Sativex
oral spray for the treatment of symptoms associated with multiple sclerosis and severe neuropathic-related cancer pain
LSD is typically administered
orally
ecstasy is typically taken
orally
ecstasy and similar synthetics increase transmission at synapses that use
serotonin, norepinephrine, and to a lesser extent, dopamine
buzz phase
short/transient period where the user may feel dizzy or lightheaded
pattern of PCP use
similarly to LSD, PCP is typically used sporadically; when PCP is used daily, tolerance develops, and there is some evidence of dependence and withdrawal symptoms
who was the first commissioner of the U.S. Treasury Department's Federal Bureau of Narcotics that promoted the production of propaganda
Henry J. Aslinger
during the 1960s, the concept developed that marijuana led to
amotivational syndrome; characterized by a feeling of apathy and indifference to long-term planning; unclear as to whether or not there is an evidential basis for cannabis causing amotivational syndrome
cross-tolerance has been observed between LSD, psilocybin, and mescaline, but not between
LSD and amphetamine or THC
are LSD and monoamine-like hallucinogens self-administered by non-humans
LSD and similar monoamine-like hallucinogens are not self-administered by non-humans; LSD appears to have aversive effects and laboratory animals will work to avoid being given LSD
does LSD increase creativity
LSD has not actually been proven to increase creativity
where is LSD metabolized
LSD is metabolized extensively in the liver with its metabolites secreted into the digestive system in the form of bile and feces
hallucinogens related to serotonin include
LSD, psilocybin, morning glory seeds, dimethyltryptamine
source of mescaline
Lephophora williamsii
ecstasy usually refers to
MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine),but may also refer to a mixture of MDMA, MDEA (N-ethyl-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine), and MDA (3,4 methylenedioxyamphetamine)
MDMA was originally synthesized by
Merck drug company and patented in 1914 but was not used until the late 1960s when it appeared on the drug scene
marijuana became associated with which marginalized immigrant group in the 1930s
Mexicans
mental health parity and addiction equity act of 2008
allows individuals in substance abuse treatment to receive reimbursement on par with treatment for medical conditions
the dissociative anesthetics are known to cause
amnesia for events that occur while under the influence of the drug
during oral administration, ketamine is
slowly absorbed and subject to first-pass metabolism, so the drug is often administered intranasally
source of marijuana
Cannabis sativa
ketamine continues to be used as
an anesthetic for children
illusionogenic
illusion-producing
psychotomimetic
psychosis-resembling
by 1970 LSD had become entrenched as a major street drug and became known as
"a monster in our midst"
saying associated with Timothy Leary
"turn on, tune in, drop out"
the estimated costs of substance abuse in the United States exceed
$1 trillion each year
stoned phase
(high dose) indicated by generalized realization, dreamlike state, hallucinations, time perception changes
rats trained to discriminate saline from MDMA will generalize the response to
serotonin 5-HT2A agonists
when do the peak effects after oral administration usually occur
1-3 hours following ingestion
peak effects of PCP typically occur between
10-90 minutes; the effects may last 4-8 hours
is delta-9-THC or 11-hydroxy-delta-9-THC more active
11-hydroxy-delta-9-THC
primary metabolite of delta-9-THC (main active ingredient)
11-hydroxy-delta-9-THC
half-life of LSD
175-300 minutes
when was the Marijuana Tax Act passed
1937
when does ecstasy peak in blood concentrations
2 hours after ingestion
when do effects of LSD take place
30-90 minutes after ingestion
ketamine is rapidly absorbed with effects lasting
35-40 minutes
moderate dose of PCP
5-10 mg
the smoke from marijuana contains what percent more carcinogenic material than tobacco smoke
50-70%
receptor for LSD
serotonin receptors; particular 5-HT2A
two types of receptors for cannabinoids
CB1 receptor, found primarily in the CNS and the CB2 receptor, located outside the nervous system
the earliest records of marijuana come from
Chinese writings nearly 5,000 years ago
literary works about LSD
Humphrey Osmond: Entactigenic ("touching within"); Aldus Huxley: Doors of Perception (1954)
where did recreational use of cannabis originate
Islamic countries
dextromethorphan affect what receptors
NMDA receptors; dextromethorphan has been shown to be a low-affinity NMDA receptor agonist, similar to PCP and ketamine; when bound, they act as ion channel blockers in a manner similar to alcohol and the dissociative anesthetics and therefore have similar pharmacological properties; dextromethorphan is a sigma-1 and sigma-2 receptor agonist, though it appears to bind with higher affinity to the sigma-1 receptor, which is found predominantly in the CNS
