Ecological Restoration Midterm 1
Describe what happened in Pennsylvania after the millpond dams failed or were removed?
- Huge amounts of sedimentation build-up. - Faster flows creating incisions - Erosion down stream
What are some of the difficulties that stream restoration projects face?
- Monitoring - Funding - Natural Disasters
Why should we restore salt marshes if sea level rise will submerge them in a few decades?
-Marsh can migrate inland in some areas -if Spartina is not mitigated it will migrate more inland
What are some of the impacts of Spartina densiflora on native ecosystems? wipes out native species?
-Outcompetes indigenous plant species: displaces ecosystem pickleweed, seaside arrowgrass, sea milkwort, western grasswort, and other native brackish species. -Threatens diverse plant community including rare Humboldt Bay owl's clover and Point Reyes bird's beak -Alters invertebrate assemblages: impact on terrestrial and intertidal invertebrates, reduced abundance and diversity of invertebrates, increased mosquito population -Alters estuarine
· What are some of the implications of Climate Change for restoration?
-must consider potential change when planning restoration -nothing is certain -must plan with more flexibility -more job/learning opportunities
What are some of the challenges that restoration practitioners face?
1) Natural systems are constantly changing 2) We have an imperfect understanding of natural systems 3) Lack of available information about previous successes and failures 4) Fear that natural remnants will be destroyed because people assume restoration projects can replace them 5) Restoration is situational—there is no single restoration formula, and each project is very time consuming 6) Project stakeholders often have conflicting desires 7) Lack of sufficient resources to support long-term projects
Conversely, what are some of the opportunities associated with restoration?
1) Protecting existing natural remnants by restoring land on their boundaries and creating buffer areas 2) Providing missing habitat links 3) Restoring degraded remnants 4) Restoring ecosystem processes 5) Generating knowledge and education 6) Repairing and encouraging human capacity 7) Creating resilient social-ecological systems
· What can be done to reduce these impacts?
For habitat destruction, additional gravel can be added to the river to create resources to spawn in. Likewise, as seen in the Rhine River, additional gravel can be added to substitute loss of sediment and prevent further incision of riverbed downstream.
List and describe some of the key landmarks in the history of restoration mentioned in Chap 1.
Fredrick Law Olmsted - restored salt marshes in the Boston Bay Back Fens 1878 Henry David Thoreu John Muir George Perkins- wrote Man and Nature the first call for restoration Many others (mostly professors) in the 1930s began to make aware of restoration and conservation
Historic trajectory
Historic trajectory is the record of the developmental pathway of an ecosystem before alteration.
Restoration ecology
Ideally provides clear concepts, models, methodologies and tools for practitioners in support of their practice
Species redundancy (why is it important to consider in restoration?)
If a species is killed off, you can put in another species that fits the same role and does the same thing. it can add complexity to the system and resilience can increase with more species
How would you characterize restoration in Humboldt County between 1995-2007 in terms of jobs and money spent?
Increase private and public sector funding for restoration efforts
What are some of the community effects of the shift toward larger, more technologically complex restoration efforts?
Integrating the community in restoration projects have sociological and ecological benefits .
How did Spartina densiflora originally get introduced to Humboldt Bay?
Introduced in late 1800's by ballast water in Chile
Describe some of the more recent related to Spartina in Humboldt Bay.
Invasion is not static. It is increasing its tidal range and dispersing to unreached areas
What course is climate change predicted to take in the North Coast region of California over the next 100 years?
It's all very uncertain and variable, nobody can really know for sure... however it is suggested that we might see some of the similar effects of climate change here, like -temperature/sea level rise -earlier warming in spring (snowpack melt) -harsh storms + sea level rise = extreme floods and damage to coastal areas -precipitation in certain latitudes expected least change -decrease in fog?
When is a meander design appropriate to use in a restoration project?
Looking at the historic trajectory of the stream to see if it once meandered or branched. If it did meander then that's when it would be appropriate to put in.
Biotic/Abiotic
Populations of species that comprise the biota are collectively identified as the biotic community. The physical or abiotic environment that sustains the biota of an ecosystem includes the soil or substrate, the atmos- pheric or aqueous medium, hydrology, weather and climate, topographic relief and aspect, the nutrient regime, and the salinity regime.
What attracts people to restoration?
