EC-6 ELA and Reading

Holophrastic or One Word Stage (11-19 months)

- Children at this stage imitate the inflections and facial expressions of adults - Recognize their name and follow simple instructions presented in context - Children use adults as tools by pointing to objects and requesting help - Understand word concepts and use these to conceptualize complete ideas

Word Analysis and Identification Skills

-Word analysis refers to the way that children approach a written word to decode and obtain its meaning. Its goals include helping children become skillful in rapid word recognition. Beginners typically decode each word as they read it, but repeated exposure to the same words increases the instant recognition vocabulary. Developing readers must learn to recognize words that occur often. These words are called sight words -Students identify/recognize words in 4 major ways: sight vocabulary, phonics analysis, words parts or structural analysis, and context clues. Proficient readers use these strategies to decode and understand words. Teachers should make sure students master all 4 wayss rather than relying upon one or two. Teachers also should provide explicit, systematic instruction in each skill and enable student to read independently and/or with reading buddies to practice their word analysis

The connection between speaking, listening, and reading

-although listening is used extensively in communication, it does not get much attention. Although no well-defined model exists for teaching listening skills, some theorists link listening skills to reading skills. Reading and listening both entail receiving language and making use of similar language comprehension. Reading and listening both entail receiving language and making use of similar language comprehension. Listening and reading both require the use of skills in phonology, syntax, and semantics as well as knowledge of the structure of text. -children also need to be coached in the use of appropriate volume and speed when they speak and in the rules required to participate in discussions as well as the culturally defined rules for maintaining a polite conversation. In American culture, such rules include staying on a topic and taking turns without interrupting speakers. -effective listening experiences can be integrated into all areas of the curriculum to enhance learning while also building children's listening abilities. Teachers can also have students listen to audience in different formats, with another individual, in small groups, and in whole class situations. Teachers can also expand listening experiences in formal and informal contexts and by varying the purpose for listening, such as gaining info, solve problems, and/or interact with classmates -teachers can read aloud quality literature daily to provide different purposes for listening and to enhance learning throughout the curriculum. All grade levels should hear their teacher read aloud to them daily. Reading aloud is among the most effective ways to build academic vocab because written words can exceed those used in daily oral communications. In oral communication, children most often are exposed to shorter segments of language as they talk and listen. If children do not get experience at listening to someone reading aloud to them, they will be unprepared for the longer, more sophisticated written texts they will encounter in their education.

Ages 2 to 3 years

-at age 2, children have about 200-300 word in their linguistic repertoire and can produce short sentences. At this point, children use prepositions and pronouns with some inconsistencies. -at age 3, vocabulary grows to about 900 to 1,000 words. They begin creating 3 or 4 word sentences, can follow two-step commands and engage in short dialogues about familiar topics. -in schools with programs for 3 year olds, children get exposed to informal and formal registers, variants of a language used for a particular purpose depending on the social setting. Children at this age, request instead of demand, use courteous vocab, and follow conversation formats.

Language Interference

-teachers must account for how the 1st language of an ELL may interfere in the pronunciation of English. Phonologically, language interference can happen at the word or sentence level. The most noticeable interference happens when students use the phonology of their first language to pronounce words in English. -a second interference can be caused by the application of incorrect word stress in English

To receive the Advanced High rating in the speaking subtest of TELPAS, students should be able to

1. Participate in extended discussion in social and grade- appropriate academic topics 2. Communicate using abstract and concrete content- based vocab during classroom instruction 3. Use complex English grammar structures and complex sentences at a level comparative to native speakers 4. Minimize pronunciation or linguistic errors that interfere with overall communication

Speaking Checklist

1. Sticks to topic 2. Builds support for the student. 3. Speaks clearly. 4. Takes turns and waits to talk. 5. Talks so others in the group can hear. 6. Speaks smoothly. 7. Uses courteous language 8. Presents in an organized and interesting way 9. Supports the topical thesis 10. Answers questions effectively 11. Is comfortable speaking publicly 12. Maintains listeners' interests 13. Volunteer to answer in class

A stories point of view

1. first person: where the author is one of the characters of the story and the narrator 2. omniscient point of view: where the narrator is an outsider who knows what the characters are thinking or feeling 3. limited point of view or subjective consciousness: where the narrator is not a character in the story

Additional strategies to teach phonemic awareness and phonological awareness

1. read poetry aloud to children to expose children to the music and cadence of language 2. organize a writing center where students can write daily. When children write and use invented spelling, they develop phonemic awareness as they try to account for the sounds they hear. Even if the child's early efforts are unconventional, the child gains by accounting for sounds in the word. This is critical in learning to spell 3. teach the child to isolate phonemes. Follow a pattern from the simplest to the most difficult. Begin with initial and final sounds and then add phonemes in middle position. As such questions as "what is the first sound of the word boy?" 4. guide children to blend sounds and come up with rhymes. Ask the child, "What word can you create when you blend the sounds t and ake or l and ake 5. introduce blending by guiding children to identify the word created when the following sounds are blended /b/ /a/ /t/ 6. guide children to identify a word like tape and then remove the onset (the first letter) and ask the class "What word is left when we remove the first letter (t)? ) (answer ape). Then ask students, "is this a word?" 7. teach word segmentation by saying one word and then guiding children to identify the sounds they hear. Teachers can begin with simple monosyllabic words like car and then expand to more sophisticated words. 8. use onset and rimes to teach the sound-symbol relationship. Guide children to create new words by substituting the first letter of monosyllabic words. 9. introduce minimal pairs, which are sets of words that differ in only one phoneme like pat and bat to guide students to notice the difference.

