Ecology

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molecular chaperones

-bind to hydrophobic patches and prevent aggregation/improper folding -ATP consuming cycles of binding/release of chaperone allow protein to fold correctly

thermocline

a thin but distinct layer in a large body of water (e.g. an ocean or lake) in which temperature changes more rapidly with depth than it does in the layers above or below

exaptation

a trait that has assumed a new adaptive significance that differs from the adaptive value of the trait at the time of its origin

Volatile Organic Compounds

a variety of organic compounds used as solvents in industrial processes

greenhouse effect

a vital process, required for life to exist on Earth. Gases trap outgoing infrared energy causing Earth to warm. If accelerated, bad, leads to global warming

energy loss at each trophic level

as hear

heat tolerance vs latitude

as heat tolerance decreases, latitude increases

heat tolerance vs vertical position

as heat tolerance increases, vertical position increases

glycolysis vs pH

as pH drops, glycolysis increases -falling pH serves as rapid signal for increasing ATP produciton

pH vs Km

as pH increases, Km increases -pH falls with rising T, so Km is stabilized, facilitating conservation of Km

solubility

as temp increases, demand for oxygen increases, but solubility of oxygen is reduced

community

association of interacting species inhabiting some defined area

proteolysis

chops up denatured proteins and makes them into amino acids for the cell to use

Taxonomists

classify species. Similarities reflect evolutionary relationships.

shelterwood-cutting

cutting dead and less desirable trees first and after cutting more mature trees

phosphorus

cycle which does not have a gaseous phase

Ectotherm

gain most of their heat from external sources and include any fish, most amphibian, lizards and most invertebrates

Reduction in Nitrogen cycle ___ electrons and ____ energy

gains; requires

realized niche

defines the conditions under which a species might live, including interactions such as competition that may restrict environments where a species may live and what resources they use

Coriolis Effect

deflection of winds clockwise in the Northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern hemisphere

purple sea urchin

-distributed across large geographic range -adapt to different pH conditions -populations that evolved in environments where they experience heterogeneity in ocean pH, harbor genetic variation for response to OA

structures of enzyme"working parts"

-ensure adequate rates of catalysis (Kcat), favored by flexibility -ensure correct geometry for substrate binding (Km), favored by stability

viscotropic effects

-enzyme activity decreases as membrane fluidity decreases -protein stability increases as membrane static order increases

Km<<<substrate(physiological)

-enzyme always works at top speed and can't be regulated by changes in substrate

membrane structure

-equal amounts lipids and proteins -some proteins integral, some peripheral -proteins densely packed

commensalism

A symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits and the other is neither benefited nor harmed Clownfish among sea anemone' s tentacles Barnacles attaching to whales or horseshoe crabs

What are the four kinds of energy and which is capable of going through a vacuum like outer space?

Electromagnetic radiation, heat, energy used to do work (kinetic), and energy stored in chemical bonds. EMR can go thru space.

What is the source of the electrons in the light reactions?

Electrons come from splitting of water

lipids

fatty acids -saturated=no double bond -unsaturated=double bond: "kink" more spread apart, not as tightly packed -in rapid thermal motion

Gifford Pinchot

first chief of the US Forest Service; advocated managing resources for multiple use using principles of sustainable yield

troposphere

first layer of atmosphere 0-10 miles above Earth's surface. Contains weather, greenhouse gases (bad ozone)

primary sewage treatment

first step of sewage treatment; eliminates most particulate material from raw sewage using grates, screens, and gravity (settling)

interference competition

form of competition that involves a fight or other active interaction among organisms

global change (geological)

form the origins of life through evolution up to the present

photochemical smog

formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight

metamorphic rock

formed by heat & pressure

secondary air pollutants

formed by reaction of primary pollutants

sedimentary rock

formed by weathering & erosion

igneous rock

formed from solidification of magma

Urinary System

forms and excretes urine and regulates water and solutes in body fluids

Kodric-Brown

found that reproductive success was determined by a combination of male attractiveness and dominance status (both inter and intrasexual selection)

Robert MacArthur

found warbler diversity increased as vegetation stature increased

John Muir

founded Sierra Club in 1892; fought unsuccessfully to prevent the damming of the Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite National Park

biomes

general categories of terrestrial environments; related to particular climate and, to a lesser extent, soil characteristics

genetic drift

genetic change due to chance

global change (anthropogenic)

how human activities since the start of the industrial revolution have changed the globe

Ecology

how organisms interact with one another and with their environment

Traditional Agriculture

human and animal power; hand tools, simple machines.

anthropocene

human effects rival 'geology'

sanitary landfill

problems include leachate, which is solved using a liner with a collection system; methane gas, which may be collected and burned; and the volume of garbage, which may be compacted and/or reduced

Evaporative Cooling

may involve sweating, panting or spreading saliva on body surfaces

Minimata disease

mental impairments caused by mercury

Minimata, Japan

mental impairments, birth defects, and deaths were caused by mercury dumped in Minimata Bay by factory. Mercury entered humans through their diet

homeotherms

metabolism keeps body temp relatively constant

primary air pollutants

produced by humans & nature (CO, CO2, SO2, NO, hydrocarbons, particulates)

trophic levels

producers> primary consumer> secondary consumer> tertiary consumer

male

produces small gametes

silviculture

professional growing of trees

marasmus

progressive emaciation caused by lack of protein and calories

US Marine Mammal Protection Act

prohibits taking marine mammals in US wasters and by US citizens, and the importing of marine mammals and marine mammal products into the US

Bottom-Up Model

proposes a unidirectional influence from lower to higher trophic levels. In this case, presence or absence of mineral nutrients determines community structure, including abundance of primary producers.

Dynamic Stability Hypothesis

proposes that long food chains are less stable than short ones

National wild and scenic rivers Act

protects rivers with due to aesthetic, recreational, wildlife, historical, or cultural reasons

American alligator

overhunting and destruction of habitat cuased original listing, removed from list of endangered species by the Fish and Wildlife Service in 1987

aerobic respiration

oxygen consuming producers, consumers & decomposers break down complex organic compounds and convert C back into CO2

The Boehr Effect

pH differences regulate binding + release of 02

phosphofructokinase (PFK)

pH falls, activates PFK, glycolysis activated -if pH drops too much ions dissociate and deactivates glycolysis -short window of preferential pH for glycolysis

pk

pH value where activity reaches 50% of the maximum -if pk in range of physiological pH then changes in pHi can lead to large changes in processes (e.g. fertilization, dormancy, muscle metabolism, oxygen transport)

municipal solid wate

paper and mostly put into landfills

fluidity

poly unsaturated>mono unsaturated>saturated

Who are the nitrogen fixers and what do they do?

Legumes (Fabaceae) because of Rhizobia bacteria in legume root nodules (no oxygen), and Cyanobacteria (Anabaena blue green algae). They reduce Nitrogen in exchange for Carbon. (N2 -> NH4)

Primary producers

Primary producers are the autotrophs, all other organisms are consumers.

What limits GPP/NPP?

Water, light, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, repeated destruction of plant biomass by harvesting/landslides/fires/etc.

estilation

a state of animal dormancy, similar to hibernation, characterized by inactivity and a lowered metabolic rate, that is entered in response to high temperatures and arid conditions

rangeland

provides food for grazing and browsing animals w/o plowing and planting

trehalose (chemical chaperone)

rapidly synthesized during heat shock, prevents aggregation of unfolding proteins, has to be removed to allow proteins to return to natural structures

MDH and LDH

rate limiting changes in conformation determine value of Kcat -simple change has big effect on structure and function (glycerine-serine in Lottia)

Q10 effects

rates of physiological activity -10 C change in temp doubles or halves rates of biochemical reactions [Q10=2]

Calvin Cycle

reactions of photosynthesis in which energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy compounds such as sugars

pHi near pKimid

results in titration ability which allows changes in pHi to regulate cellular activities

remediation

return a contaminated area to its original state

RuBP

ribulose biphosphate; a five-carbon carbohydrate that combines with CO2 to form two molecules of PGA in the first step of the Calvin Cycle

Effects of global warming

rising sea level (due to thermal expansion not melting ice), extreme weather, droughts (famine), and extinctions

acid-base balance

rising temp dissociates weak acids, leads to increase in H+ (fall in pH)

Clean Water Act

set maximum permissible amounts of water pollutants that can be discharged into waterways...aim to make surface waters swimmable and fishable

Food Quality Protection Act

set pesticide limits in food, & all active and inactive ingredients must be screened for estrogenic/endocrine effects

Preservation

setting aside areas & protecting them from human activities

COMMUNITY

several populations in same area (biotic factors)

wetland

shallow depression that seasonally holds water

life form

similar to guild, but for plants. combination of structure and growth dynamics

Diurnal tides

single low and high tide each day

organic fertilizer

slow acting long lasting because the organic remains need time to decompose

education

slowing of the human explosion in recent years is due to lowered birth rate, which is strongly negatively correlated with what?

Rarity I

small local populations

microclimate

small-scale weather variation, usually measured over shorter time period

heart rate in Tegula snails

snails higher on rocks have higher thermal tolerance, but they see temps that can cause cardiac failure -least able to acclimate it's thermal tolerance -acclamatory capacity greater in cold adapted (subtidal) species

OAEBCR

soil horizon layers

photodissociation

solar radiation breaks down chemical bonds

Bedrock

solid rock comprising Earth's crust

trait

some isolated characteristic of an organism that is convenient for the purpose of our study

inhibition

some species modify environment in a way that makes it less suitable for all others

point source

source from specific location such as pipe or smokestack

non-point source

source spread over an area such as agricultural/feedlot runoff, urban runoff, traffic

particulate matter

sources include burning fossil fuels and car exhaust. Effects include reduced visibility, respiratory irritation. Mothods of reduction include filtering, electrostatic precipitators, alternative energy

niche

summarizes environmental factors influencing growth, survival, and reproduction of a species

food web

summarizes the species interactions in a community

Renal Medulla

the inner portion of the vertebrates kidney, beneath the renal cortex

Urinary Bladder

the pouch where urine is stored prior to elimination

relative humidity

the ratio (times 100) of the water vapor density in air to the saturation water vapor density at a given temperature

Define generic population interactions

Exchange of genes via mating/reproduction

CO₂ and O₂ is fixed by (blank) in the Calvin Cycle

Rubisco

acid deposition

caused by sulfuric and nitric acids resulting in lowered pH of surface waters

species turnover

change in species composition on islands

natural selection

changes genotypic and phenotypic frequencies in populations

genetic drift

changes in frequency of a gene in a population due not to mutation, selection, or migration but to chance

evolutionary adaptation

changes in genetic information

Selective Breeding

changes organisms through selective breeding of the same or similar species.

k selection

characteristic efficient use of resources

r selection

characteristic high population growth rate

tropical rain forests

characterized by the greatest diversity of species, believed to include many undiscovered species. Occur near the equator. Soils tend to be low in nutrients. Distinct seasonality: winter is absent, and only two seasons are present (rainy and dry)

petroleum pros

cheap, easily transported, high quality energy

surface mining

cheaper, can remove more minerals, less hazardous to workers

love canal, NY

chemicals buried in old canal, school and homes built over it led to birth defectrs and cancers

temperate grasslands

dominated by grasses, trees and large shrubs are absent. Temperatures vary more from summer to winter, and the amount of rainfall is less than in savannas. Temperate grasslands have hot summers and cold iwnters. Occur in South Africa, Hungary, Argentina, the steppes of former Soviet Union, and the plains and praries of central North America

TD-50

dose that is toxic to 50% of a population

whooping crane

drainage of wetlands, conversion of grasslands to agriculture, and hunting for feathers

Green Revolution

drastically increased food production through new; technology, crop varieties, farming practices.

ways to conserve water

drip/trickle irrigation, recycling, use gray water, repair leaks, low flow fixtures

Gray whale

eastern North Pacific stock of gray whale has the distinction of being the first population of a marine mammal species to be removed from the List of Endangered and Threatened Species

Commensalism

one species benefits and the other is apparently unaffected. These are hard to document in nature because any close association likely affects both species.

Weathering

physical, chemical, biological processes convert rocks into soil.

acclimation

physiological changes in response to different conditions such as temperature

Monoculture

planting single, genetically similar crop. Efficient but reduces diversity, disease prone.

photosynthesis

plants convert CO2 into complex carbs (glucose)

pasture

plowed, planted, and harvested to provide forage for animals

Contour Farming

plowing perpendicularly across a hill. Furrows slow runoff, capture soil.

Sultur oxides

primary source is coal burning. Primaryu and secondary effects include acid deposition, respiratory irritation, plant damage. Reduction methods include scrubbers, burn low sulfur fuel

keeling curve

tracking rising C02 levels in 'real time'

During an El Nino Year

trade winds weaken & warm water sloshed back to S. America

secondary sex characteristics

traits that distinguish the two sexes of a species, but that are not directly part of the reproductive system

principle of competitive exclusion

two species with identical niches cannot coexist indefinitely

aquifer

underground layers of porous rock allow water to move slowly

clumped distribution

unequal chance of being anywhere. mutual attraction between individuals. patchy resource distribution

insoluble aggregates

unfolded proteins have sticky hydrophobic surfaces that can interact with surfaces of other proteins

regular distribution

uniformly spaced. exclusive use of areas. individuals avoid one another

Natural radioactive decay

unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha & beta particles

effects of el nino

upwelling decreases disrupting food chains, N. US has mild winters, SW US has increased rainfall, lass Atlantic hurricanes

Excretion

urine is excreted via ureters, urinary bladder and urethra kidneys, by signaling nephrons to reabsorb water from the filtrate returning it to the blood, and decreasing the amount of water excreted

endothermic

use metabolism to maintain core body temp

Countercurrent Heat Exchange

with warm and cold blood flowing in opposite directions

Tropical Rainforest

within 10 latitude of equator

woody plants

woody, thickening of tissues

ogallala aquifer

world's largest aquifer; under part of Wyoming, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Texas. Holds enough water to cover the US with 1.5 feet of water. Being depleted for agricultural and urban use

Three Gorges Dam, China

world's largest dam on Yangtze River. Will drown ecosystems, cities, archeological sites, fragment habitats, and displace 2 million people

mammals "losers" of climate change?

worry about effects of heat and humidity, to maintain evaporative cooling capacity

faciliation

worse for early, better for late

Aldo Leopold

wrote A Sand County Almanac published a year after his death in 1948; promoted a "Land Ethic" in which humans are ethically responsible for serving as the protectors of nature

Riparian

zone that is the interface between land and river or stream

ocean as CO2 sink

~22 metric tons CO2 added to ocean per day

clown fish

-discriminate between good and bad habitat choice -under ocean acidification, they lose ability for good habitat choice

What is the boreal forest fire regime?