are PCP and ketamine acidic or basic
PCP and ketamine are weak, lipid-soluble bases that can be inhaled, injected, or taken orally
is PCP self-administered by nonhumans
PCP is self-administered by monkeys, dogs, baboons, and rats either by intravenous injection or orally; PCP injected directly into a part of the nucleus accumbens and the frontal cortex has been shown to be reinforcing, an effect that is not diminished by a dopamine antagonist, demonstrating that this effect is independent of dopamine transmission
dissociative anesthetics
PCP, ketamine
rats trained to discriminate dextromethorphan will generalize fully to
PCP, though at a higher dose
active compound in Salvia dinorum
Salvinorin A
dispersion pattern of Salvinorin A
Salvinorin A rapidly crosses the blood-brain barrier and disperses throughout the central nervous system upon infection
main metabolic product of
Salvinorin B, an inert metabolite; the metabolism of Salvinorin A to Salvinorin B occurs very rapidly, explaining the brief duration of intoxication when salvia is ingested
what pharmaceutical company applied for FDA approval of LSD
Sandoz pharmaceuticals; thought LSD might be useful in the treatment of mental disorders or alcoholism and was distributed for testing
effect of cannabis on unconditioned behavior
THC has a biphasic effect on spontaneous motor activity; there is an initial increase in activity followed by a depression in behavior; a taming effect is noted in animals that are normally aggressive and difficult to handle
is THC acidic or basic
THC is a weak acid with a pKa of 10.6 and is consequently not ionized at the pH of body fluids
is THC self-administered
THC is self-administered by nonhumans and humans; humans will work to earn marijuana and will titrate dosage, though not very accurately; even experienced users seem unable to adjust their intake accurately in the face of variations in the potency of the marijuana they are smoking
effect of cannabis on creativity
THC leads to bilateral hemispheric activation with significantly greater right-hemisphere activity, relating to its ability to promote creativity
phase 0
allows for administration of single sub-therapeutic dosages to small number of healthy subjects (10 - 15); no therapeutic or diagnostic intent; objective is to quickly assess pharmacokinetic (PK)/pharmacodynamic (PD) results and determine if expected based on pre-clinical studies
a normal dose of ketamine is called
a bump and contains 75-125 mg
mescaline is the active ingredient in
a cactus known as the peyote (Lephophora williamsii), which is native to the deserts of Mexico and the southwestern United States; peyote has been used by Native Americans in rituals and religious ceremonies for centuries
after chronic use of ecstasy, there is
a depletion of serotonin in the brain that is in proportion to the extent and intensity of ecstasy use; this depletion in serotonin may result in sleep disorders, persistent anxiety, impulsiveness, hostility, and selective impairment of memory and attention
the structure of the mescaline molecule has been altered to form
a family of drugs that is a combination of catecholamine-like hallucinogens and amphetamines
Salvinorin A effect on receptors
a highly selective kappa (κ)-opioid receptor agonist and as a partial D2 dopamine receptor agonist
from the 1600s to the early 1900s, the growing of cannabis for hemp fiber was
a major commercial crop in America along with tobacco
ketamine is
a more potent anesthetic, but has a shorter duration of action than PCP with milder emergence effects
Timothy Leary
a research professor at Harvard who led the psychedelic movement that popularized LSD in the 1960s
ketamine was first synthesized in 1962 and marketed in 1969 as
a safer alternative to PCP
chronic ketamine use is associated with what long-term neurological changes
a significant reduction in gray matter volume
dextromethorphan is
a synthetic antitussive (cough-suppressant) drug which is structurally similar to opioids
phencyclidine (PCP) is
a synthetic drug that was developed and marketed in 1963 as an analgesic and anesthetic by the Parke-Davis Company
ecstasy has a half-life of
about 8 hours, requiring 40 hours for 95% of the drug to be eliminated, accounting for the persistence of its effects several days after use
when administered orally, the cannabinoids are
absorbed from the digestive system very slowly and can be accelerated by adding oil to the plant material prior to consumption
about half of all preventable deaths in the US are accounted for by the abuse of
alcohol products (7%), tobacco products (38%), or illicit drugs (2%)
CASASTART (striving together to achieve rewarding tomorrows)
an example of a successful program; case-manager serves 15 children and their families; coordinates activities, social support, family and educational services, after school and summer activities, mentoring; outcome: 60% less likely to sell drugs, 20% less likely to have used or commit violent act