Positivity - "it's not all negative" Opportunity to heal the "wounds of the world" Local opportunities so it is easily accessible One person can make a difference Humans reconnecting with nature
Compare restoration jobs and trends in the public, private and tribal sectors
Public: There are 2 primary ways for organizing restoration of public lands. Funding ande grant managing is relatively stable and does not funding does not fluctuate as much as the private sector 1. Land agency takes full responsibility of all tasks related to project except for implementation which may be contracted to the private sector. This approach is extremely staff intensive and does not involve collaboration except for the implementation. Examples: Redwood National Park, the Six Rivers National Forest, Humboldt Redwoods State Park, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service units in Humboldt County 2. Public agency enters in a multi-layer cooperative agreement with a non profit organization with separate tasks given for each individual restoration project. This also allows for community members to involve themselves Example: BLM under the Cooperative Assistance Agreement Act of 1977, with the Mattole River Council, Mattole Salmon Group and the Redwood Community Action Agency Private: Prioritized through watershed assessments or inventories often designed and proposed by a local nonprofit organization, generally with the support of federal and state. Experience the challenges of funding instability, permitting, and bureaucratic hurdles. Reaffirming the trend towards funding fewer more expensive projects. Mattole River Council is an exemption with a perfect blend of sociocultural and ecological values drawing increasing attention from funders in recent years because of their community-based, participatory restoration. Their success is also due to their diverse funding sources and evolving and diverse restoration goals. Tribal: Hoopa Valley and Yurok are extensively involved in watershed restoration efforts in Humboldt County. Restoration has shifted from professional hydrologists, geologists, and equipment contractors doing most of the restoration works to the actual tribe doing its own assessments and monitoring. Jobs appear to be growing significantly since 2002. The Yurok Fishing Department is responsible more much of the growth.
Why is it important for a restored ecosystem to be autogenic?
Reduces or eliminates the need for active management; resources (time, money, people) can then be directed to other areas instead
Rehabilitation vs. Reclamation vs. Mitigation vs. Ecological engineering
Rehabilitation : emphasizes the reparation of ecosystem processes, productivity and services. Reclamation: stabilization of the terrain, assurance of public safety, aesthetic improvement, and usually a return of the land to what, within the regional context, is considered to be a useful purpose. Mitigation: is an action that is intended to compensate environmental damage. Ecological engineering: involves manipulation of natural materials, living organisms and the physical-chemical environment to achieve specific human goals and solve technical problems.
Composition
Species composition is the taxonomic array of species present, and species richness, i.e. the number of different species present.
Why is it important to involve stakeholders in restoration?
Stakeholders will be permanently affected by the project, and to avoid negative views from the public.
What factors influence community dynamics?
Succession( primary vs secondary) Facilitation: modifying the environment so it becomes more suitable for other organisms inhibition- organisms inhibit establishment of others
What were some of the early studies/ideas about Spartina?
That invasion is static except for disturbances (including restoration) and that it was already everywhere it was going to get.
What has been the pattern with the number of restoration projects in the US during the last decade?
The number of restoration projects are going up but the amount of money is going down. they are spending more money on less expensive projects and spending less money on more expensive projects.
Ecological restoration
The process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed.
Resistance
The term describing an ecosystem's ability to maintain its structural and functional attributes in the face of stress and disturbances.
What is island biogeography and how is it relevant to restoration ecology?
Theory used to predict species richness in islands. Basically, the number of species (species richness) on any island represents a dynamic balance between processes of colonization and extinction. Over time, new species will continue to arrive, but the number of species on an island is at equilibrium-when new species come, either it, or an existing species is likely to become locally extinct. Idea that large/near islands have more species than far/small ones Island biogeography model is helpful in thinking about early stages of development of communities and therefore is of interest to restoration... also the emphasis on the influence of patch size and location reinforces the importance of considering the size and landscape context of restoration projects.
How can community/ecosystem models be used in restoration planning?
These models are essential in order to clarify potential areas of confusion about a projects purpose. -ensure that assumptions and visions that underlie your project are explicit -helps to avoid conflicts -helps the next generation of site managers to decide, as ecological understanding changes, whether (or how) to follow the original plan -organizes thinking/determines information about site and the context you will need to gather in order to create restoration plan
Do western and eastern streams have similar hydrology? Why or why not?