Maintained by fire, many plants require bare ground to germinate.

What are the characteristics of coniferous plants?

"Cone-bearing" seed plants, slim needle-like leaves

La Nina

"Normal" year, easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the W. Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off West coast of S. America

thomas malthus

"human population cannot continue to increase. Consequences will be war, famine, and pestilence (disease)"

G. Evelyn Hutchinson

"paradox of the plankton"- phytoplankton communities live in simple environments and compete for same nutrients

ruderals

"weeds" in high disturbance, low stress

ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work

doubling time

(rule of 70) doubling time equals 70 divided by percent growth rate.

permian mass extinction

-95% marine species went extinct -200,000 years of volcanic eruption releasing CO2 -similar to what we might see in near future

cytosolic-malate dehydrogenase (cMDH)

-ATP generating enzyme -close relative of LDH

heat shock proteins (HSPs)

-Hsp90 stabilizes unfolded protein and prevents further unfolding -Hsp40 increases activity of Hsp70 -Hsp70 uses ATP to re-fold proteins

Light reactions occur in the (blank) cells

Mesophyll

jumbo squid

-Q10 effect: higher temp increases O2 consumption -O2 binding by blood: inhibited by high CO2 -metabolic inhibiton: by high CO2 -compression of habitat range: too hot in shallow, too hypoxic at depth -OA decreases activity levels by 45% -shoaling and OMZ decreasing their habitat are

arctic ground squirrel

-active core temp ~39 C -hibernation temp ~2.9 C

marginal stability

-allows changes in protein conformation during enzyme function -too rigid=can't change shape=poor function -too flexible=weak ability to bind substrates

Tegula snails

-as temp increases, the higher vertically positioned snail has greater survival percentage -% survivability coincides w/ species that have smaller Km value ranges as temp increases

Mytilus blue mussels

-cMDH of cold adapted vs warm adapted differ in temperature sensitivity to KmNaDH -adaptation due to single amino acid substitution

Damselfish

-conservation of Km conserved across different temp adaptations -Kcat higher in colder adapted species, but Kcat values still conserved across different temp adaptations -temperate has higher Km than tropical -1 substitution can convert temperate LDH to tropical LDH

costs of living higher in heat

-damage to proteins -damage to DNA -higher rates of respiration -ion flux across membrane speed up, need more ATP

membrane phase

-gel phase -liquid crystalline -hexagonal at physiological temps, membrane in liquid crystalline phase

congeneric species

-good study systems for examining thermal relationships (thermal gradients, distribution patterns0

Lottia congeners

-heat perturbs binding by cold-adapted Lottia cMDH more than in the case of warm-adapted Lottia cMDH -Km ranges are smaller for warm-adapted species as temp increases -cold-adapted species have lower thermal stability

larvae raised in low pH

-high pH populations showed greater changes in allele frequency

limpets

-higher intertidal limpets maintain higher constitutive levels of Hsp and doesn't induce increased synthesis under stress

gabazine

-inhibitor of GABA receptor -gabazine reduces effects of ocean acidification

effects of climate change

-local extinction of species with LT50=MHT -species replacements: warm-adapted spread northward -tropical extinctions: if no replacement species exist

oxygen minimum zones (OMZs)

-low quantities of dissolved oxygen -in mid water -comes from respiration, organisms metabolize all oxygen available -shoaling:causes low pH water to occur at shallower depths

antarctic notothenioids

-no heat shock response -show abundant levels of Hsps despite lack of induction by heat -high levels of chaperones might be adaptive

temperature effects

-pervasive physiological influence -distribution of organsims -phenology-timing of ecological events

additional mechanisms

-preformed HSF1-HSE complexes for rapid initiation of translation -regulation of HSF1 levels in bacteria -temperature dependent RNA structure -heat induced trimeriztion of HSF1 -degradation of Hsp70 mRNA after heat stress

hydrophobic effect

-primary force establishing lipid bilayer -polar head groups seek water -non polar (hydrophobic) acyl chains avoid water

optimal values

-primary target for adaptation those values conserved across all species under normal environmental conditions, e.g., normal body temperatures.

extreme pH

-protein unfolding/damage -disrupt metabolism/affect Km values -transport of oxygen across tissues -interference with trans-membrane ion movement

Km>>>substrate(physiological)

-rate is unresponsive to changes in substrate -enzyme works at low % of capacity

optimal Km values near substrate(physiological)

-rate responsive to changes in substrate -catalytic activity rises or falls in response to physiological changes

adjusting enzymatic activity to offset Q10 effects

-regulate activity of enzymes -adjust concentrations -modify intrinsic efficiencies

ocean acidification

-rise in C02-fall in pH -increase in temp -decrease in dissolved 02

shelled pteropods

-shells based on aragonite -major contributor to zooplankton biomass -pump carbon into deep waters

Cold shock proteins (Csps)

-small -chaperones for RNA -keep RNA linear

non-covalent weak bonds

-small bond energies -give macromolecules flexibility -Vander Waals Forces + Hydrogen Bonding

increase in environmental variable

-stress shifts physiological trait out of it's optimal range of funtion and structure

enotherm hibernators

-switch diet to food w/polyunsaturated fatty acids before going into hibernation

microstate vs temp

-temperature affects distribution of microstates -increasing temp=more microstates and more that are too disordered to bind -antarctic vs tropical enzyme at 28 C, antarctic has more disordered microstates (at 0 C they have same # of microstates, both binding competent)

Natural CO2 volcanoes

-underwater sites -pH gradients 6.57-8.2 -sea grass + brown algae thrive -coral + mollusks low in abundance

thermal selection

-vent species choose temps (UST) relatively low compared to their upper thermal limit (ULT)- allows persistence in dynamic environments

Phytoplankton-coccolithophore

-when bloom is bigger, reflects sunlight, keeps water cooler -produce dimethylsulfide which helps create cloud clover -less coccolithophores=more warming

Ecological succession

. A directional, cumulative change in the species that occupy a given area, through time Primary succession - starts from barren ground, e.g. new islands or de-glaciated areas Secondary succession - starts from disturbed areas, e.g. abandoned farm land or storm ravaged land Succession starts with a pioneer community, the first organisms to occupy an area Several transitional communities may come and go A climax community, a stable, self-perpetuating array of species in equilibrium with one another and their habitat, will form.

Population Growth

. As long as per capita birth rates remain even slightly above per capita death rates, a population will grow exponentially - with ever-increasing rates and shorted "doubling times" . It took 2 million years for the world's human population to reach 1 billion, yet it took only 12 years to reach the fifth billion . If a population lives under ideal conditions it may display its biotic potential - the maximum rate of increase under ideal conditions. Few populations live under ideal conditions because a number of factors limit their growth

Community stability

. Communities are assemblages of many different species occupying the same geographical area . Communities are not static, they gradually change over time because the environment changes and species themselves tend to also change their habitats

Competitive interactions

. Competition has negative effect on both organisms competing for a resource . Because resources are limited in nature there will always be competition for them . Competition is the driving force of evolution, those that win leave more offspring . Types of competition: . Intraspecific - competition among individuals of the same species, e.g. humans compete against other humans . Interspecific - competition between different species, e.g. humans compete against a wide variety of species seeking to utilize our food resources . The theory of competitive exclusion maintains that species who utilize the same resources cannot coexist indefinitely - the "one niche, one species" concept . Resource partitioning - the resources are divided, permitting species with similar requirements to use the same resources in different areas, ways and/or times

Consumers

. Consumers which eat plants are called herbivores . Consumers which eat animals are called carnivores . Organisms such as humans, which eat both plants and animals, are called omnivores

Logistic growth

. Early on populations will exhibit very rapid growth but as they near the carrying capacity they will level off is called logistic growth and it produces an S shaped curve . Logistic growth is density dependent, i.e. the growth is affected by the density of individuals. . For example - 26 reindeer were introduced onto an island off the coast of Alaska in 1910. Within 30 years the herd increased to 2,000. However, overgrazing reduced the food supply and the population crashed to 8 animals by 1950 . High density and overcrowding put individuals at greater risk of being killed, e.g. predators, parasites and pathogens have greater numbers of prey and hosts in a smaller area to interact . Bubonic plague swept through Europe in the 14th century, killing at least 25 million. The disease spread rapidly in overcrowded cities where sanitary conditions were poor and rats were abundant . Population size and growth may also be controlled by density-independent factors, e.g. adverse weather, floods, droughts, cold temperatures

Energy flows through ecosystems via food webs, intricate pathways of energy flow and material cycling

. Ecosystems are arranged by trophic (feeding) levels between various producers, the autotrophs, and consumers, the heterotrophs: . First trophic level - contains the autotrophs which build energy containing molecules . They also absorb nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur and other molecules necessary for life . They provide both an energy-fixation base as well as the nutrient-concentration base for ecosystems . Two types of autotrophs: Photoautotrophs - plants and some Protista . Chemoautotrophs - bacteria . Second trophic level - contains the primary consumers which eat the primary producers including herbivores, decomposers and detritivores, e.g. insects, grasshoppers, deer and wildebeest . Third trophic level - contains the secondary consumers, primary carnivores which eat the herbivores, e.g. mice, spiders and many birds . Fourth trophic level - contains the tertiary consumers, secondary carnivores who eat the primary carnivores, e.g. weasel, owl, sharks and wolves. . Linear food chains as described above are probably rare in nature because the same food source may be part of several interwoven food chains and many organisms have several food sources

Ecology of Ecosystems

. Energy Flow . Community Succession and Stability . Nutrient Recycling

Structure of ecosystems

. Energy flows through ecosystems via food webs, intricate pathways of energy flow and material cycling . Ecosystems are arranged by trophic (feeding) levels between various producers, the autotrophs, and consumers, the heterotrophs: . First trophic level - contains the autotrophs which build energy containing molecules . They also absorb nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur and other molecules necessary for life . They provide both an energy-fixation base as well as the nutrient-concentration base for ecosystems . Two types of autotrophs: Photoautotrophs - plants and some Protista . Chemoautotrophs - bacteria . Second trophic level - contains the primary consumers which eat the primary producers including herbivores, decomposers and detritivores, e.g. insects, grasshoppers, deer and wildebeest . Third trophic level - contains the secondary consumers, primary carnivores which eat the herbivores, e.g. mice, spiders and many birds 5 . Fourth trophic level - contains the tertiary consumers, secondary carnivores who eat the primary carnivores, e.g. weasel, owl, sharks and wolves. . Linear food chains as described above are probably rare in nature because the same food source may be part of several interwoven food chains and many organisms have several food sources . Decomposers play a key role in ecosystems but are often not represented on food chains

Growth Curves

. Exponential (un-restricted) growth . Logistic (restricted) growth

Trophic Structure of Communities

. Food chains . Food web . Trophic pyramid

Carrying capacity

. Maximum number of individuals of a species or population a given environment can sustain. Each habitat or area can only support so many individuals . Because of limiting factors populations rarely exhibit J shaped growth curves

Species interactions

. Neutral - two species that don't interact at all . Commensalism - beneficial to one species but neutral to another, e.g. birds that nest in trees, epiphytes (plants that grow on other plants) such as tropical orchids . Mutualism - an interaction that is beneficial to both species, e.g. plants and their pollinators, plants and animals that disperse their seeds, certain fungi and plant roots . Parasitism - an interaction that benefits one species and is detrimental to another. Note that the host is generally not killed. . Predation - an interaction beneficial to one species and detrimental to another. In this case the prey is killed. Predators are those that kill and eat other animals. Although many organisms eat plants they usually don't kill them because they are a constant supply of food. Prey are killed and eaten.

Life history patterns

. Not all individuals in a population are the same age. . Different populations may have very different age structures and these will determine their growth patterns 3 . Age structure refers to the proportions of pre-reproductive, reproductive and post- reproductive age individuals in a population. The age structure of a population will determine its future . Each species has a characteristic life span and the probability of dying increases with age . Population ecologists, as well as insurance companies track cohorts and construct life tables for populations . Cohort = a group of individuals born at the same time, e.g. baby boomers are a large group of individuals born just after World War II . A life table is an age-specific death schedule. Such a schedule is often converted to a more palatable survivorship schedule. For each age interval there is an predicted life expectancy or survivorship . Ecologists divide populations into age classes and assign birth rates and mortality risks to each class. Absolute population numbers mean very little unless their age structure is known . For example, population A might have many more members than population However, all the members of A might be post-reproductive, whereas population B might consist of mostly pre-reproductive and reproductive age individuals. Population A might be in danger of extinction.

Components

. Physiological ecology . Temperature and water balance . Light and biological cycles . Physiological ecology and conservation

Characteristics of populations

. Population size . Population density . Population distribution . Age structure . Population size and growth

Life history strategies

. R-selected organisms - put most of their energy into rapid growth and reproduction. This is common of organisms that occupy unpredictable environments, e.g. weeds are usually annuals with rapid growth and early reproduction. They produce large number of seeds containing few stored nutrients . K-selected organisms - put most of their energy into growth. They are common in stable environments near carrying capacity, e.g. long lived trees such as redwoods take many years of growth to reach reproductive age

Niche

. The functional role of an organism in a community, its job or position . Each species has a potential niche - what they could do with no competitors or resource limitations but due to competition and/or resource limitations, most organisms occupy a realized niche, the part of the fundamental niche that a species actually occupies in nature

Soils

...

energy available to each successive trophic level

...

latent heat of evaporation

1 g of evaporation cools 580g of water by 1 degree celsius

latent heat fusion

1 g of water gives off 80 cal as it freezes

most populous nations

1. China, 2. India, 3. US, 4, Indonesia

Dust Bowl

1930's drought and erosion.

The Soil Conservation Service (SCS)

1935-congress founded SCS. Works withe farmers/ranchers, develop conservation plans. Now it's called the Natural Resources Conservation Service.

How much energy is lost and available to next trophic level in a food chain?