what is a far more powerful predictor of hard-drug use than simple marijuana use
an individual's degree of drug exposure
two main endogenous cannabinoids
anandamide (AEA), 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG)
in 1965, PCP started to be sold on the street as
angel dust, crystal, and hob but didn't become popular until after the 1960s
entactogenic ("touching within") and empathogenic effects
another commonly reported effect is that the hallucinogens seem to provide insight into one's past and one's own mind, revealing repressed thoughts and unrecognized feelings
withdrawal symptoms from cannabis include
appetite change, restlessness, and thoughts of/cravings for cannabis
for how long can traces of THC be detected in the body
as long as 30 days later
effect of cannabis on conditioned behavior
as with humans, THC appears to interfere with tasks requiring short-term memory
gateway hypothesis
asserts that marijuana sets the stage for future patterns of drug abuse
behavioral effects of dextromethorphan and dextrorphan on humans
at normal therapeutic doses, dextromethorphan has few side effects and no PCP-like effects; SSRIs and MAOs increase the likelihood of unpleasant side effects; at higher doses, dextromethorphan has similar effects to PCP and ketamine including ataxia, dizziness, euphoria, tactile and visual hallucinations, altered time perception, and increased perceptual awareness
enabling behavior
avoiding and shielding, taking over responsibilities, rationalizing and accepting, and cooperation and collaborating
ketamine is a widely used club drug and has a reputation of
being used as a date rape drug
chances of success in drug-abuse treatment can be increased by evaluating the combination of
biological, psychological, and social factors leading to drug abuse; the biopsychosocial model
physiological effects of cannabis
bloodshot eyes, increased appetite, and accelerated heart rate
the acute subjective and behavioral effects of marijuana can be separated into what four phases
buzz phase, marijuana high, stoned phase, come-down phase
how does ecstasy work
by stimulating the release of these neurotransmitters and blocking the reuptake of the neurotransmitters
effect of cannabis on memory
cannabis has no effect on the ability to recall material already well learned, but does disrupt the ability to recall words; while under the influence of cannabis, people frequently show what has been called temporal disintegration; they lose the ability to retain and coordinate information and are easily distracted
dual-diagnosis clients
clients in substance-abuse treatment that have co-occurring mental health problems
effective school-based programs generally incorporate what five components
cognitive component (information about the short-term consequences of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs as well as dispelling myths surrounding drug use); decision-making facilitates critical thinking and independent decision making; stress-reduction helps students develop ways to lessen anxiety in their lives; social-skills teaches social assertiveness and specific techniques to say no; self-directed behavior-change fosters self-improvement and encourages a sense of personal control
the hallucinatory effects of LSD begins with
colored visions of tunnel, spiral, and lattice shapes that move
phase III
confirm safety & efficacy; 2 pivotal studies generally required; demonstrates reproducibility of results; larger number of subjects required (1000s); typically global, multi-centre studies; provides basis for labeling; broad demographics required for generalization; ethnic and geographic representation required
contemplation
contemplators acknowledge that they have a problem and begin to think about solving it; contemplators struggle to understand their problems, to see its causes, and wonder about possible solutions; many contemplators have indefinite plans to take action within the next few months
medically useful effects of cannabis
decreases eye pressure (useful in the treatment of glaucoma), anticonvulsant, anti-epileptic (Parkinson's, multiple sclerosis)
major psychoactive ingredient in cannabis resin
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
where is the binding site of PCP and ketamine
embedded in the ion channels normally activated by NMDA receptors; when the binding site is occupied by PCP or ketamine, the NMDA receptor ion channel is blocked, preventing these transmitters from producing any effect
family systems can jeopardize successful treatment through
enabling behavior
during the 1960s, many other synthetics were invented and manufactured in clandestine labs in an attempt to circumvent the law; these drugs became known as
designer drugs; generally more potent and toxic than mescaline and have unpleasant side effects such as headaches and nausea
similarly to LSD, psilocybin, and mescaline, tolerance to the effects of ecstasy
develops rapidly in humans
