Ecology
molecular chaperones
-bind to hydrophobic patches and prevent aggregation/improper folding -ATP consuming cycles of binding/release of chaperone allow protein to fold correctly
thermocline
a thin but distinct layer in a large body of water (e.g. an ocean or lake) in which temperature changes more rapidly with depth than it does in the layers above or below
exaptation
a trait that has assumed a new adaptive significance that differs from the adaptive value of the trait at the time of its origin
Volatile Organic Compounds
a variety of organic compounds used as solvents in industrial processes
greenhouse effect
a vital process, required for life to exist on Earth. Gases trap outgoing infrared energy causing Earth to warm. If accelerated, bad, leads to global warming
energy loss at each trophic level
as hear
heat tolerance vs latitude
as heat tolerance decreases, latitude increases
heat tolerance vs vertical position
as heat tolerance increases, vertical position increases
glycolysis vs pH
as pH drops, glycolysis increases -falling pH serves as rapid signal for increasing ATP produciton
pH vs Km
as pH increases, Km increases -pH falls with rising T, so Km is stabilized, facilitating conservation of Km
solubility
as temp increases, demand for oxygen increases, but solubility of oxygen is reduced
community
association of interacting species inhabiting some defined area
proteolysis
chops up denatured proteins and makes them into amino acids for the cell to use
Taxonomists
classify species. Similarities reflect evolutionary relationships.
shelterwood-cutting
cutting dead and less desirable trees first and after cutting more mature trees
phosphorus
cycle which does not have a gaseous phase
Ectotherm
gain most of their heat from external sources and include any fish, most amphibian, lizards and most invertebrates
Reduction in Nitrogen cycle ___ electrons and ____ energy
gains; requires
realized niche
defines the conditions under which a species might live, including interactions such as competition that may restrict environments where a species may live and what resources they use
Coriolis Effect
deflection of winds clockwise in the Northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern hemisphere
purple sea urchin
-distributed across large geographic range -adapt to different pH conditions -populations that evolved in environments where they experience heterogeneity in ocean pH, harbor genetic variation for response to OA
structures of enzyme"working parts"
-ensure adequate rates of catalysis (Kcat), favored by flexibility -ensure correct geometry for substrate binding (Km), favored by stability
viscotropic effects
-enzyme activity decreases as membrane fluidity decreases -protein stability increases as membrane static order increases
Km<<<substrate(physiological)
-enzyme always works at top speed and can't be regulated by changes in substrate
membrane structure
-equal amounts lipids and proteins -some proteins integral, some peripheral -proteins densely packed
commensalism
A symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits and the other is neither benefited nor harmed Clownfish among sea anemone' s tentacles Barnacles attaching to whales or horseshoe crabs
What are the four kinds of energy and which is capable of going through a vacuum like outer space?
Electromagnetic radiation, heat, energy used to do work (kinetic), and energy stored in chemical bonds. EMR can go thru space.
What is the source of the electrons in the light reactions?
Electrons come from splitting of water
lipids
fatty acids -saturated=no double bond -unsaturated=double bond: "kink" more spread apart, not as tightly packed -in rapid thermal motion
Gifford Pinchot
first chief of the US Forest Service; advocated managing resources for multiple use using principles of sustainable yield
troposphere
first layer of atmosphere 0-10 miles above Earth's surface. Contains weather, greenhouse gases (bad ozone)
primary sewage treatment
first step of sewage treatment; eliminates most particulate material from raw sewage using grates, screens, and gravity (settling)
interference competition
form of competition that involves a fight or other active interaction among organisms
global change (geological)
form the origins of life through evolution up to the present
photochemical smog
formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight
metamorphic rock
formed by heat & pressure
secondary air pollutants
formed by reaction of primary pollutants
sedimentary rock
formed by weathering & erosion
igneous rock
formed from solidification of magma
Urinary System
forms and excretes urine and regulates water and solutes in body fluids
Kodric-Brown
found that reproductive success was determined by a combination of male attractiveness and dominance status (both inter and intrasexual selection)
Robert MacArthur
found warbler diversity increased as vegetation stature increased
John Muir
founded Sierra Club in 1892; fought unsuccessfully to prevent the damming of the Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite National Park
biomes
general categories of terrestrial environments; related to particular climate and, to a lesser extent, soil characteristics
genetic drift
genetic change due to chance
global change (anthropogenic)
how human activities since the start of the industrial revolution have changed the globe
Ecology
how organisms interact with one another and with their environment
Traditional Agriculture
human and animal power; hand tools, simple machines.