Children's Literature

3 major categories: fiction, nonfiction, and poetry 1. fiction: realistic fiction, historical fiction, science fiction, fantasy, and traditional literature. Traditional literature includes: folktales, fables, myths, epics, and legends 2. nonfiction: informational books, biography, and autobiography

Babbling or Pre-Language Stage (0-6 months)

Children at this stage send and receive messages and use reflexive crying to communicate with caregivers. They play vocally by producing multiple linguistic and non linguistic sounds (e.g mmm, dada) Infants (0-2 years) can identify the voices of parents and fmaily members, and they can follow certain commands. They also begin to understanding the intonation patterns used to convey anger or excitement and the patterns used to ask questions

Show- and- Tell

Children bring artifacts and personal items to class. They show objects and describe them to the class. In addition to the benefit of oral communication, this activity can promote both home and cultural pride as well as multicultural awareness.

Communication Style and Culture

Culture plays an important role in the way people communicate orally and in written form

Lexical Stress

English has at last 4 levels of word stress- primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The identification of the primary and secondary stress is vital to produce a standard pronunciation. Ex: if we examine the pronunciation of and uncommon name like Copernicus, most English speakers will have to think twice to identify the primary and secondary stress in the word.

Puppet Show

Hand puppets, finger puppets, and string puppets can be use to promote communication and confidence among children. These let students communicate orally by using the puppet as a tool to convey info. The use of puppets is also an enjoyable and motivating activity for learners, especially young ones.

Graphemes

Individual letters that represent phonemes. EX: through has 7 of this term (i.e letters) that represent only 3 sounds /th,r,u/ (phonemes)

Sentence Stress

Intonation pattern used in sentences create another challenge for young learners and ELL's. In a typical sentence, content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) are emphasized more than functions words (articles, prepositions, and conjunctions). This term and the intonation pattern are commonly used to highlight a segment of sentence or to modify the sentences. English speakers can use the same sentence to change the meaning. Ex: "She is BUYING the house." The speaker emphasizes the word BUYING. She does so to clarify that she is buying, not leasing, the house. In the same sentence, the speaker can emphasize or stress the word SHE, to imply that she and not anyone else is the one buying. This term can also change the classification of the utterances. Ex: How ARE you? (when emphasizing the verb ARE makes the utterance a question) How are YOU? (a slight change of intonation to the pronoun YOU changes the utterance to reply to the question) Rhymes help ELLs as they develop phonemic awareness, as well as prosodic stress in phrases and sentences. Pg:30

Language play

Involves the use of language in rhyme, alliteration, songs, and repeating patterns to amuse children. Tongue twisters are commonly used to practice pronunciation and language patterns. Through these activities, children acquire language knowledge in a relaxed and fun environment. Teachers can also use nursery rhymes, poems, and stories that contain rhyme to introduce these language features

Syllabication

Is an important component of phonological awareness. It refers to the ability to conceptualize and separate words into syllables, which are their basic pronunciation components in English. Syllables can be as simple as one vowel or can be a combination of vowels and consonants. Ex: elegant contains 3 syllables (el/e/gant), one of which is a vowel alone. Vowels are the heart of a syllable, and syllables constitute the basic unit of pronunciation. Syllables thus influence the rhythm of the language, poetic meter, and word stress. Syllabication can be taught using the appropriate voice intonation to indicate the beginning and end of a syllable

Special considerations when teaching Phonemic and Phonological awareness

It is easier to break sentences into words and break words into syllables than to break syllables into phonemes. Instructors are advised to introduce phonological awareness first with the simple concepts like rhyming and recognizing syllables before asking children to recognize and manipulate sounds of words. Instructors should consider the following sequence when teaching phonological awareness. 1. guide children to recognize rhyming words heard in nursery rhymes and poems 2. introduce syllables using counting, tapping, blending, or segmenting words into syllables 3. introduce onset and rimes blending the 2 components in words like b-at and s-ad 4. guide children to identify initial sounds in words like bed /b/ and cat /c/ 5. model blending sounds and repeat the word slowly to see if students recognize them 6. guide students to stretch the sounds to segment words like /b/ /e/ /d/ 7. begin teaching phonemic awareness by using short monosyllabic words. Introduce words with a consistent structure like consonant-vowel-consonant (ex: bat and cat before introducing more difficult ones) 8. begin segmenting short words into phonemes. When children understand the component of phonological awareness, introduce syllabication and other components of phonological awareness 9. introduce sounds in initial positions, then sounds in final positions, and finally (the most difficult ones) the phonemes in medial position 10. when teaching sound-symbol correspondence, introduce sounds that present the least chance for distortion. Sounds like nasal /m/ and sibilant /s/ represent easier sounds for the child than the brief sounds created with stop sounds like /p/ /t/ /k/

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Linguist Noam Chomsky said all humans posses an "internal grammar" or set of linguistic principles, that are activated potentially for all languages. This is considered universal. It adapts to the language(s) being exposed or learned.