nonhumans readily self-administer both
dextromethorphan and dextrorphan
behavioral effects of dextromethorphan and dextrorphan on nonhumans
dextromethorphan causes a decrease in locomotor activity, whereas dextrorphan caused an increase along with stereotyped behavior
dextromethorphan is converted rapidly to
dextrorphan during first-pass metabolism in the liver; because the effects of dextrorphan are greater than dextromethorphan, the most intense effects of consuming dextromethorphan may be delayed until this transformation occurs
metabolite of dextromethorphan
dextrorphan; has a greater affinity for the NMDA receptor than dextromethorphan and consequently has a much greater PCP-like effect
once the acute effects of ecstasy have subsided, several effects are often reported including
difficulty in concentration, irritability, insomnia, fatigue, and depression
temporal disintegration
difficulty retaining and organizing information; attention and concentration issues
stages of drug development
discovery, preclinicals, phase I, phase II, phase III, review and approval, phase IV (post-marketing)
hallucinogens are commonly defined as
drugs that distort perception and alter the user's sense of reality (at low dosage)
the most well known of these drugs is
ecstasy
come-down phase
effects dissipate
sometimes, abusers of illicit drugs arrested for violating drug-control laws are given the option of
entering a treatment program rather than prosecution and imprisonment; less than 20% of prisoners with drug abuse problems receive treatment in US while incarcerated
botanical sources of hallucinogenic drugs
ergot, atropine (related to acetylcholine) from Atropa belladonna, ibotenic acid from Amanita muscaria, Datura stamonium
phase II
evaluate both safety efficacy/effectiveness; dose tolerance (drug); dose ranging - multiple doses; seeking maximum benefit with minimal dose; subjects: greater numbers (200 - 1500); diagnosed with condition you want to treat; 2 - 7 studies
in order to be considered evidence-based, primary and secondary prevention programs must be
evaluated against a control group that did not receive the intervention
marijuana high
feeling of euphoria, well-being, and peacefulness
marijuana propaganda
films such as Reefer Madness and Devil's Harvest
phase I
first time in humans; evaluates safety only; small number of subjects (20 - 80); usually healthy volunteers; dose tolerance/escalation, ADME, PK/PD, potential toxicity; duration: several days to several weeks; closely monitored; 1 - 3 studies
cannabinoids
general term for the 66 chemicals found in cannabis
effects during the third and final phase (approximately 3-5 hours after administration)
great mood swings in emotions or feelings of panic, a feeling of timelessness, a feeling of ego disintegration, or separation of one's mind from one's body
phantasticant and perceptual effects
hallucinogenic drugs can cause users to feel that the experiences they are having are of great emotional or worldly significance; often these experiences can be spiritual in nature; for this reason, drugs such as LSD have been widely used in traditional religious ceremonies (peyote in Native American churches)
the subjective effects of LSD can be encompassed by what three categories
hallucinogenic effects, phantasticant and perceptual effects, entactogenic and empathogenic effects
DARE in its original form, has been shown to
have little effect in primary prevention, although later versions have incorporated many of the components that have been demonstrated to be effective
simple possession
having any illegal or non-prescribed controlled substance for one's personal use
unlike LSD, some occasional users of PCP become
heavy chronic users
three regions in which the CB1 receptor is densely located
hippocampus, substantia nigra, and globus pallidus
LSD is sold on the street as
hits in blotters, gelatin, and sugar cubes
in 2009, it was found that what were the most common causes of death related to ecstasy
hyperthermia and hyponatremia
the Controlled Substance Act
ignored the previous century of accumulating medical evidence and declared that marijuana had no potential medical use but had a high potential for abuse
heavy cannabis users may be at a risk of developing what condition
schizophrenia
effects 30 mins-2 hours after LSD administration
images seen with the eyes closed, synesthesia (intermingling of senses), perception of a multilevel reality, strange and exaggerated configurations of common objects
LSD is now taken
in smaller doses and used more as a phantasticant or entactogen as opposed to a hallucinogen
pattern of cannabis use in the US
in the US, the vast majority of users are casual; most westerners who start using cannabis eventually decrease their use and stop whereas in countries where use is more extensive; it may persist for 20-40 years
short-term physiological effects of ecstasy include
increased body temperature, perspiration, headache, pupil dilation, and muscular tension which causes jaw clenching and tooth grinding