anthropocene
human effects rival 'geology'
sanitary landfill
problems include leachate, which is solved using a liner with a collection system; methane gas, which may be collected and burned; and the volume of garbage, which may be compacted and/or reduced
Evaporative Cooling
may involve sweating, panting or spreading saliva on body surfaces
Minimata disease
mental impairments caused by mercury
Minimata, Japan
mental impairments, birth defects, and deaths were caused by mercury dumped in Minimata Bay by factory. Mercury entered humans through their diet
homeotherms
metabolism keeps body temp relatively constant
primary air pollutants
produced by humans & nature (CO, CO2, SO2, NO, hydrocarbons, particulates)
trophic levels
producers> primary consumer> secondary consumer> tertiary consumer
male
produces small gametes
silviculture
professional growing of trees
marasmus
progressive emaciation caused by lack of protein and calories
US Marine Mammal Protection Act
prohibits taking marine mammals in US wasters and by US citizens, and the importing of marine mammals and marine mammal products into the US
Bottom-Up Model
proposes a unidirectional influence from lower to higher trophic levels. In this case, presence or absence of mineral nutrients determines community structure, including abundance of primary producers.
Dynamic Stability Hypothesis
proposes that long food chains are less stable than short ones
National wild and scenic rivers Act
protects rivers with due to aesthetic, recreational, wildlife, historical, or cultural reasons
American alligator
overhunting and destruction of habitat cuased original listing, removed from list of endangered species by the Fish and Wildlife Service in 1987
aerobic respiration
oxygen consuming producers, consumers & decomposers break down complex organic compounds and convert C back into CO2
The Boehr Effect
pH differences regulate binding + release of 02
phosphofructokinase (PFK)
pH falls, activates PFK, glycolysis activated -if pH drops too much ions dissociate and deactivates glycolysis -short window of preferential pH for glycolysis
pk
pH value where activity reaches 50% of the maximum -if pk in range of physiological pH then changes in pHi can lead to large changes in processes (e.g. fertilization, dormancy, muscle metabolism, oxygen transport)
municipal solid wate
paper and mostly put into landfills
fluidity
poly unsaturated>mono unsaturated>saturated
Who are the nitrogen fixers and what do they do?
Legumes (Fabaceae) because of Rhizobia bacteria in legume root nodules (no oxygen), and Cyanobacteria (Anabaena blue green algae). They reduce Nitrogen in exchange for Carbon. (N2 -> NH4)
Primary producers
Primary producers are the autotrophs, all other organisms are consumers.
What limits GPP/NPP?
Water, light, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, repeated destruction of plant biomass by harvesting/landslides/fires/etc.
estilation
a state of animal dormancy, similar to hibernation, characterized by inactivity and a lowered metabolic rate, that is entered in response to high temperatures and arid conditions
rangeland
provides food for grazing and browsing animals w/o plowing and planting
trehalose (chemical chaperone)
rapidly synthesized during heat shock, prevents aggregation of unfolding proteins, has to be removed to allow proteins to return to natural structures
MDH and LDH
rate limiting changes in conformation determine value of Kcat -simple change has big effect on structure and function (glycerine-serine in Lottia)
Q10 effects
rates of physiological activity -10 C change in temp doubles or halves rates of biochemical reactions [Q10=2]
Calvin Cycle
reactions of photosynthesis in which energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy compounds such as sugars
pHi near pKimid
results in titration ability which allows changes in pHi to regulate cellular activities
remediation
return a contaminated area to its original state
RuBP
ribulose biphosphate; a five-carbon carbohydrate that combines with CO2 to form two molecules of PGA in the first step of the Calvin Cycle
Effects of global warming
rising sea level (due to thermal expansion not melting ice), extreme weather, droughts (famine), and extinctions
acid-base balance
rising temp dissociates weak acids, leads to increase in H+ (fall in pH)
Clean Water Act
set maximum permissible amounts of water pollutants that can be discharged into waterways...aim to make surface waters swimmable and fishable
Food Quality Protection Act
set pesticide limits in food, & all active and inactive ingredients must be screened for estrogenic/endocrine effects
Preservation
setting aside areas & protecting them from human activities
COMMUNITY
several populations in same area (biotic factors)
wetland
shallow depression that seasonally holds water
life form
similar to guild, but for plants. combination of structure and growth dynamics
Diurnal tides
single low and high tide each day
organic fertilizer
slow acting long lasting because the organic remains need time to decompose
education
slowing of the human explosion in recent years is due to lowered birth rate, which is strongly negatively correlated with what?