10% energy available to next level, 50% lost to metabolic processes at current level, 40% to detritus

energy flow through food web

10% of all usable energy is transferred to the next trophic level. Reason: usable energy lost as heat (2nd law of thermodynamics), not all biomass is digested & absorbed, predators expend energy to catch prey

Desertification

10% of productivity lost. Erosion, soil compaction, deforestation, overgrazing.

Tropical Dry Forest

10-25 latitude

Hydrophobic effect

2 hydrophobic surfaces come together to exclude water

nuclear fusion

2 isotopes of light elements forced together at high temperatures till they fuse to form a heavier nucleus. Happens in Sun, very difficult to accomplish on Earth, prohibitively expensive

US population

290 million

overlapping generations living together reproductive and non-reproductive castes cooperative care

3 major characteristics of eusociality

Desert

30N and 30S

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in brain

3x higher in cold-adapted fish at common T of assay

Temperate Forest

40-50 latitude

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus/calcium

5 elements that make up 93-97% of biomass of plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria

Where/what is the Mediterranean climate and how does it affect biodiversity?

5 regions, on west sides of continents, between 30-45 degree latitude. Climate is cool wet winters and hot dry summers. Causes exceptionally high biodiversity (plants evolved to defend themselves during dry summers)

Boreal Forest

50-65N latitude

In natural ecosystems

50-90% of pest species are kept under control by: predators, diseases, parasites

composition of water on earth

97.5% seawater, 2.5% freshwater

head groups

=class -variation among species and within a given species at different temps

LT50

=heat tolerance

gene expression in Mytilus californianus

>30 new genes turn on under extreme stress moderate stress is experienced almost every day

Given a total fertility rate (TFR) of 2.1, which statement is a correct description of this value?

A TFR of 2.1 means that the average male and female in the population will be replaced by two children plus a fraction to compensate for the death of offspring.

succession

A change involving a series of species replacements following a disturbance Primary succession occurs in areas where there is no soil formation After volcanic eruption Wind, water, and other abiotic factors start the formation of soil Secondary succession begins in areas where soil is present The first species to begin secondary succeession are called pioneer species Succession in a particular area will always lead to the same type of community, a climax community

Ecosystem

A community plus its abiotic actors, e.g. soil, rain, temperatures, etc. Virtually all energy on earth comes from the sun, via photoautotrophs (primarily plants), and it is ultimately distributed throughout ecosystems.

Ecological pyramid

A graph representing trophic level numbers within an ecosystem. The primary producer level is at the base of the pyramid with the consumer levels above.

What are the characteristics of mollisol soils?

A horizon is high in humus; most of the temperate grassland soil.

ecosystem

A largely self-sustaining collection of organisms and their physical environment.

niche

A niche is the particular biological role of an organism in a community It is a pattern of living

Natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits. ADAPTATION

Malnutrition

A shortage of nutrients the body needs.

mutualism

A symbiotic relationship in which both members of the association benefit Bacteria in human intestinal tract- vitamin K Cleaning symbiosis Mycorrhiozhae

Watershed

A watershed or drainage basin is an area of land where water from rain and melting snow or ice drains downhill into a body of water, such as a river, lake, reservoir, wetland. All of the major terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are impacted by what happens in a watershed.

During oxidative phosphorylation in cellular respiration, electron transport chains convert chemical energy to (blank) in the process called chemiosmosis

ATP

Outputs of the light reactions include...

ATP and NADPH

The light reactions sustain the Calvin cycle by regenerating (blank) and (blank)

ATP and NADPH

Environment

Abiotic (physical factors) and biotic (other organisms)

Inputs of citric acid cycle

Acetyl CoA

Pyruvate is oxidized to (blank)

Acetyl CoA

Outputs of pyruvate oxidation

Acetyl CoA and CO₂

What are the characteristics of podzol soils?

Acidic, clay leached out. A is sandy, B has some Iron and Aluminum deposits. Creates conifer forests.

What causes a monsoon and where does it affect?

Air above land heats faster and rises, pulling cooler air over ocean to land (with lots of precipitation). Affects India and Africa, seasonally.

What is adiabatic cooling?

Air expands as altitude increases and cools as it expands.

Biosphere

All ecosystems on earth

community

All organisms that live together in an area are called a community. The different species compete and cooperate with each other to make the community stable

What is the tropical rain forest dominant plants?

Almost all broadleaved trees

Photosystem I

An Electron Transport Chain carries electrons and H+ ions across thylakoid membrane until trapped by NADP+ to form NADPH2.

Define ecosystem

An assemblage of organisms and many species and their physical abiotic environments

Define community

An assemblage of organisms of many species living in the same place

NADPH

An electron carrier involved in photosynthesis. Light drives electrons from chlorophyll to NADP+, forming NADPH, which provides the high-energy electrons for the reduction of carbon dioxide to sugar in the Calvin cycle.

Aposematic Coloration

Animals with effective chemical defense often exhibit bright warning coloration called this?

Uric Acid

an insoluble precipitate of nitrogenous waste excreted by land snails, insects, birds and some reptiles

Cellular respiration takes place in the (blank) of the plant cell

Mitochondria

Limiting factor

Any resource that is in short supply, e.g. food, minerals, light, living space, refuge from predators, etc.

Biotechnology

Application of DNA manipulation to create products derived from organisms. Medical applications, pollution control, food.

chernobyl, Ukraine

April 26, 1986, unauthorized safety test, leads to fire and explosion at nuclear power plant--- millions exposed to unsafe levels of radiation

Deposition

Arrival of eroded material at a new place.

We can be used for cooling

As mentioned in last lecture, evaporation (sweating or panting) can reduce body temperatures. Fine in mild climates or when water is available Potentially lethal in deserts!

Turgot pressure

At the whole-plant level, all forms of are usually negative. But that's not true at the cellular level. o inside cells is lower than o in the surrounding fluid, causing water to move into the cells. Plant cell walls are rigid, so as water moves into cells, a positive p develops inside. This is called turgor pressure which keeps the plant from wilting.

Soil-plant-air system: plant

At the whole-plant level, almost all forms of psi are negative. m inside the plant is created by interaction between water and cell walls of plants. o is created by dissolved solutes in the cells. Plants are usually hyperosmotic relative to the soil, so water will move into the plant.

What is the temperate seasonal forests soil?

Not as podsolized, often brownish/neutral

Biodiversity

Biodiversity, the number of different species within an area, is greatest in tropical areas near the equator and it decreases towards the poles Tropical areas have more sunlight and of greater intensity, more rainfall and longer growing seasons for plants This environment is quite stable and contains many vertical "layers" which provide more microhabitats These areas can support more species, e.g. the number of bird species is directly correlated with latitude

BOD

Biological Oxygen Demand, amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic materials

What is biomass?

Biological material from living (or recently living) organisms and their energy

biodiversity

Biologically diverse ecosystems are in general more stable than simple ones Species richness refers to the number of species in an ecosystem It is the quantity usually measured by biologists to characterize an ecosystem's biodiversity Two factors are important in promoting biodiversity Ecosystem size Location of place on earth (latitude) The number of species in the tropics is far more than that in the arctic region

Weather and climate

Biome = a large region of land characterized by the climax vegetation of the ecosystems within its boundaries The distribution and key features of biomes are the outcome of temperatures, soils and moisture levels (which vary with latitude and altitude), and evolutionary history Weather = the condition of the atmosphere at any given time Climate = the accumulation of weather events over a long period of time (temperatures, humidity, wind, cloud cover, rainfall) Climate is dependent upon several factors: Solar radiation The earth's daily rotation The earth's rotation around the sun The distributions of continents and oceans

Which color light do carotenoids primarily absorb?

Blue

Which color lights does chlorophyll primarily absorb?

Blue and red

Fresh-water fish (lakes, streams)

Body is hyperosmotic relative to water. Water is constantly moving in due to osmosis. Fish maintain balance by excreting large quantities of very dilute urine. Salts lost in this process are replaced in food by chloride cells in gills that actively take in chloride and sodium

Salt water fish (oceans)

Body is hypoosmotic relative to surrounding sea-water. Water is constantly being lost to environment by osmosis. They drink lots of water to compensate. But the water they drink is salty, so chloride cells and kidneys work hard to excrete excess salts.

Sharks, Rays, Skates

Body is more nearly isoosmotic, due to stored urea and TMAO (trimethylamine oxide) In fact, they are usually slightly hyperosmotic to the sea water, so water tends to move into the body by osmosis. Excess water and salt excreted in urine.

Energy is stored in...

Bonds

Ex. Siberia, Russia

Boreal Forest

Mutualism

Both benefit

Calvin Cycle occurs in the (blank) cells

Bundle Sheath

What is the tropical season forests fire regime?

Not common

G3P

C-C-C-P

C3 or C4 plants are unaffected by rising temperatures and CO₂ levels

C4

Ozone depletion caused by

CFCs, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, halon, methyl bromide all of which attack stratospheric ozone

Give examples of greenhouse gases

CO2, N2O, CH4

Inputs of the Calvin Cycle include...

CO₂

Outputs of citric acid cycle

CO₂

Photorespiration consumes organic fuel and releases (blank) without producing ATP or carbohydrates.

CO₂

The acetyl CoA that was oxidized by pyruvate is then oxidized to (blank) in the citric acid cycle.

CO₂

Inputs (reactants) of photosynthesis include...

CO₂ and H₂O

heart failure in porcelain crabs

CTmax and LT50 of higher intertidal species is much closer to maximal habitat temp -lower thermal safety margin -most warm adapted species least able to acclimate to higher temp

How does an increase in CO2 affect CaCO3?

Can potentially destroy CaCO3 organisms/formations through acidification

CO2

Carbon Dioxide

glycolysis

Catabolism of glucose or other monosaccharides to pyruvate and 2 molecules of ATP in the absence of oxygen or 34 molecules of ATP in the presence of oxygen.

What man made solution eliminates Nitrogen in atmosphere?

Catalytic converters

C6H12O6

Chemical Formula for Glucose

ATP and NADPH store...

Chemical energy

2 most serious nuclear accidents

Chernobyl, Ukraine, & Three Mile Island, PA

Photosynthesis takes place in the (blank) of plants

Chloroplasts

Closed vs. Open communities

Closed: sharp boundaries Open: lack boundaries

Kcat vs temp

Colder adapted organisms have higher Kcats (as temp increases, Kcat decreases) -antarctic fish have extremely fast enzymes (higher Kcat)

synthesis

Combining of small molecules or substances into larger, more complex ones

Numbers pyramid

Compares the number of individuals in each trophic level.

Energy pyramid

Compares the total amount of energy available in each trophic level. This energy is usually measured in kilocalories.

Biomass pyramid

Compares the total dry weight of the organisms in each trophic level.

Define ecological population interactions

Competition for resources, facilitation, transmission of disease

competition

Competition is the struggle of two organisms to use the same resource (light, space, or nutrients).

Nutrients

Compounds in food that the body requires for proper growth, maintenance, and functioning.

How do evaporation and transpiration transfer energy?

Converts H2O to liquid or gas

CAFE standards

Corporate Average Fuel Economy standards enacted into law in 1975, established fuel efficiency standards for passenger cars and light trucks. The Fuel economy ratings for a manufacturer's entire line of passenger cars must currently average at least 27.5 mpg for the manufacturer to comply with the standard

Sulfur forms which key amino acids?

Cystein and Methionine

Part of light reactions, it transfers electrons between PS II and PS I, it also facilitates H⁺ diffusion into the lumen

Cytochrome Complex

Glycolysis happens in the (blank) of the cell

Cytosol

Outputs (products) of photosynthesis include...

C₆H₁₂O₆ and H₂O and O₂

What is the tropical rain forest fire regime?

Not natural, used in slash/burn agriculture

Recombinant DNA

DNA created from multiple organisms.

Bhopal, India

December 2, 1984m methyl isocyanate released accidentally by Union Carbide pesticide plant kills over 5,000

What is the temperate seasonal forests dominant plants?

Deciduous broadleaved trees

Homeostasis

Delicate balance

What is acid deposition?

Deposition of nitric and/or sulfuric acid (HNO3, H2SO4) in rain, fog, and snow

food web

Describes who eats whom Because animals eat at different trophic levels, most ecosystems have paths of energy that are not linear Represents interconnecting paths of energy flow Describes trophic relationships

Ex. Saharra

Desert

Ws

Desert animals often excrete very concentrated urine, so that as little water as possible is lost. It is energetically costly for kidneys to produce highly concentrated urine. Kidneys are a big user of energy in the body of desert animals.

Avoiding excessive We

Desert animals often have a waterproof exterior to avoid unnecessaryWe BUT, all organisms must have some moist surfaces for gas exchange (e.g. lungs) Therefore evaporation is unavoidable, and is often the main source of water loss (more than excretion)

Detritivores

Detritivores are decomposers which eat detritus - organic wastes and dead organisms

What is the tropical season forests climate?

Dry and wet seasons (no snow). Hotter in dry season, lack of H2O a challenge to plants/animals. (Monsoons often occur in these biomes)

What is the tropical season forests dominant plants?

Dry season deciduous broadleaved trees

ENSO

El Nino Southern Oscillation, trade winds weaken & warm, surface water moves toward South America. Diminished fisheries off S. America, drought in W. Pacific, increased precipitation in southwestern N. America, fewer Atlantic hurricanes

What is EM radiation?

EM energy; Energy in form of photons that behave in wavelike fashion

Sun Angle

Earth tilted at 23.4 degrees, solar equator at lower latitudes than equator (more EMR)

During non El Nino year

Easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the West coast of S. America

Shannon Diversity

Ecologists use many tools to quantitatively compare the diversity of different communities across time and space. They often calculate indexes of diversity based on species richness and relative abundance. One widely used index is this?

structure of the community

Ecology - Study of interactions of living organisms with one another and their physical environment. Habitat - The place where an organism lives. Ecosystem - A largely self-sustaining collection of organisms and their physical environment. Population - A group of individuals of the same species living together.

autecology

Ecology at the lowest level of organization involves the individual interacting with the environment

What is a biome?

Ecosystem categories based on climate and classified by most dominant organisms (largest, most abundant plants)

What are the finer spatial scale factors of biomes?

Edaphic (soil, parent material), Hydrology (depth, frequency, etc. of flooding and saturated soil), Fire, and Land Use History

What do "scrubber towers" eliminate in the air and how?