the average THC content has
increased substantially over the past 50 years
three functions of CB1 receptor
inhibit cAMP, inhibit Ca+ channels, activate K+ channels (ultimately inhibits neurotransmitter release)
are cannabinoid receptors involved in an excitatory or inhibitory mechanism
inhibitory mechanism
behavioral effects of Salvinorin A
intense hallucinations that come with a host of varied behavioral and physiological effects; common effects include uncontrollable laughter, loss of motor coordination, changes in perception, emotional swings, and synesthesia
does Salvinorin A have any action at the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor
interestingly, Salvinorin A has not been found to have any action at the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor, which is instrumental in the psychedelic response to the monoamine-like hallucinogens
what effects make LSD useful in psychotherapy
its entactogenic ("touching within") and empathogenic effects
LSD is molecularly similar to what neurotransmitter
serotonin
long-term cannabis use may produce what effects on cognitive function
long-term cannabis use may produce subtle impairments in higher cognitive functions of memory, attention, and the organization/integration of complex information, however the nature and extent of cognitive deficits are related primarily to the amount of recent cannabis use
compared to the endocannabinoids, THC is
longer lasting and has a much greater effect on cannabinoid receptors
the goal of any prevention program (particularly primary prevention), is to
lower the numbers of new drug users or to at least delay the first use of alcohol and tobacco to an age at which the young people are considered adult
LSD stands for
lysergic acid diethyl amide
what is currently the most common illicit drug in the United States
marijuana
effects of marijuana on reproduction
marijuana seems to lower the levels of testosterone in nonhumans and humans; the effects of cannabis on sexual behavior and arousability are generally dose-dependent and observed in males and females; males report increased sexual desire but a detrimental effect on erectile functioning whereas female report an increase in sexual desire, satisfaction, pleasure, and orgasm quality
association question
marijuana use and the subsequent use of other illicit drugs are statistically correlated
trend in marijuana use
marijuana use has been increasing and its perceived risk has declined, which suggests that the trend will continue upwards
ecstasy produces a
marked increase in wakefulness, endurance, energy, a sense of euphoria, an increased sense of well-being, sharpened sensory perception, greater sociability/extraversion, and a heightened sense of closeness to other people
learning how the family has coped with having a drug abuser as a family member is crucial not only in understanding the origins of abuse but also in
maximizing the chances of successful treatment
hallucinogens related to norepinephrine include
mescaline, MDMA/MDA, DOM
population studies have shown that there is considerable individual variation in the ability to
metabolize dextromethorphan into dextrorphan; the cytochrome P450 enzyme plays a critical role in the metabolism of dextromethorphan, and slow metabolizers tend to have low levels of this enzyme; this metabolic difference accounts for the individual variation in effects of taking dextromethorphan
CB1 receptor
metabotropic receptor for cannabinoids located in the brain
CB2 receptor
metabotropic receptor for cannabinoids located in the spleen and immune system
psychodysleptic
mind-disrupting
psycholytic
mind-dissolving
psychdelic
mind-expanding
overall prevention strategy is to
minimize the risk factors in a person's life with respect to drug-taking behavior and to maximize the protective factors
preparation
most people in the preparation stage are planning to take action and are making the final adjustments before they begin to change their behavior
are PCP and ketamine generally toxic
no; a lethal dose of ketamine is 25 times the effective dose for intranasal administration; although toxic effects may vary, high doses can cause coma, convulsions, and respiratory arrest; the lethal effects of PCP and ketamine are potentiated by the presence of depressant drugs, such as alcohol or barbiturates, in the body
do the stages of change apply only to drug abuse
no; stages of change apply not only to drug abuse recovery but to any life change (losing weight, exercise, ending an unhappy relationship)
the dissociative anesthetics appear to alter the functioning of what four neurotransmitters
norepinephrine, dopamine, acetylcholine, and serotonin
purpose of clinical trials is to
obtain information on investigational products (IP) or drug products
does cannabis cause violence
one of the oldest beliefs about cannabis is that it directly causes violence and aggression and is associated with crime, but there are absolutely no systematic data to support this myth