They are similar but they differ in the fact that the eastern streams have more dams and the western streams they are mining.
What were the primary goals of river restoration projects nationwide?
Water quality, riparian management, instream habitat enhancement
What are some of the techniques used to control Spartina densiflora?
Weed whacking, flaming seedlings
Compare pioneer and climax communities/species.
a climax community is supporting new life and the pioneer species is the first life the climax community will support a pioneer species is the first to move into and establish itself after a disturbance like fire, or the first in a change of succession (ie change from grassland to forest); a climax community is the mature, complex "ideal" that it assumed a community is evolving toward and will eventually reach.
Resilience
ability to maintain structure and function in face of stress
Active restoration
accelerate natural recovery process through human improvement
Describe the concept of 'self-organization'. How might it be useful in planning and managing a restoration project?
association between species. species interaction ; biological/ physical organisms react to abiotic factors of environment and vice versa. example: boulder placement (step pool restoration) to look at sediment deposition
Describe ecological succession in a specific habitat type. How can the concept of succession be used in restoration?
is how communities change through time, a shift in the presence or relative abundance of species population over time in a given location under a relatively stable climate. ex: communities replacing one another, Noe Woods changing from Savannah to Forest -Important in restoration as it gives an idea of what has come before and what is in store for the future.
Historic condition
is the composition, structure, and function of an ecosystem before alteration used as an ideal restoration starting point.
Structure
is the physical morphology of an ecosystem
Historic trajectory
is the record of the developmental pathway of an ecosystem before alteration.
Reference condition
historic trajectory; the condition of an ecosystem before alterations.
Species redundancy
multiple species in one area that are doing the same thing (similar roles)
How does a river function naturally in terms of hydrology, sediment, biology and riparian vegetation?
- Rivers transport sediment from eroding uplands to deposition areas downstream near sea level. Sculpt landscape, develop complex channel systems and provide habitat for things like spawning. - As waters flow from high elevation to sea level, their potential energy is converted to other forms as they sculpt the landscape, developing complex channel networks and a variety of associated habitats. - Rivers accomplish their geomorphic work using excess energy above that required to simply move water from one point on the landscape to another.
What drives dam removal?
- Sedimentation build up - Spawning habitats - Disrupted hydrology/ water flow - Interrupt the action of the conveyor belt of sediment transportation - Clean water released from dams are often hungry water.
Describe how a restoration practitioner might determine the wavelength of a designed meander
- The peak of the first wavelength and the peak from the second wavelength. They are not uniform/consistent. -Longitude profile or a cross section
What were stream conditions like in the Mid-Atlantic Piedmont region prior to European settlement?
- There was swamp valleys, wetlands that had low sedimentation and high carbon storage. - Also hydric soils now proved saturation in the past.
Why has the California SWRCB become a big funder in restoration?
- This is due to: -Prop. 40: the California Clean Water, Clean Air, Safe Neighborhood Parks, and Coastal Protection Act of 2002 -Prop. 50: WaterQuality, Supply and SafeDrinking Water Projects. Coastal Wetlands Purchase and Protection
What types of evidence did Walter and Merritts use to test their hypothesis?
- We observe that crests of breached, historic milldams merge with valley-flat surfaces and that most modern streams are incised deeply below this surface. - A rapid, regional transformation of stream valleys had occurred in eastern North America, from widespread aggradation as a result of damming (base-level rise) to subsequent incision and bank erosion due to dam breaching (base-level fall)
What are some of the suggestions in Chapter 2 for dealing with climate change in restoration?
-Adopt a flexible, adaptive approach -Consider a species with broad environmental tolerances -Select species with adaptations to the future climate predicted for that region -Design restorations with diversity of habitats or connection to natural patches (emigration) -Use recent environmental data (5-10 years) to characterize site instead of long term averages ex temperature
Compare contrast ideas of Kondolf (ecology/geomorphology) to Bergen (Engineer)
-Compare: Both Kondolf and Bergen are trying to produce a healthy environment that restore some ecological service either for humans or wildlife. -Contrast: Kondolf focuses on the efficiency of monitoring and reporting ecological and geomorphology, while Bergen focused on formulating successful engineering project that works with natural systems.
What are the elements of effective evaluation of restoration projects (according the Kondolf & Bergen et al.)