Eliminate SO2 by lining industrial exhausts with calcium substrate

chemical energy

Energy stored in chemical bonds

national environmental policy act

Environmental Impact Statements must be done before any project affecting federal lands can be started

the Hydrologic Cycle

Evaporation and Transpiration==>Clouds==>Precipitation==>Evaporation and Consumed by organisms and Groundwater and Surface Water==> Rivers, Ponds, Streams==> Ocean

What is the boreal forest dominant plants?

Evergreen conifers

What is the temperate seasonal forests human use?

Extensive crop cultivation, urban/rural interference

What is the Haber-Bosch Process?

Fertilizer production; burn fossil fuels and introduce catalyst (Fe or Ru) to turn N2 into NH4

water balance

For proper physiological function, all organisms must maintain relatively constant water content. Losing or gaining too much water can be harmful.

What is the boreal forest location?

Forest across Canada, Alaska, Siberia, and Scandinavia. Also, forests at higher elevations (but below treeline) in mountains of North America, Europe, New Zealand and Chile.

What are rainshadow deserts?

Found on opposite side of oceanic mountains; air cools as moving up altitude of mountain, high precipitation near peak, falling air on other side of mountain warms and can't hold any more water vapor so no rain

Biofuels

Fuels derived from organic materials, potentially renewable

What are mycorrhizae?

Fungi with symbiotic/mutualistic relationship with plants (grow on roots), exchange water and Phosphorus for energy (carbohydrates)

Population growth formula

G = rN Where G = population growth per unit time, r = rate of increase and N= the number of individuals. When plotted against time a graph in the shape of a J will be obtained denoting exponential growth, i.e. one variable increases much faster than the other

What is the alpine tundra location?

High elevation, many different latitudes. Similar to high latitude tundra climate, dominant plant family, diversity BUT may have low growing woody shrubs in addition.

Inputs of glycolysis

Glucose

What are the characteristics of graminoids?

Grasses and grass-like plants (includes wheat, most important for human life)

20%

Great Lakes contain this percent of freshwater in the world

Gaia

Greek goddess Mother Earth

Energy flow though ecosystems

Gross primary productivity = the rate at which the primary producers capture and store energy per unit time since the primary producers expend energy during respiration the net primary productivity is considerably lower than the gross productivity Productivity is usually measured as biomass (dry weight of organic matter) per unit area per a specified time interval, e.g. kg/m2/yr The trophic structure of an ecosystem is often represented by an ecological pyramid, with the primary producers at the base and the other levels above Most of the food eaten by organisms is converted to biomass, or used to maintain metabolic functions, or lost as heat, only about 10% of the energy makes it to the next level This massive energy loss between trophic levels explains why food chains can't contain more than a few levels It takes billions of primary producers (plants) to support millions of primary consumers, which support a few secondary consumers. This is why there are so few large carnivores on earth An energy pyramid is a more useful way to depict an ecosystem's trophic structure Each block of the pyramid is proportional to the amount of energy it contains Pyramids may also represent biomass or numbers of individuals The energy pyramid concept helps explain the phenomenon of biological magnification - the tendency for toxic substances to increase in concentration at progressively higher levels of the food chain

What is GPP?

Gross primary productivity; total energy assimilated by photosynthesis

Define population

Group of living organisms at the same place of the same species

Food Security

Guarantee of adequate, safe, nutrition, reliable food supply.

Which global ocean currents are warm water moving north and where do they come from?

Gulf Stream and Japan Current; come from equator

Photosystem 2

H2O is split into H+ ions and O atom (photolysis), O2 is released as a gas, H+ ions move back through thylakoid membrane by chemiosmosis generating energy to form ATP.

What is a wetland?

Has saturated soil for some or all of the year and is not continuously under water

Elevation or Depth of Light Penetration

Heat energy from the sun drives the earth's weather systems, which ultimately determine the composition of ecosystems

The thylakoid space has high/low H⁺ concentration

High

What is Paramo and where is it found?

High altitude tropical grasslands, usually above 2,000 meters alt in the Andes of Ecuador. ("Summer every day and winter every night")

What is the temperate seasonal forests diversity?

Higher than most temperate ecosystems, limited by dormant periods

What is the tropical rain forest diversity?

Highest species diversity in the world

Ecology

How organisms interact with one another and with their environment.

cellular thermometer: Autoregulation

Hsp70 regulates its own synthesis by interacting with HSF1 in 4-protein complex and with HSF1 in nuclear trimers bound to HSE.

natural and human activities affects on cycles

Human activities are placing a severe stress on the biosphere. Damage done to one of the world's ecosystems can have ill effects on many others Widespread effects on the worldwide ecosystem are termed global change Patterns of global change include Pollution- industrial pollution is one of the key problems Acid precipitation Ozone hole Greenhouse effect Loss of biodiversity

Natural Rate of Population

If a population has more deaths than births in a given year, its Natural Rate of Population will be a negative value.

Exponential growth

If birth and death rates of a population remain constant they can be combined into one variable r = net reproduction per individual per unit time (rate of increase)

directional selection

In a population of birds, large beak size is selected against and average and small sized beaks are selected for. This is an example of what type of selection?

nature of ecosysyems

In an ecosystem, Populations interact among themselves Populations interact with the physical environment The abiotic components of an ecosystem are the nonliving components: Atmosphere Water Soil

Aquatic Organisms

In aquatic organisms, water balance depends on osmosis. Osmosis is movement of water across a membrane. Water moves from the side with fewer dissolved salts (hypotonic side) to the side with more dissolved salts (hypertonic side)

Water balance in plants

In general, water enters plants through roots Direct absorption of rainwater into leaves is very minor in most species. Water travels up stem in xylem cells. Water is lost from leaves by evaporation through stomata (pores in leaf), a process called transpiration. Water is also broken down in photosynthesis 6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 but this consumes very minor amounts compared with transpirational water loss.

stroma

In plants, the solution that surrounds the thylakoids in a chloroplast.

Individual

Individual organisms

Type II survivorship curve

Individuals die at a constant rate (e.g., birds, rodents, and perennial plants).

Which two ways does the earth lose energy to space?

Infrared radiation and the reflection of visible light

Population size and growth

Is dependent on births, immigration, deaths, and emigration

Age structure

It defines the relative proportions of individuals of each age: Pre-reproductive, Reproductive, and Post-reproductive

What is the tropical rain forest soil?

Lateritic, poor due to rapid decomposition (high temp and moisture prevent humus from accumulating) and heavy leaching (high rainfall)

Michaelis-Menten constant (Km)

Km=substrate@1/2Vmax -low Km=strong binding (high affinity for substrate)

Kwashiorkor

Lack of protein, essential amino acids.

What is the high latitude tundra soil?

Large amounts of peat (partially decomposed organic matter)

Industrial Agriculture

Large-scale machines, fossil fuels to boost yields. Irrigation, fertilizers, pesticides.

What is soil?

Layer of abiotic/biotic altered material over unaltered parent material (rock, sand, etc.) on surface of earth

Photosynthesis Summary

Light reactions -produced ATP -produced NADPH -consumed H2O -produced O2 as byproduct Calvin cycle -consumed CO2 -produced G3P (sugar) -regenerated ADP -regenerated NADP

What processes turn N2 into NH4?

Lightning, fertilizer factories, all the bacteria, etc. on the right side of Nitrogen cycle..

Competitive Exclusion

Local elimination of a competing species. This principle states that two species competing for the same limiting resources cannot coexist in the same place.

ecotype

Locally adapted and genetically distinctive populations within a species are referred to as

What is leaching of soil?

Loss of dissolved solutes, usually by water moving through soil.

How is phosphorus lost and added in aquatic systems?

Lost by sinking below photic zone (where light is sufficient for photosynthesis). Added by upwelling and runoff.

The stroma has high/low H⁺ concentration

Low

What is the high latitude tundra dominant plants?

Low shrubs, forbs, graminoids (no trees)

What is the boreal forest diversity?

Low; short warm zone of deposition, B Horizon season

What is the high latitude tundra diversity?

Low; very short growing seasons. Almost all plants/animals dormant in winter.

What is the boreal forest human use?

Lumber

What is the tropical rain forest human use?

Lumbering, cattle grazing, rice farming, oil/mineral extraction

Valdez, Alaska

March 24, 1989, tanker Exxon Valdez hits submerged rocks in Prince William Sound- worst oil spill in US waters

Three-Mile Island, Pennsylvania

March 29, 1979, nuclear power plant loses cooling water, 50% of core melts, radioactgive materials escape into atmosphere, near meltdown

Benthic, Pelagic, Littoral, Neritic, Oceanic

Marine Environments

What is the C Horizon of soil?

Material similar to parent material; weathered rock fragments with little/no plant or animal life.

Ex. Mediterranean basin

Mediterranean Woodland and Shrubland

Type III survivorship curve

Most individuals die early in life (e.g., fishes, invertebrates, and plants).

Type I survivorship curve

Most individuals live out their life span and die of old age (e.g., humans).

What is the temperate seasonal forests location?

Most of eastern US, eastern China and Japan, much of Europe

What is humus?

Mostly decomposed organic matter in soil; more stable/broken down version of detritus

Ex. Himalayas

Mountains

What are the characteristics of shrubs?

Multi-stemmed and shorter than trees

What are the characteristics of a shrubland?

Multi-trunked plants of lower height than trees, mostly continuous

Tropical Savanna

N/S of Dry Forests

Which two things carry electrons in cellular respiration?

NADH and FADH₂

After Rubisco does its job, (blank) and (blank) that came from the light reactions donate phosphate groups in the reduction part of the calvin cycle.

NADPH and ATP

What is the terminal electron receptor in light reactions?

NADP⁺

What is nitrification?

NH4 (ammonia) -> NO3 (nitrate) [oxidation]

What is denitrification?

NO3 -> N2 (reduction)

multiple use public lands

National Forest & National Resource lands

Restricted Use Public Lands

National Parks & National Wilderness Preservation System

Moderately Restricted Use Public Lands

National Wildlife Refuges

effects of ozone depletion

Negative effects include increased UV, skin cancer, cataracts, and decreased plant growth

What is NPP?

Net primary productivity; energy available to herbivores and detritivores

Plant growth limited by _____ (terrestrial) and ______ (aquatic)

Nitrogen (terrestrial) Nitrogen or Phosphorus (aquatic)

What is N2O and how does it form?

Nitrous Oxide; Green House Gas. Byproduct of ammonification and denitrification.

What is the high latitude tundra fire regime?

No fire regime

competitive exclusion priniciple

No two species can indefinitely occupy the same niche at the same time Resource Partitioning decreases competition between species Resource partitioning leads to niche specialization and less niche overlap between species Examples: Both owls and hawks feed on small rodents but owls feed at night and hawks feed during the day Finches on the Galápagos Islands Warblers in North American forest

What are the characteristics of forbs?

Non-grass, non-woody plants

What are the characteristics of laterite soils?

Nonacidic, deeply weathered, clay leached out, very little A Horizon, B Horizon has lots of Iron. Found in tropical lowland forests.

Tundra

North of Arctic Circle 66, 33'N

Population size

Number of individuals making up its gene pool

Population density

Number of individuals per unit of area or volume, e.g. persons/square mile

Energy vs. Nutrients

Nutrients are cyclic - biogeochemical cycles Energy flow is one way

Interspecific Competition

Occurs when species compete for a resource in short supply

What is the high latitude tundra human use?

Oil/mineral extraction (lots of accumulated biomass for fuel)

Parasitism

One benefits, one harmed but not killed

Predation

One benefits, other killed

Commensalism

One benefits, other neutral

significance of mimicry

One species resembles another species that possesses an overt antipredator defense Batesian Mimicry - Mimic lacks defense of the organism it resembles Müllerian Mimicry - Mimic shares a protective defense with other species

Which global ocean currents are cold water moving north and where do they come from?

Peru Current and Benguela Current; come from Antartica (South Pole)

What is ammonification?

Organic Nitrogen compounds to NH4

Transgenic Organism:

Organism that contains DNA from another species

Population

Organisms of same species in same area (biotic factors)

Climate

Overall weather in an area over a long period of time

fructose-1, 6bP

P-C-C-C-C-C-C-P

During photorespiration, when rubisco can't fix carbon, (blank) does it for it.

PEP Carboxylase (happens on a hot, dry day)

parasitism

Parasite derives nourishment from a host, and may use host as habitat and mode of transmission

What is the D (or R) Horizon of soil?

Parent material; underlying rock, sand, gravel. Bedrock.

What is the alpine tundra soil?

Permafrost - soil at or below freezing point of H2O for 2+ years (found in both types of tundras)

how competition affects the communityy in the ecosytem

Persistent competition is rare in natural communities Either one species drives the other to extinction Or natural selection reduces the competition between them

phosphorus cycle

Phosphorus (P) has no atmospheric form Exists mostly as the mineral calcium phosphate Phosphate ions are absorbed by plant roots and used to build organic molecules like ATP and DNA When animals and plants die and decay, bacteria convert organic phosphorus into ions Low phosphorus levels in freshwater lakes limits the overgrowth of algae An excessive increase in phosphorus is called eutrophication

Process that introduces a phosphate group into a molecule or compound

Phosphorylation

In (blank), O₂ substitutes for CO₂ in the active site of rubisco.

Photorespiration

What happens when temperatures rise to C3 plants and photorespiration?

Photorespiration increases

Process that converts light energy to the chemical energy of food

Photosynthesis

Which process produces more energy? Photosynthesis or photorespiration?

Photosynthesis

What is PAR and which organisms use it?

Photosynthetically active radiation (blues and reds of UV light, NOT green); plants

Part of light reactions, it transfers electrons to the enzyme that facilitates the terminal electron acceptance of NADP⁺ to NADPH

Photosystem I

Part of the light reactions, it uses light energy to excite electrons

Photosystem II

What is weathering?

Physical breaking up and chemical alteration of rocks and materials at earth's surface. Happens IN SITU (no movement), not to be confused with erosion.

Ecology of individual organisms

Physiological ecology, temperature and water balance, light and biological cycles, physiological ecology and conservation

What is a cropland?