general guidelines in deciding a mode of treatment
outpatient preferred over inpatient treatment; a pharmacological approach should be combined with psychotherapy or behavioral counseling when possible; self-help groups such as alcoholics anonymous or similar organizations should be considered
more recently, there have been numerous reports of people consuming large quantities of
over the counter cough medicines such as Robitussin for the psychological effects, a practice sometimes called roboing
ecstasy also affects the release of
oxytocin, a hormone involved in bonding and building trust; this neurohormonal effect may be the cause of ecstasy's empathogenic and entactogenic properties
in 1965, PCP was removed from the market because
patients reported that while recovering from the drug, the experienced a delirium, disorientation, and agitation referred to as emergence delirium
the Marijuana Tax Act
placed a tax on the sale of cannabis; markedly decreased prescribed medicinal uses of marijuana
instead of thinking of the stages of as linear model, it is more accurate to think of them as
points along a spiral
effective treatment programs should address
polydrug abusers as well as monodrug abusers
primary prevention focuses on
populations that have had only minimal or no exposure to drugs
tertiary prevention focuses on
populations who have entered treatment; the goal is to prevent relapse
secondary prevention focuses on
populations whose drug experience has not yet been associated with serious long-term problems
phase IV
post-marketing study; predominantly to collect long-term safety data; better defines toxicities/adverse device effects; very large subject numbers (10,000s); medical, educational studies; cost/benefit of the drug
five stages of change
pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance
pre-contemplation
precontemplators usually show up in therapy because of external pressures and resist change; when their problem comes up, they change the topic of conversation; they place responsibility for their problems on external factors
effects of PCP
produces a trance-like state as opposed to a loss of consciousness and has been classified as a dissociative anesthetic because it seemed to separate people from sensory experience
benefits of drug court
provide effective rehabilitation; decreased rate of criminal recidivism (repeated arrests); cost-effective; increase time an individual remains in treatment
before the 1960s, LSD was being administered to humans under what limited conditions
psychiatric hospitals and psychotherapy sessions top secret CIA experiments evaluated LSD for espionage work (MK-ULTRA)
Salvia dinorum
psychoactive plant native to Oaxaca, Mexico that produces visions and dissociative effects, much like LSD and other hallucinogens
at higher doses, the dissociative anesthetics may produce
psychotic behavior that may include anything from manic excitation to catatonia; this psychotic state often disappears as drug levels decline, but sometimes the psychosis requires hospitalization and lasts for several weeks
hash oil
purified variation of hashish, prepared by boiling the hashish in alcohol, filtering out the residue, and then allowing the alcohol to evaporate
ineffective prevention approaches
reducing drug availability; only a small fraction of drugs are intercepted at US borders (reducing drug availability can cause people to perceive the drug as more valuable); punitive measures that entail mandatory prison sentences for people involved in drug taking or trafficking; scare tactics/negative education (1960s) including "Reefer Madness"; affective education and values clarification imposes a system of morality without considering individual and cultural background
incarceration has what two objectives
rehabilitation and deterrence
taken at usual doses, the dissociative anesthetics cause
relaxation, warmth, a tingling feeling, and a sense of numbness
does Salvinorin A produce tolerance
repeated exposure to salvia does not appear to lead to the development of tolerance
sequencing question
research studies have indicated that the use of alcohol and cigarettes precedes marijuana use and that marijuana use precedes the use of other illicit drugs
goal of primary prevention is to enhance
resilience; inclination to resist the effects of risk factors for drug-taking behavior through the action of protective factors
three major goals of rehabilitation
reverse the decline in physical and psychological functioning; use of all psychoactive substances must permanently stop; a lifestyle free of alcohol and other drugs must be rebuilt and maintained
many users of LSD report seeing
small animals or human figures that are friendly and caricature-like as well as religious imagery; these images are projected on whatever they are looking at, or against a black background if they close their eyes
most efficient route of administration of marijuana