Rarity I
small local populations
microclimate
small-scale weather variation, usually measured over shorter time period
heart rate in Tegula snails
snails higher on rocks have higher thermal tolerance, but they see temps that can cause cardiac failure -least able to acclimate it's thermal tolerance -acclamatory capacity greater in cold adapted (subtidal) species
OAEBCR
soil horizon layers
photodissociation
solar radiation breaks down chemical bonds
Bedrock
solid rock comprising Earth's crust
trait
some isolated characteristic of an organism that is convenient for the purpose of our study
inhibition
some species modify environment in a way that makes it less suitable for all others
point source
source from specific location such as pipe or smokestack
non-point source
source spread over an area such as agricultural/feedlot runoff, urban runoff, traffic
particulate matter
sources include burning fossil fuels and car exhaust. Effects include reduced visibility, respiratory irritation. Mothods of reduction include filtering, electrostatic precipitators, alternative energy
niche
summarizes environmental factors influencing growth, survival, and reproduction of a species
food web
summarizes the species interactions in a community
Renal Medulla
the inner portion of the vertebrates kidney, beneath the renal cortex
Urinary Bladder
the pouch where urine is stored prior to elimination
relative humidity
the ratio (times 100) of the water vapor density in air to the saturation water vapor density at a given temperature
Define generic population interactions
Exchange of genes via mating/reproduction
CO₂ and O₂ is fixed by (blank) in the Calvin Cycle
Rubisco
acid deposition
caused by sulfuric and nitric acids resulting in lowered pH of surface waters
species turnover
change in species composition on islands
natural selection
changes genotypic and phenotypic frequencies in populations
genetic drift
changes in frequency of a gene in a population due not to mutation, selection, or migration but to chance
evolutionary adaptation
changes in genetic information
Selective Breeding
changes organisms through selective breeding of the same or similar species.
k selection
characteristic efficient use of resources
r selection
characteristic high population growth rate
tropical rain forests
characterized by the greatest diversity of species, believed to include many undiscovered species. Occur near the equator. Soils tend to be low in nutrients. Distinct seasonality: winter is absent, and only two seasons are present (rainy and dry)
petroleum pros
cheap, easily transported, high quality energy
surface mining
cheaper, can remove more minerals, less hazardous to workers
love canal, NY
chemicals buried in old canal, school and homes built over it led to birth defectrs and cancers
temperate grasslands
dominated by grasses, trees and large shrubs are absent. Temperatures vary more from summer to winter, and the amount of rainfall is less than in savannas. Temperate grasslands have hot summers and cold iwnters. Occur in South Africa, Hungary, Argentina, the steppes of former Soviet Union, and the plains and praries of central North America
TD-50
dose that is toxic to 50% of a population
whooping crane
drainage of wetlands, conversion of grasslands to agriculture, and hunting for feathers
Green Revolution
drastically increased food production through new; technology, crop varieties, farming practices.
ways to conserve water
drip/trickle irrigation, recycling, use gray water, repair leaks, low flow fixtures
Gray whale
eastern North Pacific stock of gray whale has the distinction of being the first population of a marine mammal species to be removed from the List of Endangered and Threatened Species
Commensalism
one species benefits and the other is apparently unaffected. These are hard to document in nature because any close association likely affects both species.
Weathering
physical, chemical, biological processes convert rocks into soil.
acclimation
physiological changes in response to different conditions such as temperature
Monoculture
planting single, genetically similar crop. Efficient but reduces diversity, disease prone.
photosynthesis
plants convert CO2 into complex carbs (glucose)
pasture
plowed, planted, and harvested to provide forage for animals
Contour Farming
plowing perpendicularly across a hill. Furrows slow runoff, capture soil.