Types of writing systems

Logographic writing Syllabic writing Alphabetic writing

Balanced Reading Program

Research into best practices suggest that the teaching of reading requires solid skill instruction, including several techniques for decoding unknown words. These techniques include phonics instruction embedded in interesting reading and writing experiences with whole and authentic literature-based texts to facilitate the construction of meaning. This approach to instruction combines the best skill instruction and the whole language approach to teach both skills and meaning as well as to meet the reading needs of individual children. Some of the reading strategies used in the program include: Teacher- directed/ reading to students (read aloud) 1. shared reading, guided reading, and reading workshops 2. student-directed reading and independent reading 3. teacher directed writing, writing to/for students as part of the classroom routines, and process writing 4. shared writing as in language experience/ interactive writing 5. writing workshop and independent writing activities

Fostering the Home School Connection

Strategies to develop this connection include: 1. parents should feel comfortable when coming to the classroom, and they should feel they can contact the teacher when they have a question or concern. Parents should feel welcome. 2. select readings and display to let students and their families see portrayed in literature 3. develop activities that value students' cultural, linguistic, and ethnic backgrounds 4. create a home-school journal in which the teacher and the families can share about the child's development and progress. This journal also can be used as a formative assessment tool to have parents track their child's progress throughout the year 5. display signs using languages other than English in an assigned area in the classroom 6. give parents and families an opportunity to share their personal, cultural, and linguistic experiences in the classroom. Don't use these shared experiences simply as an occasional "cultural diversity" lesson; use them consistently to guide the teaching 7. provide parents with flexible meeting times to accommodate their schedules

The Grapheme-Phoneme Correspondence in English

The links between letters, or combinations of letters (graphemes) and the speech sounds (phonemes) that they represent. The connection between Graphemes and Phonemes in English is not always consistent. English has 26 Graphemes to represent about 44 Phonemes. The consonant system is more consistent that the vowel system. English has 5 letters to represent 14 vowel sounds, including the diphthongs. The grapheme-phoneme correspondence makes decoding and pronunciation challenging for young learners as well as students new to the language. This inconsistency is partially caused by the evolution of the English language and the influence of multiple languages in the development of modern English. Some potential concerns are: 1. Graphemes can represent multiple phonemes. For example, the grapheme s can represent multiple phonemes: cars-/z/, calls-/z/, sugar-/sh/, mission-/sh/, and walks-/s/. This grapheme-phoneme inconsistency represents a challenge when trying to use a phonic approach to reading. 2. English has graphemes that represent a sound in some words, but remain silent in others. For example, often the graphemes (s) and (l) become silent without giving readers a reliable clue for this change: island, clam, and palm. (Some speakers will make an attempt to pronounce the /s/ and /l/ in these words.) 3. English has multiple vowel and consonant digraphs in which 2 letters represent one sound. This inconsistency presents a challenge to native English speakers as well as ELLs. (Examples of common English Digraphs on pg: 35 and in notebook) 4. English speakers use multiple contractions in daily communication. These can create listening comprehension problems for students, especially ELLs. Teachers should introduce contractions together with the long version of the word to avoid confusion. (Examples on pg:35 and in notebook) 5. English has multiple words with consonant clusters beginning with s. Examples are: speak, spring, splash, state, string, slate, smoke, snow, and scripture. These clusters require students to blend the sounds while also recognizing the sounds of individual phonemes. These sounds represent a challenge for all ELLs, especially native Spanish speakers because Spanish has no words beginning with these letter sequences. in Spanish these clusters occur only in medial positions and are always preceded by the vowel e. Examples can be found in the words espero, escapar, esprimir, escalar, estrategia, and estar. Based on these features, Spanish speaking ELL's will place the vowel e in front of English words with these initial consonant clusters, creating nonstandard pronunciation 6. Several words in English end in consonant clusters (rant, cord, first, and card). Both young native English- speaking children and ELLs may have difficulty blending clusters at the end of the words. For native Spanish speakers, these clusters represent a unique challenge because Spanish does not have words ending in consonant clusters. Based on this feature, Spanish-speaking children, and possibly most children in early childhood, may simplify a final consonant cluster in English.