smoking cannabis plant material is an efficient route of administration and is usually smoked in a joint, bowl, or bong
another adverse effect of many hallucinogens is that
some effects may be briefly experienced long after the drug has worn off; these episodes are commonly known as flashbacks and are termed "Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (Flashbacks)" in the DSM-IV
LSD is a selective agonist at
some serotonin receptors; particularly the 5-HT2A receptor
street name of ketamine
special K, K
action
stage where people overtly modify their behavior and their surroundings; requires the greatest commitment of time and energy
stimulus properties of THC
stimulus properties generalize to other cannabinoids but not to other classes of drugs; animals trained to discriminate THC generalized poorly to anandamide and then only when anandamide was given in high doses
endocannabinoids
substances that occur naturally in the body and activate the cannabinoid receptors
specific judicial proceedings called drug courts (adult, nonviolent offenders) send individuals to
supervised treatment as a "sentence" instead of incarceration
initial physiological effects of LSD
sympathetic activation; dilation of pupils, increased heart rate/blood pressure, nausea
ecstasy is most often used by
teens and young adults at dance clubs to enhance social intimacy
what is evaluated in preclinicals
teratogenicity, carcinogenicity, bioavailability, mutagenicity, toxicology
recreational use became popular amongst musicians in major US cities in
the 1920s
federal and state regulation of marijuana began in
the 1930s, at which point marijuana became associated with Mexican immigrants and criminalized these individuals
drug trafficking laws were primarily established in
the 1970s and attempt to control the unauthorized manufacture, distribution (sale/gift), and possession with the intent to distribute any controlled substance
what caused marijuana to gain limited popularity in Western Europe in the 1840s
the Clud des Hachinchins (Club of Hashish Eaters)
LSD peaked in use at
the Woodstock Music Festival in 1969
a common effect of low medical concern is
the acute psychotic reaction or psychedelic crisis, which occurs when the user is having an unpleasant experience or bad trip
where is the CB1 receptor located on the neuron
the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron
the principal effect for the reinforcing properties of dissociative anesthetics is
the blocking of NMDA receptors for glutamate and aspartate, which are excitatory transmitters located in many parts of the brain, including the cortex
are the cannabinoids lipid-soluble
the cannabinoids are highly lipid-soluble
three major risk factors in the life of teenagers with regard to substance abuse
the degree of stress they feel that they are under (high stress teens are twice as likely to smoke, drink, and use illicit drugs); bored teens are 50% more likely to smoke, drink, and use illegal drugs; teens with $25 or more per week were twice as likely to smoke, drink, and use illicit drugs
marijuana is made from
the dried leaves and flowers of the cannabis plant
hashish
the dried resin from the top of the female plant; it is a pale yellow sap when harvested but turns almost black when dried and may be smoked (alone or in a mixture with tobacco) or it may be cooked into cookies
where does Salvinorin A reaches its highest concentrations
the drug reaches highest concentrations in the cerebellum and visual cortex, accounting for its hallucinogenic properties and difficulty integrating sensory experience and motor control
deterrence
the effort to prevent future behavior by conveying the message that a punishment will be given to others for similar behavior
rehabilitation
the effort to reduce the likelihood that the individual will behave in a similar way in the future
what led to a more lenient approach to marijuana in the 1970s
the emergence of marijuana on American college campuses and among American youth during the late 1960s forced a reexamination of public policy regarding this drug
LSD is synthetically derived from
the ergot fungus
maintenance
the extent to which the learner continues to perform the target behavior after a portion or all of the intervention has been completed
NMDA receptors are vital in
the formation of long-term memories; PCP and ketamine are NMDA receptor antagonists and, it is therefore not surprising that they are powerful amnesic drugs
Cannabis sativa is also known as
the hemp plant
three regions of the brain involved in the hallucinogenic effect of LSD
the locus coeruleus, the cortex, and the raphe nuclei (LCR)
one of the dangerous effects of ecstasy is
the loss of heat regulation in the body, causing an increase in body temperature; in a club where the user is dancing in a warm environment, this dysregulation can cause heatstroke, muscle tissue damage kidney failure, and liver damage; dancers often attempt to compensate by drinking water excessively, which results in an electrolyte imbalance that can cause organs, including the brain, to swell, resulting in seizures
