ECOLOGY AND HUMAN SETTLEMENTS FINAL

standish paper

"... we argue for a broadening of the traditional goals of conservation and restoration in urban landscapes beyond that of biodiversity conservation to better encompass the diversity of ecological and social values of nature in cities. In this sense, 'restoration' is as much about reconnecting people with nature as it is about restoring and managing biodiversity in urban landscapes." (from Standish, Hobbs & Miller 2012, p1214)

urban metabolism

"The metabolic requirements of a city can be definedas all the materials and commodities needed to sustainthe city's inhabitants at home, at work and atplay. Over a period of time these requirementsinclude even the construction materials needed tobuild and rebuild the city itself. The metabolic cycleis not completed until the wastes and residues of dailylife have been removed and disposed of with a minimumof nuisance and hazard (Wolman 1965)". (From Golubiewski reading, p752.)"The sum total of the technical and socio-economic processes that occur in cities, resulting in growth, production of energy, and elimination of waste."Kennedy, C.A., J. Cuddihy, J. Engel Yan. 2007. The changing m

climate change for utah

- 2 degrees F warming in last century heat waves are becoming more common, and snow is melting earlier in spring. In the coming decades, the changing climate is likely to decrease the flow of water in Utah's rivers, increase the frequency and intensity of wildfires, and decrease the productivity of ranches and farms.

Fundamental Source: SUN

- Energy from the sun travels through space - energy enters the atmosphere and dissipates as heat. this heat warms the biosphere to life-sustaining levels - some of the energy drives the cycles of materials, i.e. water cycle - some energy enters ecosystems through conversion by autotrophs into biomass

UHI: Wind

- Roughness: A large difference between building heights or wide spaces between buildings (and trees) creates a high surface roughness. Surface roughness allows wind to circulate air between buildings. example: High rises often push wind flows down to street level, especially if they are relatively tall compared with surrounding buildings.

Measures of Biodiversity

- Species richness (number of species in a given area) •Diversity (a measure of richness plus evenness)

UHI: Earth

- Surface materials (pavement, buildings, rooftops storing most heat) - Albedo: measure of a surface's reflectivity. Higher numbers reflect more light and therefore absorb less heat from the Sun.

characteristics of infrastructure

- communication - water supply - waste removel - transportation - stormwater

Matter Vs. Energy in an ecosystem

- energy flows through, matter is recycled Unlike matter, as energy flows through an ecosystem in one direction, from photosynthetic organisms to herbivores to omnivores and carnivores and decomposers, less and less energy becomes available to support life. This loss of useable energy occurs because each energy transfer results in the dissipation of some energy into the environment as heat. Continual input of energy from sunlight is necessary to keep ecosystems organized and functioning.

Natural ecosystems

- generally self sufficient - approx conserve mass

UHI: Water

- latent heat: energy absorbed (or released) by phase changes between water, ice, and water vapor. - Evapotranspiration: the process of transferring water from the ground to the atmosphere through evaporation from water and transpiration from plants. - Impervious surfaces: reduce water available for evapotranspiration by blocking infiltration and increasing runoff.

Name two other possible fates of incoming solar radiation when it reaches the Earth.

- lost in space -absorbed in atmosphere

UHI: Sun

- solar orientation the sun's position affect on the urban environment, showing off sunrays and the urban area soaking up its heat

human energy use history

1. coal + biofuels + oil + natural gas + hydro-, nuclear and geothermal electricity

history of human lifestyle

1. primitive man 2. hunting man 3. primitive agriculture man 4. advanced agriculture man 5. industrial man 6. technology man

urban heat island consequences:

1.) Air Pollution: - higher production of ozone, an air pollutant formed by a chemical reaction between vehicle emissions (NOX& hydrocarbons) and sunlight. 2.) Higher Energy + Water Use - Phoenix study: 1-degree F increase in daily low temperature increases water use 1.7% - This increases water use 290 gallons per month for a typical single-family HH 3.) Impaired water quality - High pavement and rooftop surface temperatures can heat stormwater runoff. Tests have shown that pavements that are 100ºF (38°C) can elevate initial rainwater temperature from roughly 70ºF (21ºC) to over 95ºF (35ºC).4 This heated stormwater generally becomes runoff, which drains into storm sewers and raises water temperatures as it is released into streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes. 4.) Compromised human health - exacerbate the impact of heat waves - Increased daytime temperatures, reduced nighttime cooling, and higher air pollution levels associated with urban heat islands can affect human health by contributing to general discomfort, respiratory difficulties, heat cramps and exhaustion, non-fatal heat stroke, and heat-related mortality.