Teaching Grapheme-Phoneme Correspondence

This can be presented through games, songs, and other engaging activities; but eventually, the correspondence should be presented explicitly. A list of considerations and strategies: 1. the introduction of the letter-sound correspondence should be guided by the potential support of the children's efforts to become a reader. Introduce the spelling of the letters that the child us most likely to encounter in text. For example, the letters m,a,t,s,p, and h are used more frequently in writing than letters like x or q or consonant digraphs like kn or gn 2. begin instruction in the grapho-phonemic relationship by using sound that represent the least possible distortion or confusion with other sounds. Sounds that are easier to perceive are the nasal /m/ and /n/, the fricative /f/, the sibilant /s/, and the English retroflex /r/ 3. teachers should postpone the introduction of less clear phonemes like the nasal /ng/ and, the distinction between the sibilants /s/ and /z/, the troublesome sounds in English like the voiced th in the word them, and the unvoiced counterpart in the word think 4. introduce words with one or two consonants and one short vowel sounds, such as in the words on and car. Later long vowel sounds can be introduced 5. add consonant blends like "try" next, followed by digraphs like th, sh, and ch in words such as thanks, show, and chop. Digraphs can lead students to recognize such common words as this, she, and chair. Introduce single consonants and consonant blends or clusters in separate lessons to avoid confusion 6. avoid voiceless- stop sounds (/t/, /p/, /k/) at the beginning or middle of words because the short duration of these phonemes makes them more difficult to perceive. Teachers should postpone the introduction of conflicting letter-sound correspondence of phonemes like the /b/ and /v/ or /i/ and /e/ or visually confusing graphemes like the b and d or p and g

Intelligibility

a child's speaking ability is assessed informally in class as part of daily activities and conversations. First, teachers must determine whether the child's speech is intelligible and can be understood by native speakers with a minimum effort. Developmental issues, the use of dialectical variations, and speech disorders can cause intelligibility problems for native speakers. To assess the child's speech, teachers need and understanding of the developmental patterns in language mastery and use these patterns as a foundation for assessing the child's performance. Teachers should also develop an understanding of the developmental patterns in language mastery and use these patterns as a foundation for assessing the child's performance. Teachers should also develop an understanding of the features of dialects spoken in the community to avoid confusion with features that contrast with Standard English. Teachers thus need a working knowledge of the dialects used in the community to make accurate assessments of children's speech

Digraph

a combination of 2 letters that represent one sound, as in ph and ey

Multicultural Literature

acknowledges the importance of sharing literature from various cultures so that students learn about other cultures and so that students are more apt to see their culture featured in books. This type of literature for youths can be written by people from countries throughout the world. The term authentic multicultural has been used to describe literature written by members of a cultural group to represent their own historical development and culture

Structural Analysis/ Word Parts

another strategy for readers to get clues is to pay attention to the structure or parts of a word: base/root words, affixes (prefixes, infixes, and suffixes) of derivational morphemes, and suffixes in inflectional endings. Morphemes are the smallest unit of meaning. These units can be taught. Common derivational morphemes in the form of prefixes, infixes, and suffixes, and inflectional endings should be shown to students

Language Processing Disorders

are caused by a brain-based disturbance called aphasia. Three types of aphasia are known as: receptive, expressive, and global

Turn and Talk

can be used when the teacher would like students to think more about a topic or experience. Rather than an individual child answering the teachers' question, children turn and talk with a partner to help crystallize their thinking and develop their oral language abilities. After talking with a partner, the children then can share what they talked about with the whole group. -this activity works best when the teacher makes sure all the students have partners who can help them grow in speaking and listening. Teachers also should help students learn about how to be a polite listener.

Newly Fluent Readers or Transitional Readers

can read with relative fluency and comprehension. They can use several cuing systems (semantic, structural, visual, and grapho-phonemic) to get meaning from print. They can also show abilities in the following: 1. self-monitor their reading and can identify and correct simple errors with minimum external support. They ask for clarification questions to develop an understanding of content. 2. summarize the part of the story they have read and make inferences about the content 3. handle more challenging vocab by using context clues 4. use literary terms and grammatical concepts 5. enjoy reading from several genres for information and pleasure Children at this stage are not totally independent readers, but with practice and support from teachers, they soon become fluent and independent readers

Two Word Stage (13-24 months)

children begin producing rudimentary types of phrases. These constructions are characterized by a combination of two types of words: pivot and open words. -Pivot: refers to words that can accomplish multiple functions (no, up, all, see, more, and gone) -Open words: words that refer to one concept (home, milk, doggy, juice, pants, and shoe) Based on the vocab limitations at this stage, children use combinations of these 2 classes to create the subject and the predicate of the sentence. Ex: utterances that could be used in this stage, see baby, see mommy, no more, all gone

Derivational Morphemes

come from foreign languages like Greek and Latin, and they represent consistent meanings. For example: in the prefixes pre- (before), anti- (against), and sub- (under). Many English prefixes are common to such Western Languages like German, and all Romance languages. This type of morpheme can also change the syntactic classification of a word. For example: the word CARE is a free morpheme representing a verb or noun. However, when the suffix -ful is added, it changes to an adjective, and the adjective becomes a verb when the morpheme -ly is added, giving us CAREFULLY. (in notebook- examples of common prefixes in English and Spanish)