Planted with graminoids/shrubs/or fruit trees for food/fuel/or fiber (excludes stands of trees planted for lumber)

defenses used by plants and animals

Plants have evolved many mechanisms to defend themselves from herbivores Morphological (structural) defenses Thorns, spines and prickles Chemical defenses Secondary chemical compounds Found in most algae as well Mustard oils Found in the mustard family Some animals receive an added benefit from eating plants rich in secondary chemical compounds Caterpillars of monarch butterflies concentrate and store these compounds defensive coloration chemical defense: Stings - Bees and wasps Toxic alkaloids - Dendrobatid frogs

photosynthesis

Plants use the sun's energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars

How are poverty and population growth rates correlated?

Poorer societies tend to show higher population growth rates than do wealthier societies.

4 levels of ecological organization

Population, community, ecosystem, biosphere

predator-prey interactions

Predator-prey interactions are essential in the maintenance of species-diverse communities Predator is larger Predator has lower reproductive rate Prey usually entirely consumed Presence of predators can decrease prey densities, and vice-versa Predators greatly reduce competitive exclusion by reducing the individuals of competing species For example, sea stars prevent bivalves from dominating intertidal habitats Other organisms can share their habitat

Cellular Respiration

Process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen

Food chain

Producer-->1st order Consumer or Herbivore-->2nd order Consumer or 1st order Carnivore-->3rd order Consumer or 2nd order Carnivore-->4th order Consumer or 3rd order Carnivore-->Decomposers - consume dead and decaying matter

Marasmus

Protein deficiency, insufficient calories.

Soil-plant-air system: air

Psi of air is usually much less than in leaves (about -100 MPa for dry air). Thus, water moves out of leaves into the atmosphere by transpiration. A negative Psi(p) (= tension or suction) is created by transpiration This tension pulls water up the plant.

During glycolosis, two glucose molecules are broken down into two molecules of the compound (blank)

Pyruvate

Inputs of pyruvate oxidation

Pyruvate

Hadley Cells (where are rainy regions and desert regions)

Rain at 0, 60N and 60S Desert at 30N and 30S

What is the tropical season forests human use?

Rain-based farming, grazing. *Largest populations in tropical countries usually in this biome, EX Costa Rica

What is the tropical rain forest climate?

Rainfall abundant, well distributed throughout year

What is eutrophication?

Rapid movement of a body of water's trophic status in the direction of increasing plant biomass (major bloom, decomposes, no oxygen [hypoxic], organisms die)

We

Rate of evaporation depends on relative humidity of the air. At low RH (often associated with high temperature), organisms will lose more water to evaporation.

Undernutrition

Receiving fewer calories than ones minimum dietary requirements.

What is nitrogen fixation?

Reduction; from inert N2 to ammonia (NH4)

The last part of the Calvin Cycle is the (blank) of the CO₂ receptor, rubisco

Regeneration

What happens on a chemical level during leaching?

Removal of Ca and Mg ions, increases Al and Fe concentration (thus why it's red)

Gregor Mendel

Researcher: discovered characteristics pass from parent to offspring in form of discrete packets

Nalini Nadkarni

Researcher: found that much of the nutrients in the rainforest canopies are associated with epiphytes

Robert McArthur

Researcher: studied ecology of warbler species in North American forests

Dan Jenzen

Researcher: studied extinct megafauna as former seed dispersers in the Costa Rica dry forest

Margaret Davis

Researcher: used pollen to track long-term changes in vegitation

RuBisCo

Ribulose carboxylase, the enzyme that catalyzes the first step of the Calvin cycle (the addition of CO2 to RuBP, or ribulose bisphosphate).

stable, energy, area

SEA

What is an example of a detritus based food chain?

Salt marsh (little/no herbivores because of high salt concentrations)

Community

Several populations in same area (biotic factors)

What happens during the Fall Overturn of a temperate lake?

Shallow H2O gets colder faster than deep H2O, cool H2O falls (rich with oxygen & nutrients), warm H2O rises (rich with sediment & detritus) which increases availability of food for herbivores/detritivores

What are the characteristics of a shrub savanna?

Single shrubs or clusters separated by matrix of herbaceous plants, usually graminoids

What are the characteristics of a tree savanna?

Single trees or clusters separated by matrix of herbaceous plants (non-woody graminoids)

Low-Input Agriculture

Smaller amounts of pesticides, fertilizers, growth hormones, antibiotics, water, and fossil fuels than industrial agriculture.

What is formed by NO and NO2 in the atmosphere?

Smog :(

What is the boreal forest climate?

Snow in winter, rain in summer. Equally distributed precipitation throughout year.

Inputs of Light Reactions include...

Solar energy and H₂O

Wf

Some desert animals are able to survive without ever drinking, just on the water they get from their food. Includes moisture in the food. Also includes metabolic water produced when food is broken down. C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

Carbon Monoxide

Sources include incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. Effects: binds to hemoglobin reducing blood's ability to carry O2. Reduction accomplished by catalytic converters, oxygenated fuel, mass transit

Carbon dioxide

Sources include the combustion of fossil fuels. EEffects: greenhouse gas-contributes to global warming. Reduction accomplished by increased fuel efficiency, mass transit

Outputs of the Calvin Cycle include...

Sugar

What is the boreal forest soil?

Spodosol soil (acidic), lots of biomass because of acidic needle leaves and lots of H2O.

Closing (blank) during the day helps desert plants conserve water, but it also prevents CO₂ from entering the leaves

Stomata

As electrons move through the light reactions and chemiosmosis, hydrogen ions are removed from the (blank) and are deposited into the thylakoid space

Stroma

The Calvin Cycle takes place in the (blank) of the chloroplasts

Stroma

What are the conditions of a "normal year" without El Nino Oscillation?

Strong trade wind, Peru current brings cold water from South (upwelling). Peru has desert on land but productive aquatic ecosystem. Heavy rainfall in Indonesia.

What is the B Horizon of soil?

Subsoil; zone of deposition. Poor in humus, rich in minerals.

What is the O Horizon of soil?

Surface detritus

Ex. Eastern Asia

Temperate Forest

Ex. Prairie and Pacific Grassland of North America

Temperate Grassland

What would happen if there were no NADH and FADH₂ in cellular respiration?

The ETC would fail which would prevent the creation of ATP. The electrons would not go through the chain so this would affect the whole cellular respiration process.

Abiotic environment

The abiotic environment includes all the nonliving factors and processes in an ecosystem. Sunlight, soil, water, and pollution, for example, are all important abiotic factors of an environment that affect life.

allele

The alternate form of a gene

What happens when CO₂ levels rise to C3 plants?

The amount of photorespiration that occurs is lowered

nitrogen cycle

The atmosphere is 78% nitrogen gas (N2) Most organisms are unable to use N2 The triple covalent bond is very difficult to break Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by bacteria Some bacteria can break the triple bond and bind its N atoms to hydrogen forming ammonia (NH3) This process is termed nitrogen fixation Animals eat plants that have taken up fixed nitrogen Nitrogen reenters the ecosystem through Animal excretion Decomposition by detritivores and decomposers

Biotic environment

The biotic environment is composed of all the living organisms in an ecosystem, and includes factors such as disease, predators, prey, and human activity.

carbon cycle

The carbon cycle is begun by plants who use CO2 to build organic molecules Carbon atoms are returned to the atmosphere by Respiration Most organisms extract energy from food and release CO2 as a by-product Combustion Burning of wood or fossil fuels (coal or oil) releases trapped carbon in the form of CO2 Erosion When limestone (calcium carbonate in sediment) erodes, CO2 is released Atmosphere is an exchange pool for carbon dioxide. In water, carbon dioxide combines with water to produce bicarbonate ions. Bicarbonate in the water is in equilibrium with carbon dioxide in the air. The total amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been increasing every year due to human activities such as fossil fuel combustion

What powers ATP synthase?

The diffusion of H⁺ from the thylakoid space back to the stroma (along with the H⁺ concentration gradient) powers ATPase.

Define spatial scale

The distance or area of an ecological phenomenon or condition

Population distribution

The general pattern in which the population members are dispersed through its habitat, may be: Clumped (most common), Uniformly dispersed (rare), or Randomly dispersed

What is soil erosion?

The loss/break up of bulk soil, usually by wind or water. Involves movement.

Soil-plant-air system: soil

The most important factor in soil is m, attraction to the surface of soil particles. Typical value -0.5 MPa but affected by particle size. Strongest for clay, weakest for sand. Soil water usually has few dissolved solutes, so Psi(o) is close to zero. Exception is very salty soils, which lowers psi of the soil to the point that plants cannot get water from it.

Define convection

The movement of heat energy by movement of warm or cold air or water

Survivorship

The percentage of remaining survivors of a population over time; usually shown graphically

habitat

The place where an organism lives

What would happen if the crisae membrane split?

The split of the membrane would allow the protons to form an equilibrium. The protons from the high concentration would mix with the low concentration of protons, resulting in no gradient, which in turn would stop the process of ATP synthase, creating no ATP. Nothing in the ETC would be affected.

light reactions

The steps in photosynthesis that occur on the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast and that convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH, evolving oxygen in the process.

Community Ecology

The study of how different species interact within communities

Population Ecology

The study of how populations interact with their environment

Ecological Niches

The sum of a species' use of biotic and abiotic resources is called this?

Define temporal scale

The time units at which something happens

Define conduction

The transfer of heat energy from a warmer object to cooler object by direct contact

Irrigation

artificially providing water to support agriculture. Unproductive regions become productive farmland.

Currently, how large is the worldwide population of humans relative to Earth's carrying capacity for humans?

There is insufficient information to answer this question.

Ectoparasite

These are parasites that live on the external surface of their host.

Endoparasite

These are parasites that live within the body of their host.

Functions of protons:

They drive chemiosmosis by means of a concentration gradient

What are the functions of the H+ electrons in the light reactions?

They reduce NADP⁺ to NADPH which is used for the Calvin Cycle

Interspecific Interactions

This is a relationship between species in a community

Vector

This is an intermediate species that transmits a disease from one individual to another.

Nonequilibrium model

This model describes communities as constantly changing after being buffeted by disturbances.

The light reactions take place in the (blank) of the chloroplasts

Thylakoid Membrane

What is the A Horizon of soil?

Topsoil; mostly humus. Also the zone of leaching/eluviation

Transpiration

Transpiration is evaporative loss of water from leaves. Plants can regulate transpiration by closing stomata (pores in leaves). BUT they can't eliminate transpiration, or they wouldn't be able to exchange necessary gases (take in CO2, release O2)

What are the characteristics of a grassland?

Treeless, graminoid cover

What are the characteristics of a woodland?

Trees of lower height, more open than forests

Ex. Costa Rica

Tropical Dry Forest

Ex. Amazon, Brazil

Tropical Rainforest

Ex. Serengeti, East Africa

Tropical Savanna

What is the tropical season forests soil?

Tropical soil with better nutrient content than usual (slower decomposition)

What is the tropical season forests location?

Tropics

What is the tropical rain forest location?

Tropics, including forests from sea level to treeline

Ex.Antarctica

Tundra

Neutral

Two species do not interact

Nuclear Waste policy Act

US government must develop a high level nuclear waste site by 2015 (Yucca Mountain)

Why does water move up a plant?

Understand a little biophysics. (psi) - water potential, i.e. the potential energy of water. Water will always tend to move to the point in the system where its (psi0) is least. (Compare to water running downhill.) Measured in pressure units (MPa = megapascals)

water cycle

Unlike energy, the physical components of ecosystems are passed around and reused Recycling or cycling In each cycle the chemical resides for a time in an organism, then returns to the non-living environment A biogeochemical cycle Water evaporates from bodies of water, land, and from plants (transpiration) Precipitation on land enters the ground, surface waters, or aquifers Water eventually returns to the oceans

What is a "Zone of Upwelling" and why is it important?

Upward movement of water due to wind / movement of surface waters away from continent. Important because it brings Nitrogen and Phosphorus to surface to create high biological productivity.

What is the temperate seasonal forests fire regime?

Usually absent, relatively uncommon

What is the tropical season forests diversity?

Very high compared to most temperate ecosystems

What is the high latitude tundra climate?

Very wet to very dry (very cold)

What are feedbacks and complexities of the Carbon Cycle?

Warming temperatures increase decomposition in Northern soils, urbanization/desertification reduce vegetation/photosynthesis, warmer water holds less dissolved CO2, warmer ocean more stratified (less dissolved CO2 and HCO3 in deeper water), ocean acidification reduces available CaCO3 plankton (reduces photosynthesis)

What is the proton (H⁺) donor and in what reactions do the H⁺'s participate in?

Water is the source of H⁺, the protons drive the phosphorylation of ADP into ATP through chemiosmosis

CO2 vs pH

as CO2 rises, ocean pH declines

The rivers will eventually flow into large rivers which become estuaries and flow into the oceans.

Watershed surface water management plans are implemented to reduce flooding, improve water quality, and enhance stream and wetland habitat. Land usage and water treatment methods are important in maintaining water quality in the watershed Sources of water pollution may include point source pollution from a clearly identifiable location or nonpoint source pollution that comes from many different places. Sources of pollution usually fall into four main categories - industrial, residential, commercial, and environmental Some types of pollution may include o organic pollution - decomposition of living organisms and their bi-products o inorganic pollution - dissolved and suspended solids as silt, salts, and minerals o toxic pollution - heavy medals and other chemical compounds that are lethal to organisms o thermal pollution - waste heat from industrial and power generation processes

What are the conditions of an El Nino year?

Weak trade winds, Peru current is weak, upwelling weak. Non-productive ocean in Peru with rain on land. Drought in Indonesia. (Also causes drought in South Africa)

Age Structure Diagram

When a population's age structure diagram has a wide base and narrower top, the population is predicted to grow larger over time.

Secondary Succession

begins in an area where soil remains after a disturbance.

Habitat

Where a species normally lives

Decomposers

Which includes fungi and bacteria, obtain their energy by breaking down the remains or products of organisms

Water Balance Equation for Animals

Wi = Wd + Wf + Wa - We - Ws Wi = internal water Wd= water taken in by drinking Wf = water taken in with food Wa= water absorbed from the air (usu. minor) We= water lost to evaporation Ws= water lost through secretion (includes urine, feces, etc.)

What is the temperate seasonal forests climate?