Ways to Mitigate UHI: DIRECT EFFECTS

1.) Direct effects: Bring immediate benefits to buildings that apply shading or reflective materials. (Building design) - Roofing materials 1.)green roofs: Balance water use with cooling (insulation), 2.)white roofs: Raise albedo and lower costs (maintenance + installation) - Building orientation/exposure: 1.)Curved surfaces (walls, roof) to reduce angle of incidence and increase heat reflection. 2.)Overhangs designed to shade windows, cut solar heat gain

Incoming Solar Radiation Budget

100% - incoming solar radiation (insolation) 19% - absorbed in atmosphere 30% - lost in space 51% - absorbed at surface { 21% - IR from surface 45% - absorbed in atmosphere 70% - lost in space 23% - latent heat flux 7% - latent heat flux

urban pollutants

Air pollution Water pollution Soil pollution Noise pollution Radioactive pollution Visual pollution Thermal pollution

what is metabolism

All chemical reactions involved in maintaining the living state of cells and organisms. -Catabolism: the breakdown of molecules to obtain energy -Anabolism: the synthesis of needed compounds

Watershed

An ecosystem where all water runoff drains into a single body of water

Carbon (C) produced mainly from

Carbon is most commonly obtained from coal deposits prehistoric vegetation --> refine --> coal

Criteria pollutants - EPA regulatory framework

Carbon monoxide (CO)Nitrogen dioxide (NO2 or NOx)Ozone (O3)Particulate matter (PM)Sulfur dioxide (SO2 or SOx)Lead (Pb) These are regulated because they have negative effects on human health. Each pollutant has a designated concentration that is considered acceptable. Places that exceed that concentration over a given amount of time are said to be in nonattainment.

urban stream syndrome

Describes the consistently observed ecological degradation of streams draining urban land Flashier flowsIncreased erosionIncreased sediment loadsIncreased nutrient loadsIncreased water temperaturesUrban pollutants (metals, hydrocarbons, pharmaceuticals, etc.)

pollutants in ecosystem

Ecosystems and Air Quality. Research shows that air pollution may effect ecosystems. Air pollutants such as sulfur may lead to excess amounts of acid in lakes and streams, and can damage trees and forest soils. Nitrogen in the atmosphere can harm fish and other aquatic life when deposited on surface waters.

novel ecosystems

Ecosystems completely new to Earth that are a result of human activity, urbanization, and industrialization.

Reading:Bernhardt et al. the urban N cycle

Essentially a review of nitrogen urban metabolismHuman alteration of N inputs to ecosystemsUrban areas alteration of N pathwaysTrends in urban growth, consequences for N cycles◦(ecological footprints, urban stream syndrome)N in urban areas - fertilizer, dog poo, atmospheric deposition, waste streams, pipe infrastructureManagement and mitigation (green infrastructure, watershed planning)

As cities currently work, high metabolism means... what?

Higher pollution rates Faster depletion of non-renewable resources Faster conversion of land and ecosystems

Hydrogen (H) produced mainly from

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. There are a number of ways to turn it into a fuel so we can make the most of it. Hydrogen can be produced from natural gas, coal, biomass and oil. And it can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, geothermal and hydroelectric power. h20 -> electroysis -> hydrogen gas

why restore?

Hydrologic function - green infrastructure Degradation of recreational/public areas Degradation of ecosystem service/land use functions

Generalized conceptual framework (inputs, cycling, outputs)

INPUTS: - weathering inputs - atmospheric inputs (fixation, deposition) SYSTEM: - soluble nutrients being transferred to plants, heterotrophs, microorganism, detritus (mineralization, decomposition) OUTPUTS: - leaching losses - gaseous losses

edge effect

In ecology, edge effects are changes in population or community structures that occur at the boundary of two or more habitats. Areas with small habitat fragments exhibit especially pronounced edge effects that may extend throughout the range.

urban heat island: how it works

In large cities, expanses of paved surfaces, particularly asphalt, absorbs heat during day and radiates heat at night. Sparse vegetation and paved surfaces increase rain runoff, furthering reducing cooling effects. Temperatures in the cities are usually 3-5 degrees hotter than surrounding country side.

Name one mitigation strategy for the urban heat island.

Increasing tree and vegetation cover lowers surface and air temperatures by providing shade and cooling through evapotranspiration. Trees and vegetation can also reduce stormwater runoff and protect against erosion. - green roofs

Ways to Mitigate UHI: INDIRECT EFFECTS

Indirect effects: Reduce ambient air temperatures by increasing shade on streets/pavement and increasing evapotranspiration (Neighborhood design) - solar exposure Fabric shades cool pedestrians on a shopping street in Madrid, Spain. The best way to cool urban microclimates is to keep them from heating up in the first place - Water Water has an average cooling effect of 1-3◦C to an extent of about 30-35 m Air temperature measurements on the leeward side of a fountain with a reduction of approximately 3◦C. The effect of the water system can be felt (from 14.00 to 15.00 h) up to 35 m distance

urban heat island

Is a metropolitan area which is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas.

advantage of local ag?