Dialogue

communication between and among the characters

Traditional Literature

comprises the stories that have their roots in the oral tradition of story-telling and have been handed down through generations. This genre also includes modern versions of these stories. Teachers can read and share multiple versions of these stories, and then compare and contrast them. Teachers also might read a number of folktales and keep track of the elements and these stories have in common and guide children toward noticing where these tales show up in their daily lives. Examples of folk literature: 1. animal tales in which the characters are animals exhibiting human characteristics 2. fables in which the main characters are animals and present a moral 3. the Pourquoi tales comprise creation stories from around the world. Every culture may have a different version of the way things were created 4. wonder tales describe stories of enchantment in faraway lands. Traditionally, they present the themes of good vs. evil 5. noodle head tales are stories of lovable fools. They include individuals who are not very bright but survive and often succeed. 6. cumulative tales are stories in which the info is presented in a sequence and all the events in the sequence are repeated. 7. tall tales describe the stories of legendary people or fictitious characters who accomplish great things 8. ghost stories have traditionally been used to regulate the behavior of children

Phonics Generalizations

describe strategies used to introduce word recognition and decoding skills for emergent readers. The rules are not 100% applicable, but they help in many cases. A list of these rules follows: 1. words with double ee usually represent a long sound (beet) 2. the letter y in final position usually has a vowel sound (by /ay/) 3. when the C is followed by the vowels e or i, the sound of the C is /s/ (Cesar) 4. when the C is followed by the vowels o, u, or a, the sound of the c is /k/ (cord, cult, car) 5. in the cluster ght, the gh is silent (thought) 6. when a word has a double consonant, only one is pronounced (call) 7. in most two-syllabic words, the first syllable is accented (CARton) 8. in words with 2 adjacent vowels, only the first vowel is pronounced creating a long sound (the first vowel does the talking) (beach) 9. in words containing two vowels, one of which is a final e, the first vowel produces a long sound, nad the e is silent (cape) 10. in the syllable structure consonant-vowel-consonant, the sound of the vowel is short (caT)

Pragmatics

describes how context can affect the interpretation of communication. Describes the hidden rules of communication understood by native speakers of the same language. Native speakers often call these rules "common sense rules." However, these rules might be only common to native speakers. These rules are not immediately evident to ELLs. Ex: a greeting in English is expected to end after a few exchanges of words such as "I'm fine" But ELLs and people new to the culture might misinterpret the routine question as a literal inquiry and try to answer directly

Biography

describes the lives of real people. Autobiography describes the life of the author. These books also can enhance social studies because they often include info that transforms a name in a textbook into a person that children may know better

Poetry

difficult to define for children, except as "not prose." This uses words to capture something: a sight, a feeling, or perhaps a sound. It should be chosen carefully for a child because it should elicit a response from the child that connects with the experience of the poem or the author.

Activities to Promote Oral Communication

dramatic play, language play, show and tell, puppet show, turn and talk, interviews (pair interview- can promote oral communication), oral presentations

Syntax

entails the ways in which words are organized and arranged in language. English has specific basic sentence structures. EX: in note book

Literacy Development in School

formal reading instruction begins as children enter school. The 2 most common approaches used to teach reading in public schools are skills-based and meaning-based. The skills-based approach is also called the bottom-up approach, and the meaning-based is also known as the top-down approach

Nonfiction

has the real world as its point of origin. These texts help expand children's knowledge when they are studying a topic, but these readings must be evaluated for accuracy and authenticity as well as inclusion of important facts. This can support the teaching of content and promote higher-level comprehension skills

Ages 6 and 7

have a speaking vocabulary of about 2,100 words and a comprehension vocab of more than 20,000 words. Children use well constructed sentences using all parts of speech. They still might have problems with certain words and structures, but their speech is fluent and clear. However, speakers at this age might still have a problem with words containing sounds like /v/, /th/, /ch/, and /sh/. Some children will use the sound of the /w/ in place of the required /r/ and /l/ sounds. They can separate words into syllables and decode written language. They can understand and address questions that call for reasons for an action. Ex: they can explain their actions and answer such questions as "Why did you pick number 5 as the answer?" After age 6, children continue to polish their language skills and add new and more sophisticated vocab

Age 5

have a vocab of about 2,100 words and a working knowledge of the grammar of the language. They may have problems dealing with compound sentences and sentences with embedded meaning. They are learning to understand time and use verbs accordingly. Most children at this stage have mastered the use of progressive (-ing), regular past tense (-ed), and plurals (-s). Irregular verbs still constitute a challenge at this age. They can identify and produce specific sounds and blends (combinations of phonemes such as in the word block). The vocab continues to increase as children have more contact with peers and teachers in school

Age 4

have about 1,500 words in their speaking repertoire. They use more complex sentence structures, but their speech still contains pronunciation problems as well as over-generalizations. They understand more than what they can verbalize. They answer factual questions in contextualized situations but have difficulties explaining the rationale for their answers

Early Readers (or Progressing Readers)

have mastered reading readiness skills, and they are beginning to read simple text with some success. They are also developing an internal list of high frequency words in print. Their reliance on picture clues has decreased now that they can get more info from print. Children at this stage can show abilities such as: 1. using the cuing system to confirm info in the text 2. engage in self-correction when text does not make sense to them 3. rely on grapho-phonemic info to sound words as a decoding strategy, using beginning, middle, and end letter-sound correspondence 4. read familiar texts with fluency, including appropriate phrasing and intonation 5. notice features, such as punctuation and capitalization, from language and texts as well as the use of bold print and variation in format 6. retell stories to them with detail and accuracy 7. engage in discussion of stories read