Winters cool to cold, summers hot. Precipitation distributed throughout year.

food chain

a diagram showing a single path of energy flow in an ecosystem. Assumes linear path

delhi sands flower-loving fly

a 1-inch long insect currently restricted to only 12 known populations in San Bernardino and Riverside counties. Estimated 98% of its habitat has been converted to residential, agricultural, and commercial use

eutrophication

a body of water develops a high concentration of nutrients, causes increase in algae, organisms below deprived of light, large die off, decompose, DO lowers

poikilotherm

a creature whose body temperature varies with environmental temperatures is considered to be this

Ureter

a duct that conveys urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder

Urethra

a duct that conveys urine from the urinary bladder to the outside. In male, this duct also conveys semen out of the body during ejaculation

Filtrate

a fluid extracted by the excretory system from the blood or after removing valuable solutes from it and concentrating it

Batesian Mimicry

a form of mimicry typified by a situation where a harmless species has evolved to imitate the warning signals of a harmful species

population

a group of individuals of a single species inhabiting a specific area

metapopulation

a group of subpopulations living in a spatially isolated patched connected by exchange of individuals among patches

world population

a little over 6 billion

Batesian Mimicry

a palatable or harmless species mimics an unpalatable or harmful model.

competitive exclusion

a proposition which states that two species competing for the same resources cannot stably coexist if other ecological factors are constant

ore

a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine

Ammonia

a small and very toxic nitrogenous waste excreted by mammals and most adult amphibians

parasite

a species feeding on the tissue of its host, while not killing it directly

brownfield

abandoned industrial sites

resistance

ability to maintain structure and function in face of potential disturbance

resilence

ability to recover from disturbance

8.1%

about this percent of global undisturbed forests were lost from 2000 to 2013

stability

absence of change

high specific heat

absorbs heat without greatly changing temperature

stabilizing selection

acts to impede changes in a population by acting against extreme phenotypes and favoring average phenotypes

heat stress to membrane

acyl chains fan out, inverted hexagonal phase, membranes fall apart and can start forming new structures, or membrane fusion

cold stress on membrane

acyl chains tighten up, parts of membrane in liquid crystalline, parts in gel phase -decrease in motion -can lead to leakage

excess phosphorus

added to aquatic ecosystems by runoff of animal wastes, fertilizer, sewage discharge

homeophasic adaptation in rainbow trout and fruit flies

adjust PC/PE ration depending on their environment, to maintain phase

rapid response

adjusting activities of preexisting machinery

archaea

adjusts ratio of diether lipids to tetraether lipids in response to tem changes -diether decreases as temp increases -tetraether (more stabilizing, longer chain) increases as temp increases

Swidden Agriculture

after cultivation, plot left to regrow into forest - tropical areas.

endolithic (inside of rocks) life

algae fungi -very old -might only photosynthesize for few hours/year -metabolize at -15 C

BIOSPHERE

all ecosystems on earth

Anfinsen Paradigm

all info needed to direct folding is encoded in amino acid of protein

heterozygous

an individual having two different alleles of a gene at a particular locus

watershed

all of the land that drains into a body of water

low level radioactive policy act

all states must have facilities to handle low level radioactive wastes

metabolic compensation

allows organisms to compensate for physics of temperature

Conservation

allows use of resources in a responsible manner

Top-Down Model

also called the trophic cascade model, proposes that control comes from the trophic level above. In this case predators control herbivores, which in turn control primary producers.

intrinsic adaptations

alter amino acid sequences to improve stability

extrinsic adaptations

alter composition of the mileau bathing the protein to enhance stability

physiological stress

alteration of a physiological system by the environment, such that the system no long exists in an optimal state

nitrification

ammonia is converted to nitrate ions

ED-50

amount of a chemical that causes an effect in 50% of the animals in a test population

LD-50

amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the animals in a test population

body burden

amount of concentration of a toxic chemical in an individual

salinity

amount of dissolved salt in water

Kcat (catalytic rate constant)

amount of substrate converted to product per unit time

hypoosmotic

an aquatic creature is considered this if its body fluids have higher water concentration and lower salt concentration than its external environment

adaptation

an attribute of a trait that enhances its survival under a particular set of conditions

membrane fluidity

an estimate of the static order of the membrane

simultaneous hermaphrodite

an organism that can change its sex from male to female or female to male

parasitoid

an organism that spends a significant portion of its life history attached to or within a single host organism which it ultimately kills (and often consumes) in the process

chemosynthetic

an organism that uses inorganic molecules as a source of carbon and energy

inclusive fitness

an organism's classical fitness (how many of its own offspring it produces and supports) plus the number of equivalents of its own offspring it can add to the population by supporting others

field, lab, observational, manipulative

approaches to ecology

persistent organic pollutants (POPs)

are now banned, DDT, PCBs (liquid insulators in electric transformers), and dioxins(byproduct of herbicide production)

Nephron

are the functional units of the kidneys, extract a fluid filtrate from the blood, refine the filtrate to produce urine

Dominant Species

are those that are most abundant or have the highest biomass

Behavior

are used by endotherms and ectotherms ad include, moving to the sun or shade, migrating and bathing

wetlands

areas of standing water wet all or most of the year that support aquatic plants including marshes, swamps, and bogs. Species diversity is very high. Includes bogs, swamps, sloughs, and marshes

latitude vs metabolism

at higher latitudes organisms have higher metabolic rates to compensate for Arrenhius Equation

Water Quality Act

attempt to reduce non-point source pollution

producer

autotrophs Require only inorganic nutrients and an outside energy source to produce organic nutrients Photoautotrophs Chemoautotrophs

total fertility rate

average number of children expected to be born to a woman throughout her childbearing years

future for ocean

average pH of surface water depends on total CO2 released and the release time -faster release=larger drop in pH

countercurrent heat exchangers

chilled venous blood is warmed by arterial blood as it re-enters body core

3 major insecticide groups

chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT), organophosphates (malathion), carbamates (aldicarb)

denitrification

bacteria convert ammonia back into N

hopanoids

bacterial "cholesterol" -inserts into bilayer, stabilizing membrane -increases with growth temp -synthesized without need for O2

Ocean Dumping Ban Act

bans ocean dumping of sewage sludge & industrial waste in the ocean

nitrogen fixation

because atmospheric N cannot be used directly by plants, it must be first converted to ammonia by bacteria

reduce amount of waste at the source

best solution for waste problem

conservation and increase efficiency

best solution to energy shortage

natural pest control

better agricultural practices, genetically resistant plans, natural enemies, and biopesticides, sex attractants

Filtration

blood pressure forces water and many small molecules through a capillary wall into the start of the kidney tubule

isoosmotic

body fluids and external fluid are the same concentration

hyperosmotic

body fluids have a lower water concentration and higher salt concentration than external environment

ectotherms

body temp same as ambient temp -aquatic: body temp=water temp -terrestrial: body temp varies w/solar, behavior

sociobiology

branch of biology concerned with study of social relations

age structure diagrams

broad base --> rapid growth; narrow base --> negative growth; uniform shape --> zero growth

Salinization

buildup of salts in surface soil layers. Worse in dry-land.

Cryptic Coloration

camouflage makes prey difficult to spot.

Biomanipulation

can help restore polluted communities.

largest reservoirs of Carbon

carbonate rocks first, oceans second

chloroflurocarbons

catalyze breakdown of ozone

Mediterranean Woodland and Shrubland

climate cool and moist most of year, but hot and dry in summer

climbers

climbing plants and vines

geographic range of species habitat tolerance local population size

commonness classification based on 3 factors

disruptive selection

creates bimodal distributions by favoring two or more extreme phenotypes over the average phenotype in a population

ECOSYSTEM

community plus abiotic factors

interspecific

competition with members of different species

intraspecific competition

competition with members of their own species

Feedlots (factory farms)

concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs). Huge warehouse/pens.

Urine

concentrated filtrate produced by the kidneys and excreted by the bladder

P50

concentration (partial pressure) of 02 at which hemoglobin is 1/2 saturation

acid precipitation

condensed ot frozen water vapor that includes acid rain, acid fog, and acid snow. pH below 5.5. Cause: anthropogenic release of pollutants like SO2 & nitrogen oxides

random mating, no mutations, large population size, no immigration, equal fitness between all genotypes

conditions necessary to maintain constant allele frequencies

Grizzly Bear

conflict with humans and development that resulted in habitat loss and framentation

destabilizing forces

conformational entropy: increase in order when protein folds into organized 3D structure (-entropy)

soil conservation methods

conservation tillage, crop rotation, contour plowing, organic fertilizers

nuclear reactor parts

consists of a core, control rods, moderator, steam generator, turbine, containment building

Kyoto Protocol

controlling global warming by setting greenhouse gas emissions targets for developed countries

Resource Conservation & Recovery Act

controls hazardous waste with a cradle to grave system

Yucca Mountain, Nevada

controversial as proposed site for permanent storage of high-level nuclear waste, 70-miles northwest of Las Vegas, near volcano and earthquake faults

deserts

covers about 1/5 of Earth's surface and occur where rainfall is less than 50 cm/year. Most deserts occur at low latitudesm have a considerable amount of specialized vegetation, as well as specialized animals. Soils have abundant nutrients, need only water to become productive, and have little or no organic matter. Common disturbances inclujde occasional fires or cold weather, and sudden, infrequent, but intense rains that cause flooding

porcelain crabs

crabs with higher vertical position have higher LT50

ammonification

decomposers convert organic waste into ammonia

resource partitioning

decreases competition between species Resource partitioning leads to niche specialization and less niche overlap between species

upwelling

deeper ocean water comes to surface, increases pH

fresh water

defined as having a low salt concentration (less than 1%). Plants and animals are adjusted to the low salt content and would not be able to survive in areas of high salt concentration ( ex. ocean). There are different types of freshwater regions: ponds and lakes, streams and rivers, and estuaries

Thermo Neutral Zone

defined as the range of environmental temperature where an organism's metabolism is steady at resting rate

Homeostasis

delicate balance

preindustrial stage

demographic transitional model stage, birth & death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high

transitional stage

demographic transitional model stage, death rate (infant mortality) lower, birth rate remains high, better health care, population grows fast

industrial stage

demographic transitional model stage, decline in birth rate, population growth slows

postindustrial stage

demographic transitional model stage, low birth & death rates

exploitative competition

depleting resources

exploitative competition

depletion of resource

illuviation

deposit of leached material in lower soil layers (B)

saturation horizon

depth below which calcareous shells of marine organisms dissolve

Endotherm

derive body heat mainly from their metabolism, include bird, mammals and a few reptiles and fish and many insects

Zero population growth

designates a near balance of births and deaths

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation & Liability Act

designed to identify and clean up abandoned hazardous waste dump sites

phosphorus

does not exist as a gas; released by weathering of phosphate rocks, it is a major limiting factor for plant growth. Phosphorus cycle is slow, and not atmospheric

primary succession

development of communities in a lifeless area not recently inhabited by life

vapor pressure deficit

difference between WVP and SWVP at a particular temp

aerobic scope

difference between resting metabolic rate and max metabolic rate

sexual selection

differences in reproductive rates among individuals as a result of differences in mating success

Polyculture

different crops planted in one field.

calcification

difficulty in forming and maintaining skeletons made of calcium carbonate -3 forms of carbonate: Calcite, aragonite, and magnesium calcite -at low pH stability decreases

DHAP

dihydroxyacetone phosphate P-C-C-C

DPH

diphenylhexatriene commonly used probe in fluorescence polarization -high polarization=low fluidity (higher static order)

Extirpation

disappearance of population from an area, but not extinct globally. Can lead to extinction.

pathogens

diseases

Low Quality Energy

disorganized, dispersed

keystone species

disproportionate influence

Arrenhius Equation

dlnk/dt=Ea/RT predicted C02 added to atmosphere would warm earth

First law of thermodynamics

energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another

random distribution

equal chance of being anywhere. uniform distribution of resources

Organic Food Production Act (1990)

establishes national standards for organic products.

10 half lives

estimate of how long a radioactive isotope must be stored until it decays to a safe level

Hydrologic cycle components

evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, precipitation, and infiltration

Keystone Species

exert strong control on a community by their ecological roles, or niches

Biodiversity Loss

extinction and declining population sizes. Smaller populations=smaller geographic ranges. Lower genetic, ecosystem, and species diversity.

Temperate Grassland

extremely widespread distribution

Arrenhius break temps (ABTs)

failure in ATP production -as temp increases, respiration increases, then at certain POINT respiration starts to decrease -correlates with adaptation temps (higher adaptation to temp=higher ABT) -hot species have ABTs nearer to body temp

methods to decrease birth rates

family planning, contraception, economic rewards & penalties

Conservation Reserve Program (1985)

farmers paid to put highly erodable land in conservation reserves. Income for farmers, trees and grasses planted instead of crops.

aquaculture

farming aquatic species, commonly salmon, shrimp, tilapia, oysters

climax community

late successional community. remains stable until disrupted by disturbance

pesticide cons

genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, and biological magnification

chlorine

good= disinfection of water, bad= forms trihalomethanes

succession

gradual change in plant and animal communities in an area following disturbance

Habitat Fragmentation

gradual, piecemeal degradation and loss of habitat

graminoids

grass and grass-like plants

savannas

grassland with scattered individual trees. Cover almost half the surface of Africa and large areas of Australia, South America, and India. Warm or hot climates where the annual rainfall is 20-50 inches per year. The rainfall is concentrated in six or eight months of the year, followed by a long period of drought when fires can occur

overdraft

groundwater withdrawal when the amount pumped from wells exceeds natural rate of replenishment

guild

group of organisms, usually animals, that all make their living in the same fashion

Families

groups of genera

Genera

groups of related species

Crop Rotation

growing different crops from one year to the next. Returns nutrients to soil. Prevents erosion, reduces pests.

psychrophilic

grows best in cold temps

thermophilic

grows best in hot temps

true cost/external costs

harmful environmental side effects that are not reflected in a product's cost

Life Expectancy

has increased due largely to fewer children dying in infancy.

oligotrophic

has low primary productivity, the result of low nutrient content. These lakes have low algal production, and consequently, often have very clear waters, with high-drinking quality

most endangered species

have a small range, require large territory, have long generations, have a very specialized niche, or live on an island

Studies have shown that family planning programs _______.

have been very effective at lowering TFR and population growth rates.