Keeps revenues in the local economy Put consumers close to product Strong, growing demand for local food Resilient to external market, transportation disruptions Builds community

OUTPUTS

LEACHING WIND EROSION GASSEOUS LOSSES

landscape heterogeneity

Landscapes are spatially heterogeneous geographic areas characterized by diverse interacting patches or ecosystems, ranging from relatively natural terrestrial and aquatic systems such as forests, grasslands, and lakes to human-dominated environments including agricultural and urban settings.

air quality vs climate change

Local air quality issues are caused primarily by particulate matter (pm): SummerDust (salt, dirt, etc.)Smoke from wildfiresFireworksWinterChemical reactions of NOx, SOx, VOCsWoodsmokeBrake and tire wear -------- Climate change is a global phenomenon caused by changing concentrations of heat-trapping gases: CO2MethaneNOxothers

Mitigation vs. Adaptation

Mitigation: ◦ Reduce further climate changes ◦ Reduce emissions Adaptation ◦ Adapt to / live with a changing climate ◦ Agriculture, infrastructure, etc.

Urban streams are more prone to sudden high flows in response to rain events than streams in forested watersheds. This phenomenon is due in large part to

More extensive areas of impervious surface in urban areas.

NPP

NET Primary Production (NPP)=what's left after the plant uses the energy it needs for growth and metabolism.

phosphorus how it made

Phosphorus is a chemical element found on Earth in numerous compound forms, such as the phosphate ion (PO43-), located in water, soil and sediments. The quantities of phosphorus in soil are generally small, and this often limits plant growth. That is why people often apply phosphate fertilisers on farmland.

Phosphorus (P) hoq it made

Phosphorus is a chemical element found on Earth in numerous compound forms, such as the phosphate ion (PO43-), located in water, soil and sediments. The quantities of phosphorus in soil are generally small, and this often limits plant growth. That is why people often apply phosphate fertilisers on farmland.Jul 30, 2013 mineral phosphates -> mining / heating -> photsphorus

energy incorporated into ecosystems

Photoautotrophs (plants, algae, cyanobacteria, etc.) ● Species that make their own food (photo=light; auto=self; troph = food). ● Energy from insolation is converted to organic matter (carbohydrates). ● The entire rest of the living world depends on this ● The amount of biologic material created is referred to as Primary Production and it is measured in terms of biomass ● NET Primary Production (NPP)=what's left after the plant uses the energy it needs for growth and metabolism.

green infrastructure professions

Planning: open space (strategically planned network of lands, working landscapes, and other open spaces that conserve ecosystem values and provide benefits for humans Civil engineering: stormwater (an approach to wet weather management that is cost-effective, sustainable and an environmentally friendly. approaches and technologies infiltrate, evapotranspire, capture and resuse storm water to restore natural hydrologies Landscape architecture Urban ecology

antibiotic resistance

Resistance evolving rapidly in many species of prokaryotes due to overuse of antibiotics, especially in agriculture.

Pollution/pollutant (definition)

Substance in the wrong place at place at the wrong time the wrong time and too and too concentrated Presence within the environment of a chemical or other agent that is harmful to the health survival, activities of humans, or other organisms. Can enter naturally (volcanoes), or from human activities (dumping of chemicals, burning of coal)

Acidification

The change in the chemical composition of soil, which may trigger the circulation of toxic metals.

Climate versus weather

The difference between weather and climate is a measure of time. Weather is what conditions of the atmosphere are over a short period of time, and climate is how the atmosphere "behaves" over relatively long periods of time.

What is infrastructure? +

The fundamental systems or facilities serving a country, city, area, etc.. the basic physical and organizational structures and facilities (e.g., buildings, roads, and power supplies) needed for the operation of a society or enterprise.

Nitrogen (N) produced mainly from

The nitrogen cycle describes movement of the element from the air, into the biosphere and organic compounds, then back into the atmosphere. Many industrially important compounds, such as ammonia, nitric acid, organic nitrates (propellants and explosives), and cyanides, contain nitrogen.

Give an example of one ecosystem service that might be provided by a local park.