Phonemes

how sounds can be combined, the basic units of sound. Ex: through, th/r/u 3 phonemes

Syntax

how words can be placed together

Phonemic Stress

is a form of lexical stress in which the location of the stress in a word can change its meaning. Ex: the word present has 2 meanings depending on how it's pronounced. With the stress on the first syllable /'pre-zent/, it becomes a noun, but if the stress is placed on the last syllable /pri-ezent/, it becomes a verb

Consonant Clusters

is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel

Alliteration

is a technique to emphasize phonemes by using successive words that begin with the same consonant sound or letter. Tongue twisters are the best known form. Children can repeat tongue twisters for fun, and simultaneously develop an awareness of the sound-symbol correspondence. Ex: the /p/ sound is emphasized, Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers

Pair Interview

is an additional strategy that can be used to promote oral communication children are paired to learn information from each other and then report their findings to the class. this technique could also be used for other projects where students interview people in their family or community to learn more about a topic or time period.

Global Aphasia

is another brain-based disorder; it affects the receptive and expressive features of language. Children with this severe brain impairment of articulation and fluency produce minimal speech, and their comprehension is limited. This language disorder also known as "irreversible aphasia", which suggests that little can be done to help children with this condition

Historical Fiction

is set in the past and lets children live vicariously in times and places they cannot experience in any other way. This fiction often depicts real people and events, with fiction laced around them. It enhances social studies

Phonological Awareness

is the ability to recognize and manipulate components of the sound system and the structure of words. It includes the ability to segment words into syllables and phonemes. It also encompasses the ability to discriminate, remember, and manipulate words in sentences as well as sounds within words. It also includes the ability to identify lexical stress in individual words as well as sentence stress.

Phonology

is the study of the sound system of a language. The basic units of sound are called phonemes

Morphology

is the study of the structure of words and word formation. The smallest representation of meaning EX: the word cars is made up of 2 of this term... The basic word or root word "car" and the plural of this term "s"

Exposition

it is usually used to introduce the background info and to understand or introduce characters

Analysis of the story

it might be multicultural or traditional, or include possible stereotypes, sexism, religious issues, controversial elements, or words or ideas that might create controversy.

Communication Disorder

occurs when a person's speech interferes with their ability to convey messages during interactions with others.

Inflectional Morphemes

only happens in final position in a word. They typically follow derivational morphemes in a word, and do not change the syntactic classification of the word. English has the followig 8 inflectional morphemes: 1. short and long plural -s (Ex: two cars, three pens) Long plural -s (use long plurals after ch,sh,s,z,and x (Ex: churches, washes, cases, and boxes) 2. third person singular -s, (Ex: May walks quickly) 3. Possessive 's, (Ex: Martha's boy) 4. progressive -ing (Ex: She is walking) The gerund is not included in this group (Ex: walking is good for your health) 5. regular past tense -ed (Ex: he worked hard) 6. past participle -en or -ed (Ex: She has beaten the system, or it has been ruined) 7. comparative (-er, better, worse, farther, less, and more) (Ex: Basketball players are generally taller than baseball players) 8. superlative (-est, best, worse, furthest, least, and most) (Ex: soccer is the most popular sport in the world)

Receptive Aphasia

or "sensory" aphasia, results from a lesion to a region in the upper back part of the temporal lobe of the brain. It creates problems with listening comprehension and retrieval of words from memory. People affected with this condition often repeat formulatic phrases and produce unintelligible sequences of words or sounds

Language is learned in social settings

participation in conversation provides children with the vocab and the format of conversations they need to develop oral language. Communication with a child can help support their language acquisition.

Six Key Components of Langauge

phonology morphology syntax lexicon pragmatics semantics

Oral Representations

preparing children to communicate what they think and know is common practice in classrooms. -Kindergarten teachers should not expect their students to deliver a 20 min presentation. Instead, giving their students an opportunity to deliver presentations in a nonthreatening environment and activity can lead them to appreciate the art of public speaking from a young age. -As children advance in elementary school, the expectations change. For instance, elementary students are expected to use correct language when speaking and have accurate info when creating a presentation. Students thus are expected to find reliable info and sources when investigating a topic of their choice or one that has been assigned.

Modern Fantasy

present make-believe stories. These tales are so beyond reality that the stories can't be true. Extraordinary events take place within the covers of these books. Fantasy allows a child to move beyond the normal life in the classroom and speculate about a life that never was and may never be. It sparks intense discussions and provides opportunities to illuminate the author's cratf

Bottom Up Approach (skills based)

proceeds from specific to the general or from the parts to the whole; this approach begins with the phonemes and graphemes, and continues by expanding to the syllable, words, sentences, paragraphs, and then whole reading selections. The best presentation of this approach is phonics instruction. Phonics in the method of teaching beginners to read and pronounce words by teaching them the phonetic value of letters, letter groups, and syllables. Because English has an alphabetic writing system, and understanding of the letter-sound relationship should be taught in isolation, in a highly sequenced manner, followed by reading words that represent the regularities of English in print. Children are asked to read decode able texts by sounding the words. Typically, this approach uses reading programs that offer stories with controlled vocab made of letter-sound relationships and words with which children are already familiar. Thus, children might be asked to read such a passage as: The cat sat on the mat The cat saw a rat in the pan. The rat saw the cat The rat and the cat ran and ran -writing instruction follows in the same way. Children are asked to write decodable words and fill in the blanks with decodable words in sentences in workbooks. -modern approaches to phonics instruction have made the stories more enjoyable and interesting. The assumption that textual meaning will become apparent in time. -in summary this approach begins reading instruction with a study of single letters, letter sounds, blends and digraphs, blends and digraph sounds, and vowels and vowel sound isolation, and it does so in a highly sequenced manner.