pattern of human self-administration of LSD
the self-administration of LSD in humans is different from the use of most other drugs; LSD is not taken continuously; it is indulged in sporadically and on special occasions; LSD use does not increase over time in an individual; LSD use among teenagers in the US remained fairly high throughout the 1990s but has since been steadily declining
pattern of ecstasy use
the use of ecstasy has steadily increased among young people in the US and Europe throughout the 1990s until 2000; this decline was accompanied with a general increase in perceived risk of using the drug
during a psychedelic crisis,
the user often forgets that their experience is drug-induced and undergo reactions ranging from vague anxiety to prolonged terror or panic; panicked users can usually be calmed down if put in close contact with someone who talks quietly and assures them that their state is drug induced
causation question
there is little evidence that some property of marijuana exposure itself leads to physical or psychology dependence on other drugs
metabolism of cannabinoids
there is some metabolism of cannabinoids in the lungs if the drug is inhaled and some in the intestines if the drug is administered orally, but most of the metabolism occurs in the liver
harmful effects of psilocybin, LSD, and mescaline
these drugs are not very toxic; there are no recorded cases of anyone dying from an overdose of any of these drugs
Siegel proposed that the nature and structure of hallucinations must be determined by the nature and structure of the visual system and the brain, not by the drug because
these hallucinatory experiences are similar among vastly different drugs; the experiences resemble the effects produced by other non drug hallucinations, such as those from fever, hypoglycemia, and migraine headaches; the experiences are similar cross-culturally
do the dissociative anesthetics generalize to other drugs
they generalize only to other drugs known to block NDMA receptors, such as dextromethorphan, indicating that this effect is likely the basis for their stimulus properties
long-lasting psychotic behavior has been reported after PCP use, even in individuals without any psychotic tendencies
this PCP psychosis may last for several months in some individuals and is indistinguishable from schizophrenia
what accounts for why LSD is seldom taken continuously
this rapid development and disappearance of tolerance
does tolerance to the effects of THC develop
tolerance effects among marijuana human users do not generally occur; users report becoming sensitized (reverse tolerance) to the drug, but this can be accounted for with the users ability to get more drug into their bodies from a given amount of marijuana
the majority of the drug is either excreted
unchanged in the urine or metabolized to MDA
levels of Salvinorin B are
undetectable in the urine of rhesus monkeys even shortly after ingestion, indicating that the metabolite is ether immediately cleared or stored in organ and tissue
is MDMA self-administered by nonhumans
unlike LSD, MDMA is readily self-administered by primates and mice; the reinforcing effects of MDMA are strongest at moderate doses; lower and higher doses are ineffective reinforcers
safest way to smoke cannabis
using a vaporizer is a safer and equally effective alternative when administering cannabis; cannabinoids vaporize at a lower temperature than tars and other carcinogens and therefore make up the majority of the vapor
PCP and ketamine have an unfounded reputation for causing
violence and uncontrollable behavior
withdrawal symptoms from PCP include
vocalizations, grinding of the teeth, diarrhea, difficulty staying awake, anxiety, confusion, and tremors
does tolerance to LSD develop
when LSD is taken repeatedly for 2-3 days, tolerance develops and the drug no longer produces the desired effect; this tolerance dissipates quickly and sensitivity returns in approximately a week
synesthesia
when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another; intermingling of the senses
ecstasy is sold in
white or colored tablets and each pill may contain up to 100 mg or more of MDMA and may have varying amounts of MDEA, MDA, PMA, and MBDB
do withdrawal symptoms arise after discontinuation of cannabis use
withdrawal symptoms have been reported in nonhumans and humans only after continuous administration of fairly high doses; only a mild psychological dependence
when do blood levels of THC peak
within 15 minutes and effects begin 30-60 minutes after administration
when are effects of PCP felt
within a minute of inhalation or intravenous injection and from 20-40 minutes after oral administration
does THC cause dissociation
yes; THC causes dissociation in humans and nonhumans
is LSD highly potent
yes; producing hallucinogenic effects at as little as 200-400 micrograms