Osmoconformers

have body fluid with a solute concentration equal to that of seawater, face no substantial challenges in water balance, and include many marine invertebrates

Osmoregulators

have body fluids whose solute concentration differ from that of their environment, must actively regulate water movement and include many land animals and freshwater animals such as trout, marine vertebrate such as sharks

bacterial and archael membranes

have chemical inserts for bilayer that increase rigidity enabling them to survive very hot temperatures

Hyperosmotic organisms

have higher internal salt concentration than surrounding water Water tends to move in; salts tend to be lost.

Hypoosmotic organisms

have lower internal salt concentrations than surrounding water. Water tends to move out; salts diffuse in.

Isoosmotic organisms

have same osmotic status as their surrounding water (invertebrates)

CTmax

heart failure temp -lethal, no recovery -CTmax=LT50

greenhouse effect

heat is trapped near the earth's surface by greenhouse gases

landscape

heterogeneous area composed of several ecosystems

decomposer

heterotrophs Bacteria and fungi Break down dead organic matter

consumer

heterotrophs Require a source of preformed organic nutrients Herbivores - Feed on plants Carnivores - Feed on other animals Omnivores - Feed on plants and animals Detritivores- Feed on dead organisms

C6H12O6 amount of chemical energy

high

eurotrophic

high biological production, but may be depleted of oxygen

Diverse Habitats

high species diversity and evenness. Tropical dry forests, rainforests, ecotones.

synaptic function

high temp=leaky membrane=release of large amount of acetylcolene (ACh) -rapid loss of binding ability by AChe -high Km values=low binding ability

Maxwell-Boltzmann Energy Distribution Curves

higher temp leads to greater fraction of molecules w/energy greater than Ea

competitive ability

highest in k selected species

intrinsic rate of increase

highest in r selected species

thermal safety margin

hot species < cold species

florida panther

hunting and development that resulted in habitat loss and fragmentation

mineral reserve

identified deposits currently profitable to extract

Endangered Species Act

identifies threatened and endangered species in the US, and puts their protection ahead of economic considerations

Principle of Allocation

if organisms use energy for one function such as growth, the amount of energy for other functions is decreased

Sherwood Rowland & Mario Molina

in 1974, determined that CFCs destroy stratospheric ozone

soil salinization

in arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behind (ex. Fertile crescent, southwestern US)

stress tolerant

in low disturbance, high stress

competitive

in low disturbance, low stress

community structure

includes attributes such as number of species, relative species abundance, species diversity, and their interactions

bilayer inserts and spanners

increase membrane stability

Circulatory

increased or decreased blood flow to skin

temp vs Km

increased temp=increased Km (lower binding affinity) -temperature perturbs binding of substrate

intrinsic stablity

increases if: -increased ionic interactions and H-bonds - increased hydrophobic interactions -reduced conformational entropy -reduced # sites for covalent bond damage

fecal coliform

indicator of sewage contamination

selective cutting

individual trees are marked and cut

cohort

individuals born during a specified time period

Type II survivorship curve

individuals die at a constant rate (e.g., birds, rodents, and perennial plants).

Parent Material

lava, volcanic ash rock, dunes

bald eagle

ingested DDt by eating contaminated fish. DDT caused shells of the bird's eggs to thin and resulted in nesting failures. Loss of nesting habitat and hunting for feathers also contributed to the population decline. Reclassified from endangered to threatened (1995)

peregrine falcon

ingested DDt by eating smaller birds, which had eaten contaminated prey. The presticide caused the shells of the bird's eggs to thin and resulted in nesting failures. Removed from the list of endangered species by the Fish and Wildlife Service in August 1999

manatee

initial population decreases resulted from overharvesting for meat, oil, and leather. Today, heavy mortality occurs from accidental collisions with boats and barges, and from canal lock operations

assimilation

inorganic N is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids & proteins

temperature

intensity of heat energy

atlantic salmon

interbreeding with and competition from escaped farm-raised salmon from the aquaculture industry threaten the wild salmon population

orthologs

interspecific variants on a theme

no-till agriculture

involves not plowing the land, using herbicides and integrated pest management to keep down weeds, and allowing some weeds to grow

Food Webs

is a branching food chain with complex trophic interactions.

Symbiosis

is a relationship where two or more species live in direct and intimate contact with one another.

Character Displacement

is a tendency for characteristics to be more divergent in sympatric populations of two species than in allopatric populations of the same two species.

Community

is an assemblage of populations of various species living close enough for potential interaction.

Disturbance

is an event, such as a storm, fire, flood, drought, overgrazing, or human activity, that changes a community by removing organisms from it or altering resource availability.

Mutualism

is an interspecific interaction that benefits both species

Resource Partitioning

is differentiation of ecological niches, enabling similar species to coexist in a community.

Evapotranspiration

is evaporation of water from soil plus transpiration of water from plants.

Insulation

is provided by hair, feathers and fat layers

Total Fertility Rate

is the average number of children born per woman in her lifetime for a given population.

Trophic Structure

is the feeding relationships between organisms in a community. It is a key factor in community dynamics.

Replacement Fertility Rate

is the fertility level needed to maintain a stable population size.

Osmoregulation

is the homeostatic control of the uptake and loss of water and solutes such as salts and other ions. Osmosis is one process whereby animals regulate their uptake and loss of fluid

Survivorship

is the percentage of remaining survivors of a population over time; usually shown graphically

Thermoregulaton

is the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature with a tolerable range and a form of homeostasis

Relative Abundance

is the proportion each species represents of the total individuals in the community.

Ecological Succession

is the sequence of community and ecosystem changes after a disturbance

Species Richness

is the total number of different species in the community.

Species Diversity

is the variety of organisms that make up the community.

homeophasic

keep membranes in correct phase by head group changes -cold temp=increase PE (more fanned out head group) -hot temp=increase PC (more rigid0

predators

kill and consume other organisms

Genetic Engineering

laboratory manipulation of genetic material. Add, delete, modify DNA.

undernourishment

lack of calories

malnourishment

lack of specific components of food (proteins or vitamins)

Kwashiorkor

lack of sufficient protein in diet, leads to failure of neural development in infants and therefore learning disabilities

contour plowing

land is plowed perpendicular to the slopes and as horizontally as possible

biome

large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants & animals

Aral Sea, Uzbekistan/Kazakhstan

large inland sea is drying up as a result of water diversion

beta diversity

large number of different communities in a given area, each with a distinctive species

alpha diversity

large number of species live within most tropical forest communities

temperature, atmospheric circulation, precipitation

large scale patterns of climate variation

macroclimate

large-scale weather variation

tolerance

late successional can tolerate conditions early in succession; early successional species make things worse for themselves but do not facilitate these later successional species

threshold

level below which no effect occurs and above which effects begin to occur

secondary succession

life progresses where soil remains

CAM photosynthesis

limited to succulent plants in arid and semi-arid environments

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

lists species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products

parasitoids

live on host tissue

ENVIRONMENT

living and non-living components

Oxidation in Nitrogen cycle ____ electrons and ____ energy

loses; releases

Soil Degradation

loss foil quality and productivity

CO2 amount of chemical energy

low

thermoprotectent molecules

low molecular mass organic solutes that stabilize proteins

Inbreeding Depression

low populations, genetically similar parents mate produce inferior offspring.

mobility

low temp=low mobility=strong DPH signal (high polarization) high temp=high mobility=low DPH signal (low polarization)

Human Disturbance

lower diversity. Habitats homogenized and fragmented.

pH vs P50

lower pH=higher P50

Temperate Prairies

lower rainfall, less nutrient leaching, higher fertility.

MHT

maximal habitat temperature

cone of depression

lowering of the water table around a pumping well

homeoviscous

maintaining fluidity of membrane by changing saturation

alphastat pH regulation

maintains fractional charge of immidizole groups at stable volume (near pK)

Sustainable Agriculture

maintains healthy soil, clean water, and genetic diversity. Treats agricultural systems as ecosystems.

nitrogen oxides

major source is auto exhaust. Primary and secondary effects include acidification of lakes, respiratory irritation, leads to smog and ozone. Reduced using catalytic converters

activated sludge

mass of living bacterial organisms feeding on waste material that has settled, is recycled to aeration tank

petroleum formation

microscopic aquatic organisms in sediments converted by heat and pressure into a mixture of hydrocarbons

Inorganic Fertilizers

mined or synthetically manufactures mineral supplements.

activation energy (Ea)

minimal level of energy need for a reaction to occur

Genetic Engineering

mixes genes of different species. In a lab, directly creates novel combinations of genes.

madrid protocol

moratorium on mineral exploration for 50 years in Antarctica

Equitorial Areas

more solar energy, heat, humidity. Climate stability, more plant growth, more niches, allows specialist species to coexist.

LT50=MHT

more warm-adapted species are most threatened by rising temp because their LT50 is very close to their MHT

low status of women

most important factor keeping population growth rates high

Type III survivorship curve

most individuals die early in life (e.g., fishes, invertebrates, and plants).

Type I survivorship curve

most individuals live out their life span and die of old age (e.g., humans).

ionization

most low molecular mass metabolites ionized around pH 7.0 -cell benefits from having metabolites with charge (less able to pass through membrane)

greenhouse gases

most significant- H2O, CO2, CH4, CFCs. Trap outgoing infrared energy causing Earth to warm

proteins

move laterally along plane of membrane fluidity is very important -movement governed by viscosity of membrane

Rarity II

narrow habitat tolerance

stenotherms

narrow thermal tolerance

salt water intrusion

near the coast, overpumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into aquifer

genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

new organisms created by altering the genetic material (DNA) of existing organisms; usually in an attempt to remove undesirable or create desirable characteristics in the new organisms

Organic Agriculture

no synthetic fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides, or herbicides.

Mountains

not a specific biome cooler than surrounding lowlands important "habitat islands"

nuclear fission

nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons

Ecosystem Diversity

number and variety of ecosystems. Different communities and habitats in area.

replacement level fertility

number of children a couple must have to replace themselves (averages 2.1 in more developed nations, 2.7 in less developed nations)

carrying capacity

number of individuals of a population that an environment can support indefinitely

general fertility rate

number of live births expected in a year per 1,000 women aged 15 to 49 years

fitness

number of offspring (genes) contributed by an individual to future generations

incidence rate

number of people contracting a disease during a time period

species richness

number of species in the community

gamma rays

one of three kinds of nuclear radiation; type of EM radiation emitted from the isotope similar to X gays but more energetic and penetrating

Parasitism

one organism, the parasite, derives nourishment from another organism, its host, which is harmed in the process.

temperate forests

occur in eastern North America, Japan, northeatern Asia, and western and central Europe. Dominated by tall deciduous trees. Well-defined seaons include a distinct winter. Logged extensively, only scattered remnants of original temperate forests remain

temperate shrub lands

occurs along the coast of Southern California and the Mediterranean region. Characterized by areas of Chaparral-miniature woodlands dominated by dense stands of shrubs

metabolic cold adaptation

occurs at 3 levels -whole fish 02 consumption -mitochondrial 02 consumption -enzyme activity: citrate synthase

acute effect

occurs soon after exposure

adaptive radiation

occurs when a species enters a new habitat that has unoccupied niches and evolves into a group of new species, each adapted to one of these niches

Metabolic Heat Production

occurs when hormonal changes boost the metabolic rate in birds and mammals, birds, birds and mammals shiver, organisms increase their physical activity and honeybees cluster and shiver

self fitting

occurs when individuals of a species grow at high population density, resulting in a negative relationship between individuals per area and average individual mass

Primary Succession

occurs where no soil exists when succession begins.

25%

oceans contribute this percent of total photosynthesis

weather

one example of a density-dependent factor that influence population growth

naked mole rat

one example of a eusocial mammal

forbs

one of the major plant growth form includes herbaceous, non-graminoids plants

alpha particle

one of the major types of nuclear radiation, consisting of two protons and two neutrons

dioxin

one of the most toxic human-made chemicals. Stable, long-lived, by-product of herbicide production, enters environment as fallout from incineration of municipal and medical waste and persists for many years

beta particle

one of three kinds of nuclear radiation; electrons that are emitted when one of the protons or neutrons in the nucleus of an isotope spontaneously changes

histadine

only amino acid side chain that has pk near pHi

humus

organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms

extremophilic

organism thrives in physically extreme conditions

POPULATION

organisms of same species in same area (biotic factors)

Genetically Modified (GM) Organisms

organisms that have been genetically engineered using...

producer/autotroph

organisms that make their own food--- photosynthetic life

natural selection

organisms that possess favorable adaptations pass them onto the next generation

High Quality Energy

organized & concentrated, can perform useful work

water vapor pressure

partial pressure due to water vapor

soil mosaics

patches of material deposited during floods originating in nearby mountains

ranks of coal

peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite

.93%

percent of Argon in the atmosphere

.003%

percent of CO2 in the air

78%

percent of Nitrogen in atmosphere

71%

percent of earth's surface covered by water

.00005%

percent of ozone in the atmosphere

97%

percent of the Earth's water found in oceans

21%

percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere

loam

perfect agricultural soil with equal portions of sand, silt, clay

Endler

performed natural selection study to test color pattern in guppies

La Nina

periods of lower sea surface temps and higher than average pressure in east tropical pacific

Montreal Protocol

phaseout of ozone deleting substances

metapopulations

populations occur in spatially isolated patches with exchange of individuals

Subspecies

populations of species that occur in different areas and differ morphologically.