Fluency Disorders

refer to any condition that affects the child's ability to produce coherent and fluent communication. -Stuttering: characterized by multiple false starts or the inability to produce the intended sounds -Cluttering: occurs when children try to communicate too fast and thus make comprehension difficulty.

Voice disorders

refer to any distortion of the pitch, timbre, or volume of spoken communication. -Phonation Disorder: describes any abnormality in the vibration of the vocal cords. -Resonance Disorder: describes abnormalities created sound passes through the vocal tract.

Semantics

refers to how meaning is conveyed in a language through the use of its vocabulary. The meaning of words if also based on culture as well as the context of the conversation taking place. Connotation and denotation are used in language in a language to convey meaning

Denotation

refers to the LITERAL meaning of words or ideas. Ex: a sign that reads "Dogs contained by invisible fence." Might be confusing for those not aware of this new technology. They might try to touch to see if they can find the "invisible fence". however, pragmatically, this phrase requires people to go beyond the literal meaning of the phrase and understand that whoever posted the sign meant that the dog is contained with an electrical device, not necessarily with a fence

Phonemic Awareness

refers to the child's ability to understand that words have smaller components called sounds (phonemes). It is a component of a large concept: phonological awareness. This awareness constitutes the basic linguistic principle required for the development of oral and written communication.

Setting of a book

refers to the geographical location and the general environment and historical circumstances of the story

Connotation

refers to the implied meaning of words and ideas, and speakers must have knowledge of the culture to understand and expression's implied meaning. (an idea of feeling that a word invokes in addition to its literal and primary meaning) Idiomatic expressions are an example of how usage implies meaning as a communication tool. Having this prior knowledge often presents a challenge to ELLs because they lack the familiarity with American culture that native speakers generally have. Ex: "it's raining cats and dogs"

Lexicon

refers to the vocabulary of a language. Because the meanings of words change based on context and historical framework, vocab is said to be one of the most variable and rich components of language.

Telegraphic Stage (18-27 months)

represents a higher degree of linguistic development in which the child goes beyond the use of two-word communication in their speech. Most words used in this stage are content words with high semantic value (convey more meaning) that can be used in multiple situations. Function words include nouns, adjectives, and verbs. At this stage children use content words as they have heard them used. The use of such function words as prepositions and articles, however, is limited at this stage because they do not convey as much info as content words. Typical sentences at this stage consists of subject, verb, object, or adjective format. Ex: hello there, milk all gone, and that's not nice.

Expressive Aphasia

results from damage to the lower back part of the frontal lobe. This damage affects speaking ability and causes specific problems with articulation of the frontal lobe. The speech is often slow and includes multiple hesitations as well as problems with the suprasegmental features of the language, such as intonation, rhyme, and stress. The sentences are short and contain only the necessary features to convey the message.

Language Acquisition

results from the combination of three main components: innate abilities and mechanism of the learner, exposure to the speech of caretakers and parents, and the interaction of children in their immediate linguistic environment

Syllabic Writing systems

syllables are depicted through the use of unique symbols. Each symbol represent a syllable instead of a single phoneme. Some of the best known syllabic languages are: Cherokee, Japanese, Hmong, Thai, Lao, and Tibetan.

The theme

tell us why it happens, or is a message that is not explicitly stated but emerges from the plot

Alphabetic Principle

the ability to connect letters with sounds, and to create words based on these associations. Children learning to read must also develop an understanding that letters and letter patterns represent the sounds of spoken English. Understanding the ways in which these sound-symbol relationships are created helps them conceptualize that predictable connections exist between phonemes and graphemes

Tone

the author's mood and manner of expression. It might be humorous, serious, satirical, passionate, sensitive, childlike, zealous, indifferent, poignant, or warm

Balanced reading program

the development of phonemic and phonological awareness is vital to prepare students for formal reading instruction. This encompasses best teaching practices from 2 traditionally opposing reading instruction programs: the skills-based approach, which emphasizes phonetic instruction, and the meaning based-approach, which promotes reading comprehension and enrichment. The program that incorporates the best principles of phonics (skills-based) and whole language (meaning-based) instruction can best address the reading needs of all children is one in which the teacher provides reading to students (reading aloud), reading with the students (shared reading and guided reading), and reading by the students (independent reading). The teacher also provides writing with students (shared writing) and writing by students in the nature of independent writing or a writing workshop. Students do need to read both fiction and non-fiction, but that relates to providing an array of types of reading materials toward establishing a literate environment, and these could be a part of shared reading, guided reading, and independent reading

Articulation Problems

the most common part of this disorder is lisping. -Lisping: is a term used when speakers produce the sound /s/, /sh/, /z/, and /ch/ with their tongue between their upper and lower teeth. Other sounds that present challenges to children are the /w/, /l/, and /r/.