1. Clear objectives 2. Baseline data 3. Good study design 4. Commitment to the long term 5. Willingness to acknowledge failures
What are design functional requirements?
1. Design consistent with ecological principles 2. Design for site-specific context 3. Maintain the independence of design functional requirements 4. Design for efficiency in energy and information 5. Acknowledge the values and purpose that motivate design
Be able to outline an experimental design related to planning a restoration project.
1. Project purpose 2. Use-Policy 3. Research: background, historical references, Site Inventory Analysis: Site immersion: using all senses to analyze a site 4. Goals, Objectives 5.Master Plan 6. Site Plan 7. Implementation 8.Research, Documentation: (notes and observations; work journals and team reports; photographs; records of purchases) Monitoring and Management
What factors influence community organization?
1. environmental tolerance 2. ability to reach a site 3. species interactions
What proportion of the projects surveyed had stated goals?
20%
What is a community/ecosystem model? Give an example of one.
A description of the composition, structure, functions, interactions and dynamics of the restoration target community using a reference condition for a model to set goals "community"= biology..organisms "ecosystem" biotic/abiotic interactions EXAMPLE: redwood forest model Plant Community : Redwoods, Ferns (overstory/understory) Animal/Wildlife/Organisms: Herbivory, Decomposition These two are interacting with one another. one is based on another
What is the systems concept?
A group of interacting, interrelated or independent elements forming a complex whole. -How environment influences organisms and vice versa -Usually depicted using boxes and arrows -Can be used for predicting an outcome
What is a keystone species and how does it pertain to restoration?
A keystone species is a species that plays a critical role in maintaining the structure of an ecological community. keystone species are important to restoration because without them there would be adverse effects on the things around where they were. restoration will aim to fix that and introduce new species that can fill the same role. bison are an example- their grazing habits- they eat patches avoiding forbs and allow those forbs to thrive by eliminating the grass in patches.
When is a meander design not appropriate to use in a restoration project?
Again based on the historic trajectory you could see if the river system was once a meander or not. If it show that it isn't then you wouldn't want to put in a meandering design.
What is the National River Restoration Science Synthesis (NRRSS)?
Aims to analyze the extent, nature, scientific basis, and success of stream river restoration projects to date, and to present this information in a way that is useful to scientists, restoration practitioners, and those making policy decisions on what kinds of projects ought to receive priority for funding and implementation.
Where is Spartina densiflora native to?
Argentina and coastal Brazil
What agencies have spent the most on restoration in Humboldt County?
California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) and the State Water Resource Control Board (SWRCB)
Define and compare community organization versus community dynamics
Community organization- variation in space (3 factors) Community Dynamics- variation through time. a group of interacting, interrelated or interdependent elements forming a complex
Reference ecosystem/ reference condition/ reference site
Comparable intact ecosystem used as a model for restoration
Compare and contrast complete restoration, ecological services restoration and experiential restoration. Give an example of each.
Complete restoration- strives to include all the attributes of the historic natural communities Example- Arcata Marsh and Wildlife Sanctuary- was restored to fill needed processes, structures, functions and services Ecological Services Restoration- establish structural and functional attributes of ecosystems that support or satisfy human needs example- fixing an area for drinking water for a small town. Experiential Restoration- revitalization of landscape attributes that bring pleasure to humans example- building a community park...builds informative signs of the importance of nature
Give examples of some recent dam removal projects and the methods used to remove the dams
ELWHA River in Port Angeles, WA... in removing the dam, the workers already know and employ this stage as a learning process, as something to learn from and take knowledge away. Need for dam no longer exists for them... now just a liability. Cheaper to tear out dams than go through with stringent process of relicensing. Removal of dams is done slowly as to not overload river with sediment, while some will actually be trucked out. Botanists will then plant native species along river banks.
What are some of the disciplines that restoration ecology draws from?
Earlier: Conservation, urban planning, landscape design, educational efforts, teamwork... Today: Teamwork from geology, physical geography, soils, plants, animals, microbiology, hydrology, climate, problem solving, communication sociology, psychology, economics, political etc.
· Ecological restoration compared to ecological engineering
Ecological engineering focuses on human needs Ecological Restoration focuses on the environment
What is mitigation banking?