Piping plover

predation and human disturbance are thought to be main causes of plover's decline. Listed as endangered in Great Lakes region and as threatened in the Great Plains and on the Atlantic Coast

coal formation

prehistoric plants buried un-decomposed in oxygen-depleted water of swamps/bogs converted by heat and pressure

total atmospheric pressure

pressure exerted by all gases in the air

saturation water vapor pressure

pressure exerted by water vapor in air saturated by water

interference competition

preventing access to resources

Components of water potential

psi(total) = Psi(o) + Psi(p) + Psi(m) o = osmotic potential, the effect of dissolved solutes; defined as 0 for absolutely pure H2O, so must be negative if anything is dissolved in the water p = pressure potential; can be positive if water is under pressure, or negative if water is under tension m = matric potential, adhesion to solid surfaces like soil particles or cell walls; always negative

Garret Hardin

published "The Tragedy of the Commons" in the journal Science in 1968; argued that rational people will exploit shared resources

Rachel Carson

published Silent Spring in 1962; documented the environmental damage done by DDT and other pesticides. Heightened public awareness at start of the modern environmental movement

Outputs of glycolysis

pyruvate

Species-Area Curve

quantifies the idea that, all other factors being equal, a larger geographic area has more species.

metabolic labeling

quantifying incorporation of radio-labeled amino acids into newly synthesized hsp's—best technique for studying induction of hsp's in response to stress

western analysis

quantifying standing-stock levels of hsp's using specific antibodies—best technique for looking at longer-term accumulations of hsp's

saturation WVD

quantity of water vapor air can potentially hold (changes with temp)

Ionizing radiation

radiation with enough energy to free electrons from atoms forming ions, may cause cancer

Radon

radioactive gas, formed from the decay of Uranium, causes lung cancer

Aquaculture

raising aquatic organisms in controlled environment

Eutrophication

rapid algal growth caused by an excess of nitrogen & phosphorus, blocks sunlight, causing the death/decomposition of aquatic plants, decreasing dissolved oxygen (DO), suffocating fish

According to the demographic transition model of populations, over time _______.

rapid population growth is a short-term phenomenon between the drop in death rate and the drop in birth rate in a population.

california condor

reasons for decline include shootings, poisoning, lead poisoning, collisions with power lines, egg collecting, pesticides, habitat loss, and decline of large and medium-size native mammals due to encroachments of agriculture and urbanization

Overnutrition

receiving too many calories each day.

conformational microstate model

recognizing the dynamic nature of a population of proteins

Conservation Tillage

reduces the amount of tilling. No-till farming disturbs the soil even less.

oligotrophic

referring to bodies of water having low concentration of chemical elements required for life

Herbivory

refers to an interaction in which an herbivore eats part of a plant or algae. This has led to the evolution of plant mechanical and chemical defense and adaptations.

Predation

refers to interaction where one species, the predator, kills and eats the other, the prey.

southern oscillation

refers to the oscillation in atmospheric pressure that extends across the Pacific

metabolic water

refers to water created inside a living organism through oxidizing energy-containing substances in their food

matrix forces

refers to water's tendency to adhere to container walls

Reabsorption

refines the filtrate, reclaims valuable solutes from the filtrate and returns these to the blood

heterotherm

regions of body with different temperatures

acclimatization

regulate gene expression to support changes in the protein pool

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, Rodenticide Act

regulates effectiveness of pesticides

Antidiuretic Hormone

regulates the amount of water excreted by the kidneys, by signaling nephrons to reabsorb water from the filtrate returning it to the blood, and decreasing the amount of water excreted

steric hindrance

regulation of conformational mobility and entropy of unfolding

efficient regulation

regulatory process rely on marginally stable weak bonded structures

obligate symbiont

relationship between two organisms in which neither by themselves can exist without the other

parasitism

relationship in which one organism obtains nutrients at the expense of the host

species evenness

relative abundance of species

Extreme Rarity

restricted range, narrow habitat tolerance, small populations

acid generation

relies on concentrations of dipeptides -high in more active species

endotherms

rely heavily on metabolic energy

ectotherms

rely mainly on external energy sources

Organic Fertilizers

remains or wastes of organisms. Manure, crop residues, fresh vegetation.

leaching

removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards through soil

Erosion

removal of material from one place and transport to another area. By wind or by water.

seed-tree cutting

removes all but a few seed trees to promote regeneration

boreal forests or Taiga

represent the largest terrestrial biome. Dominated by needleleaf, coniferous trees. Found in the cold climates of Eurasia and North America: two-thirds in Siberia with the rest in Scandinavia, Alaska, and Canada. Seasons are divided into short, moist, and moderately warm summers and long, cold, and dry winters. Extensive logging may soon cause their disappearance.

r-strategist

reproductive strategy in which organisms reproduce early, bear many small, unprotected offspring (insects, mice)

K-strategist

reproductive strategy in which organisms reproduce late, bear few, carerd for offspring (humans, elephants)

surface mining control & reclamation act

requires coal strip mines to reclaim land

Petroleum cons

reserves depleted soon, pollution during drilling, transport and refining, land subsidence, burning oil produces CO2

Shelterbelts (windbreaks)

rows of trees planted along edges of fields. Slows wind, can be combined with inter-cropping.

esticie pros

saves lives from insect transmitted diseases, increases food supply, and increases profits for farmers

El Nino

sea surface in east tropical pacific is warmer than average and barometric pressure is lower

stratosphere

second layer of atmosphere 10-30 miles above the Earth's surface. Contains protective ozone layer (good ozone)

secondary sewage treatment

second step of sewage treatment; bacteria breakdown organic waste, aeration accelerates process

ozone

secondary pollutant. Causes respiratory irritation and plant damage. Reduced by reducing NO emissions and VOCs

elizomes

seeds bearing this are likely to be ant-dispersed

Clean Air Act

set emission standards for cars, and limits for release of air pollutants

Safe drinking water act

set maximum contaminant levels for pollutants that may have adverse effects on human health

congeners

species classified into a common genus -hard to tell apart just by looking -good to look at for examining adaptive variation

Red List

species facing high risks of extinction.

hydrothermal vent ecosystems

species living around hotter vents have ABT that is almost equal to MHT (life on the edge) -behavioral thermal regulation (keeps species from going over the edge0

Latitudinal Gradient

species richness increases toward equator

indicator species

species that serve as early warnings than an ecosystem is being damaged

keystone species

species whose role in an ecosystem is more important than others

structural stability

stability is directly related to evolutionary adaptation temperatures -tropical species enzyme can maintain its activity for much longer when heated compared to cold temp species enzymes

cholesterol

stabilizes membrane structure in face of temp change

homeotherm

stable core temp due to control of heat flux + lots of insulation (blubber)

PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls)

stable, long-lived, carcinogenic chlorinated hydrocarbons. Produced by electronics industry

Hardy Weinberg Principle

states that in a population, mating at random in the absence of evolutionary forces, allele frequencies will remain constant: (p+q)^2=p^2+2pq+q^2

electricity is generated by

steam, from water boiled, by fossil fuels or nuclear energy, or falling water is used to turn a generator

stabilizing forces

stronger @ high T=hydrophobic interactions stronger @ low T=hydrogen bonds, ionic interactions, van der waals forces

look at things holistically

structure and function tightly interlinked, varying one function will affect another

Miller

studied age distributions of white oak

Connell

studied distributions of barnacles along an intertidal gradient

Peter and Rose Mary Grant

studied evolution of galapagos finches

Mary Wilson

studied mate choice in plants

MacArthur and Wilson

studied r-selected versus k-selected species

Demographer

studies the population dynamics of humans.

limnology

study of freshwater systems

behavioral ecology

study of interactions among organisms and environment mediated by behavior

landscape ecology

study of landscape structure and proceses

gray wolf

subject of predator eradication programs sponsored by the Federal government. Prior to Endangered Species Act(1973), exterminated from lower 48 states except for a few hundred inhabiting extreme northeastern Minnesota and a small number on Isle Royale, Michigan

Fertilizers

substances containing essential nutrients to enhance crop production.

carcinogen

substances that cause cancer

mutagen

substances that cause changes in DNA; may result in hereditary changes

teratogen

substances that cause fetus deformities (birth defects)

secondary succession

succession following disturbance that does not destroy soil

primary succession

succession on newly exposed geological substrates

Energetic Hypothesis

suggests that length is limited by inefficient energy transfer.

Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis

suggests that moderate levels of disturbance can foster greater diversity than either high or low levels of disturbance.

mutualism

symbiotic relationship where both organisms benefit

commensalism

symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits & the other is unaffected

Ubiquitin (Ub)

tag for denatured proteins

chronic effect

takes place over a long period, often as a result of exposure to low levels of a pollutant

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

techniques to suppress pests.

transform fault

tectonic plates sliding past one another (San Andres)

Divergent Plate Boundaries

tectonic plates spreading apart, new crust being formed (ex. mid-ocean ridges, rift valleys)

convergent plate boundaries

tectonic plates with the oldest crustal material on Earth moving together, one moving under another (ex. mid-ocean trenches). Mineral deposits and volcanoes are most abundant at convergent plate boundaries

pejus

temp where things start to look bad -aerobic scope is compromised

carrying capacity

the # of individuals that can be sustained in an area

Which of these was the second of the major events that stimulated an increase in the size of the human population?

the Industrial Revolution.

Sustainability

the ability to meet humanity's current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs

Which of these was the first of the major events that stimulated an increase in the size of the human population?

the advent of agriculture.

detritovore

the category of animals that eat non-living organic matter

For the foreseeable future, which types of countries will see the greatest increases in population number?

the countries that are poorest and least able to support population growth.

Which of these was the third of the major events that stimulated an increase in the size of the human population?

the discovery of vaccines and the discovery of antibiotics.

Excretion

the disposal of nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes

Radiaton

the emission of electromagnetic waves

Transgenes

the genes that have moved between organisms

control of diseases

the human population explosion resulted from lowered death rate largely due to

Our total impact on the environment is measured by a variation of Ehrlich and Holdren's 1974 formula that specifies our impact on the environment is based on _______.

the interaction among our population, affluence, and technology.

integrative adaptation to temperature

the isolated traits that we "dissect" out of systems may be intimately related with other aspects of the system

oceans

the largest of all the ecosystems. The ocean regions are separated into separate zones: intertidal, pelagic, abyssal, and benthic. All four zones have a great diversity of species

biotic

the living components of an ecosystem

Evaporation

the loss of heat from the surface of a liquid that is losing some of its molecules as a gas

osmosis

the net movement of water molecules through a semi=permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration

abiotic

the nonliving components of an ecosystem

Parasite

the organism that derives the nourishment, in a parasitic relationship.

Host

the organism that is being harmed, or providing the nourishment in a parasitic relationship.

Renal Cortex

the outer portion of the vertebrates kidney, above the renal medulla

aswan high dam, Egypt

the silt that made the Nile region fertile fills the reservoir. Lack of irrigation controls causes waterlogging and salinization. The parasitic disease schistosomiasis thrives in the stagnant water of the reservoir.

physiological ecology

the study of the interrelationship between biological function and the environment

half-life

the time it takes for half the mass of a radioisotope to decay. A radioactive isotope must be stored for approximately 10 half-lives until it decays to a safe level

Biomass

the total mass of all individuals in a population

Conduction

the transfer of heat by direct contact

Convection

the transfer of heat by movement of air or liquid past a surface

neural limitations

thermal sensitivity of action potential generation reflects adaptation temperature -at 30 C neural action potentials decrease in temperate and cold species as time increases- -shows that prior thermal history IMPORTANT when studying effects of thermal stress

Pathogens

these universally affect ecological communities, and they include disease-causing microorganisms, viruses, viroids, and prions

Mullerian Mimicry

two or more unpalatable species resemble each other.

Food Chain

this links trophic levels from producers to top carnivores.

Zoonotic Pathogens

this type of pathogen has been transferred from other animals to humans.

Lag time

time between a stimulus and the response of a system

Average residence time

time it takes for a given part of the total reservoir of a particular material to by cycled through the system

exponential curve

time versus population size graph for a population undergoing exponential growth

"s" curve

time versus population size graph for a population undergoing logistic growth

euryhaline

tolerates fresh and sea water

euryoxic

tolerates wide range of 02

Overgrazing

too many animals - eat too much plant cover and impede plant regrowth. Soil degraded and compacted. Non-native plants invade, less palatable to livestock, out-compete native vegetation.

biomass

total mass of all biological organisms for a trophic level or ecosystem.

total fertility rate

total offspring per female in lifetime

heat

total thermal energy of a system

incineration disadvantages

toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride, dioxin), scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposal

22 to 84%

toxoplasma gondi is found in this range of percentage of the human population

self thinning

tree seedlings can live at very high densities, but as they grow, density declines progressively until mature trees are at low densities

tundra

treeless plains that are the coldest of all the biomes. Occur in the arctic and Antarctica. Dominated by lichens, mosses, sedges, and dwarfed shrubs. Characterized by extremely cold climate, permanently frozen grounnd (permafrost) low biotic diversity, simple vegetation structure, limitation of drainage, short season of growth and reproduction.

9 major biomes

tropical rain forest, tropical dry forest, tropical savanna, desert, temperate woodland and shrubland, temperate grassland, temperate forest, boreal forest, tundra

Lotka-Volterra competition model

two competitors can only coexist when intraspecific competition is stronger than interspecific competition

Semidiurnal Tides

two low and two high tides daily

integrated pest management

uses a combination of methods, including bological control, certain chemical pesticides, and some methods of planting crops

Biological Control

uses pests' predators/diseases to control pest.

cogeneration

using waste heat to make electricity

intersexual selection

usually female choice

intrasexual selection

usually male-male competition

paralogs

variants of a class of enzyme encoded by multiple copies of the same gene

Biodiversity

variety of life at all levels of organization

landscape elements

visually distinctive patches in an ecosystem

incineration advantages

volume of wate reduced by 90% and waste heat can be used

inversion layer (temperature inversion)

warm layer of air above a cooler layer traps pollutants close to the Earth's surface

heat shock in Tegula

warm-adapted Ton is within habitat range cold-adapted Ton is at temp it rarely sees -subtidal species unable to synthesize proteins at mid-intertidal temps -mid-intertidal live on edge, Toff close to MHT

water logging

water completely saturates soil, starves plant roots of oxygen, rots roots

Summary: water plant air system

water is pulled from soil to roots to leaves by transpiration, but only when the stomata are open.

Waterlogging

water suffocates roots, over-irrigated.

water vapor density (WVD)

water vapor per unit volume of air

hypoxia

water with very low dissolved oxygen levels, the end result of eutrophication

shit

what does a coprovore eat?

Positive feedback

when a change in some conditions triggers a response that intensifies the changing condition

negative feedback

when a changing in some condition triggers a response that counteracts the changed condition

second law of thermodynamics

when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy

Secretion

when substances in the blood are transported into the filtrate

estuaries

where rivers mix with the sea

disturbance

which of the following environments for germinating seed is most likely to favor a plant species that makes many small seeds, compared to one that makes fewer larger seeds?

eurytolerant

wide ability to cope with diverse abiotic changes

titration of activity by pH

wide shifts in pH, as found in organism leaving/entering dormancy, can titrate metabolism between on and off states

eurytherm

wide thermal tolerance

alternate energy sources

wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells


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