Age 8 to 12

the speaking repertoire continues to grow and to improve as their communication changes from using language to have their needs met to becoming language makers in academic settings. 8 year olds begin using relative pronoun clauses (the boy whom you met yesterday was my friend). They also use subordinate clauses that begin with when, if, and because (If you bother me, I am going to tell the teacher). At age 9, the use of the gerund had become common for speakers (cheating is bad). Children use more complex sentences, vocab, and verb construction. Their speech is more coherent through the use of connectors and transition words

Imagery

the use of words to create sensory impressions. It conveys sights, sounds, textures, smells, and tastes. Includes the collection of images used to create an emotional response in the reader

Semantics

the ways meaning is generated in a language, which includes not only the meanings of words. but also the way words, phrases, and sentences combine in ways that make sense

Top-Down Approach (Meaning-based)

this approach begins with the whole and then proceeds to its individual parts. It begins with whole stories, paragraphs, sentences, words and then proceeds to the smallest unit of syllables, graphemes, and phonemes. The approach that best represents this view is the Whole Language Approach. The approach suggests that to derive meaning from text, readers rely more on the structure and meaning of language than on the graphic information from the text. Goodman and other researchers showed that literacy development parallels language development . Miscue analysis: begins with a child's reading a section orally while an examiner notes variations between the oral reading and the printed text. Each variation from the text is called a miscue and is analyzed for type of variation. Miscues that altered meaning should be corrected, while unimportant miscues could be ignored. -this approach emphasizes comprehension and meaning in texts. Children focus on the wholeness of words, sentences, paragraphs, and entire books and seek meaning through context. -the focus of this approach is on comprehension as well as making connections

How is the Alphabetic Principle Learned?

traditionally, children go through specific stages in learning new words and mastering the alphabetic principle. Preschoolers are exposed to components of the alphabetic principle through their environment. They can identify the logo on of store like WalMart or Burger King by their design instead of by the specific letters contained in the logo. But because they are not connecting the letters and the sounds of the logo, this stage is considered a pre-alphabetic phase. Eventually, children engage in a partial alphabetic phase as they play with alphabet blocks and other concrete letter objects typically in early childhood programs. Children connect the shape of the letters with the sound they represent. Children also connect initial letters with the sound of the names of peers, like the N of Nancy and A of Alex. -The next phase of learning new words is identified as the full alphabetic stage. At this stage, children connect the letters with the sounds they represent as well as the meaning of the word. Children get excited in this stage because they are beginning to "crack" the written code of language. -In the final and last stage of development, called the consolidated alphabetic stage, children conceptualize that they can use components of words they know to decode new words. They discover how they can create new words with onsets, rhymes, and other letter sequences. -One of the main purposes of phonics instruction at this stage is to guide children into understanding the connection between the grapheme and phoneme and the sequence that they create to form words and sentences.

Emergent Reader

understand that print contains meaningful information. They also show abilities such as the following: 1. display basic reading readiness skills such as directionality movement (eye movement from left to right, top to bottom, and return sweep) 2. point to words to make voice- print match 3. locate unknown and known words 4. use some initial and final consonant sounds in reading words 5. use illustrations, or picture clues, to support identifying words and comprehension 6. use story structure to make connections to print 7. use repeated phases or patterns to read

Alphabetic Writing System

uses the sounds of the language as a basic unit for writing. English and most European languages use an alphabetic writing system based upon phonetic signs. Theoretically, each symbol represents one unit of sound in this system. However, this principle works better with languages that have consistent sound-syllable relationships. Many alphabetic languages like Spanish are more phonetically consistent than English.

Dramatic Play

using prompts is an ideal activity to develop communication. Students get opportunities to role-play in simulations of real life. Students may get either a specific role to play or be asked to improvise roles.

The 4 classifications of language disorders

voice, fluency, articulation, and language processing

Logographic Writing System

was the first type of written language developed in the history of civilizations. Marked by a letter, symbol, or sign used to represent an entire word. The logograms (pictograms and ideograms) used in Mandarin Chinese are common to all dialectical variations of Chinese including Cantonese. Around the world, simplified pictorial symbols are used as international symbols on roads and in public facilities. For example, a fork and a knife stand for food or a restaurant, and the figure of a man or woman identifies restroom facilities by gender.

The plot

what happens in the story

Vocabulary

word choice, use of concrete vs. abstract terminology

Sight words

words a student recognizes without hesitating. Students also should learn how to spell these words so that they can use them when they write. In 1948, Edward W. Dolch identified 220 of the most frequent words in the English language. He believed that is children were exposed to these words and learned to recognize them, they would become fluent readers. Examples of Dolch's words include: a, an, am, at, can, had, has, ran, the, after, but, got, and away. The introduction of these kinds of words, can expedite decoding and develop fluency in early readers.