Ecological service/ economic incentive of restoration, creation, enhancement or preservation of an area which offsets expected adverse impacts to similar nearby ecosystems
Function
Ecosystem functions are the dynamic attributes of ecosystems, including interactions among organisms and interactions between organisms and their environment
What is the difference between ecosystem restoration and ecosystem management?
Ecosystem restoration is the process of returning a degraded, damaged, or destroyed back to a previous state. Ecosystem management is the process of conserving and restoring natural ecosystems, but meet socioeconomic and cultural needs.
Why build a scientific experiment into a restoration project?
Enhance your understanding of natural communities and ecosystems. It introduces you to basic logic behind different research approaches and suggests some ways you can incorporate experiments into a restoration project.
Compare facilitation and inhibition. Why are these important concepts to consider in restoration?
Facilitation: Early colonists modified environment so it becomes more suitable for other organisms. Ex hydroseeding (erosion control—use sterile seeds that can't be reproduced) Inhibition: Organisms that inhibit the establishment of others (ex allelopathy—have chemicals that prevent growth of other species like vinca major, eucalyptus)
How does a dam alter hydrology, sediment, biology and riparian vegetation?
Flow can become sediment starved (hungry water) prone to erode channel beds and banks, produce channel incision (downcutting), coarsening of bed material, loss of spawning grounds for salmon and trout. Ultimately reduce sediment delivery. Dams trap sediment, alter flood peaks and seasonal distribution, change character of functioning river.
Why are there so many mill pond sites in Pennsylvania?
For families to produce their lively hood of wheat/grain which were a staple back then.
What led to the creation of meandering channels in the Mid-Atlantic Piedmont region?
Meandering channels occur naturally within a system. Therefore due to sediment build up from dams that were either removed or left alone water will do what it wants and it will naturally create a meandering flow.
Compare meandering vs. anabranching vs. braided channel
Meandering: A winding curve or bend in a river. Anabranching: Rivers that are separated by vegetation or island and later rejoined. Braided: Numerous channels that split off and rejoin
Modern restoration practices aim to restore a system how far back in time? Why is this generally selected?
Modern restoration practices aim to restore back to pre-human/pre-colonzation (50-100yrs). It is a reference condition with minimum impacts.
Why is monitoring a key part of a restoration project?
Monitoring is a key to recording the progression or degression of the restoration project. Without the monitoring portion of a restoration project how do we know what if it worked or not? How would we know how the ecosystem is responding to the change?
How much of the existing salt marsh in Humboldt Bay has been invaded by Spartina?
More than 90%
Describe some of the costs associated with river restoration
Most restoration projects cost are concentrated in (from highest to lowest cost): -Floodplain reconnection -Flow modification -Water quality management -Riparian Management
Compare NRRSS results to those in California
NRSS National River Restoration Science Synthesis includes all stream and river restoration projects present in national databases as of July 2004. National databases are not tracking the majority of projects and lack information on the regional differences in expenditures. A large proportion of restoration dollars are spent on fewer, more expensive projects. California is also making the shift from smaller to larger, more technically complex projects in coordination with the SWRCB. California is using Clean Water Act funding which rarely give less than $250,000. The more expensive the project, the larger the investment and the more money allocated on monitoring.
· How common was monitoring of the projects surveyed?
Not common. large projects seem to realize that monitoring will indeed help a project succeed but smaller projects have not seen that problem and they continue to spend money on it
Invasive species
Organisms that are non-native organism compete and replace native organisms in an ecosystem
What are some of the assumptions mentioned in Chapter 1 that restoration ecologists make about their work?
Parts and processes of Earth are damaged, destroyed or missing (diminishing Earth's natural capital) solutions exist to repair damage people have the capacity to care for and repair damage by repairing the Earth's systems we repair our connection to nature
Compare the concepts of patch, matrix and corridor
Patch- small area, distinct in form/composition from surroundings Matrix- large area surrounding patch Corridor- Passageway linking patches in matrix, for different species can serve as a habitat link, filter or barrier
Degradation
Pertains to subtle or gradual changes that reduce ecological integrity and health.
Engineering resilience vs. ecological resilience
engineering: the degree to which a system resists moving away from its equilibrium point and how quickly it returns after perturbation ecological: reflects how large a disturbance an ecosystem can absorb before it changes its structure and function.
Passive restoration
reducing or eliminating sources of degradation and allowing for recovery time. recolonizing on its own without managing techniques