Trees absorb odors and pollutant gases (nitrogen oxides, ammonia, sulfur dioxide and ozone) and filter particulates out of the air by trapping them on their leaves and bark. plants bringing up water protected natural lands, ecological reserves, wetlands, and other green areas

watershed hierarchy

Watersheds are nested hierarchically small runoff into big

When to restore?

When the ecosystem is too degraded to restore itself.When the land and associated ecosystem services are of high potential value.When restoration can create a public amenity that will generate further value

The urban heat island effect is most pronounced at what time of day?

after nightfall

Which of the following is the Environmental Protection Agency responsible for testing and regulating?

all substances with the potential to be harmful to human health

GI examples

bioswale, rain garden, permeable pavement, parks, trees planted alongside roads, green roofs (stormwater management practices

Major elements that make up living things (C, H, N, O, P)

carbon (C) hydrogen (H) nitrogen (N) oxygen (O) phosphorus (P) and sulfur (S)

synthetic

cellophane nylon flame retardent led paint cleaners pesticide PlasticsHerbicides and PesticidesPharmaceuticalsCleaners, solvents, household products

endocrine disruptors

chemicals that interfere with the normal functioning of hormones in an animal's body

Urban conservation - conservation development, other options?

ecological restoration

eutophication

excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water, frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen.

N and C must be _____ by organisms

fixed Other elements are derived primarily through weathering of rock in the Earth's crust.

Net reaction of photosynthesis and respiration: RESPIRATION

growth & metabolism Energy + 6 CO2 + 6 H2O <- C6H12O6 + 6 O2 atmosphere atmosphere

Relative amounts of CO2 in atmosphere over geologic time scales.

hey tell us that levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere are higher than they have been at any time in the past 400,000 years. During ice ages, CO2 levels were around 200 parts per million (ppm), and during the warmer interglacial periods, they hovered around 280 ppm (see fluctuations in the graph). In 2013, CO2 levels surpassed 400 ppm for the first time in recorded history.

ecological footprint

measures how fast we consume resources and generate waster compared to how fast nature can absorb our waste and generate new resources

Energy from the sun is captured and incorporated into ecosystems by the chemical process of ______________, carried out by ______________.

photosynthesis; photoautotrophs

EPA

regulates substances in the environment

FDA

regulates substances to be taken into the body: food and medicines

energy flow in ecosystems

solar radiation -> producer/photoautotrophs soil substrate -> consumers/heterotrophs/ decompose

Sulfur (S) how it made

sulfate/sulfide minerals -> refining -> sulfur usually occurs as sulfide and sulfate minerals. Being abundant in native form

Net reaction of photosynthesis and respiration: PHOTOSYNTHESIS

sun atmosphere soil Energy + 6 CO2 + 6 H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6 O2

an ecological footprint is

the total land area required to produce the materials used by a city or town

greenhouse effect

the trapping of the sun's warmth in a planet's lower atmosphere due to the greater transparency of the atmosphere to visible radiation from the sun than to infrared radiation emitted from the planet's surface.

Generalized conceptual framework (inputs, cycling, outputs) EXAMPLE

transfer from atmosphere -NITROGEN FIXATION INPUT - weathering internal cycling - decomposition

what sources evolved lifestyle of man

transportation, home and commerce, food, industry and agriculture

historical perspective on conservation/preservation

•300 BC; Kings of northern India establish reserves to preserve forests, elephants and wildlife •Hunting reserves for the Elite in Europe Yellowstone National Park: first National Park in the World (1872) •Banff National Park Followed •The biggest parks established early. •"Last Strongholds" and "Public Parks"

Ecological (ecosystem) functions

•Primary and secondary production •Decomposition and nutrient cycling •Species reproduction •Species dispersal, colonization and survival •Interspecific interactions: predation, parasitism, competition, mutualism, etc.

Photosynthesis is critical to ecosystems for two main reasons:

● 1. Fixes carbon from the atmosphere into organic compounds used for energy by living things. ● 2. Releases oxygen into the atmosphere.

energy sources evolution

● Each of the big transitions in human lifestyles has been accompanied by a transition in energy use (fire, horsepower, wind, sails, coal, fossil fuels). 460,000BC-1200 - fire, natural gas, vertical water wheel, windmills 1200-1935 - coal mining, oil well drill, hydroelectric plant, geothermal district heating 1938- - nuclear fission, petroleum, nuclear power, solar power

Challenges of the photosynthetic lifestyle

● Just enough light ● Water stress ● Carbon uptake ● Temperature ● Being eaten

Energy through trophic levels

●2nd law of thermodynamics: energy is always dispersed from one transformation to the next ● Decreasing quantity, but increasing concentration. In general, only about 10% of the energy consumed by one level is available for the next level