Sultur oxides
primary source is coal burning. Primaryu and secondary effects include acid deposition, respiratory irritation, plant damage. Reduction methods include scrubbers, burn low sulfur fuel
keeling curve
tracking rising C02 levels in 'real time'
During an El Nino Year
trade winds weaken & warm water sloshed back to S. America
secondary sex characteristics
traits that distinguish the two sexes of a species, but that are not directly part of the reproductive system
principle of competitive exclusion
two species with identical niches cannot coexist indefinitely
aquifer
underground layers of porous rock allow water to move slowly
clumped distribution
unequal chance of being anywhere. mutual attraction between individuals. patchy resource distribution
insoluble aggregates
unfolded proteins have sticky hydrophobic surfaces that can interact with surfaces of other proteins
regular distribution
uniformly spaced. exclusive use of areas. individuals avoid one another
Natural radioactive decay
unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha & beta particles
effects of el nino
upwelling decreases disrupting food chains, N. US has mild winters, SW US has increased rainfall, lass Atlantic hurricanes
Excretion
urine is excreted via ureters, urinary bladder and urethra kidneys, by signaling nephrons to reabsorb water from the filtrate returning it to the blood, and decreasing the amount of water excreted
endothermic
use metabolism to maintain core body temp
Countercurrent Heat Exchange
with warm and cold blood flowing in opposite directions
Tropical Rainforest
within 10 latitude of equator
woody plants
woody, thickening of tissues
ogallala aquifer
world's largest aquifer; under part of Wyoming, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Texas. Holds enough water to cover the US with 1.5 feet of water. Being depleted for agricultural and urban use
Three Gorges Dam, China
world's largest dam on Yangtze River. Will drown ecosystems, cities, archeological sites, fragment habitats, and displace 2 million people
mammals "losers" of climate change?
worry about effects of heat and humidity, to maintain evaporative cooling capacity
faciliation
worse for early, better for late
Aldo Leopold
wrote A Sand County Almanac published a year after his death in 1948; promoted a "Land Ethic" in which humans are ethically responsible for serving as the protectors of nature
Riparian
zone that is the interface between land and river or stream
ocean as CO2 sink
~22 metric tons CO2 added to ocean per day
clown fish
-discriminate between good and bad habitat choice -under ocean acidification, they lose ability for good habitat choice
What is the boreal forest fire regime?
Maintained by fire, many plants require bare ground to germinate.
What are the characteristics of coniferous plants?
"Cone-bearing" seed plants, slim needle-like leaves
La Nina
"Normal" year, easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the W. Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off West coast of S. America
thomas malthus
"human population cannot continue to increase. Consequences will be war, famine, and pestilence (disease)"
G. Evelyn Hutchinson
"paradox of the plankton"- phytoplankton communities live in simple environments and compete for same nutrients
ruderals
"weeds" in high disturbance, low stress
ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work
doubling time
(rule of 70) doubling time equals 70 divided by percent growth rate.
permian mass extinction
-95% marine species went extinct -200,000 years of volcanic eruption releasing CO2 -similar to what we might see in near future
cytosolic-malate dehydrogenase (cMDH)
-ATP generating enzyme -close relative of LDH
heat shock proteins (HSPs)
-Hsp90 stabilizes unfolded protein and prevents further unfolding -Hsp40 increases activity of Hsp70 -Hsp70 uses ATP to re-fold proteins
Light reactions occur in the (blank) cells
Mesophyll
jumbo squid
-Q10 effect: higher temp increases O2 consumption -O2 binding by blood: inhibited by high CO2 -metabolic inhibiton: by high CO2 -compression of habitat range: too hot in shallow, too hypoxic at depth -OA decreases activity levels by 45% -shoaling and OMZ decreasing their habitat are
arctic ground squirrel
-active core temp ~39 C -hibernation temp ~2.9 C
marginal stability
-allows changes in protein conformation during enzyme function -too rigid=can't change shape=poor function -too flexible=weak ability to bind substrates
Tegula snails
-as temp increases, the higher vertically positioned snail has greater survival percentage -% survivability coincides w/ species that have smaller Km value ranges as temp increases
Mytilus blue mussels
-cMDH of cold adapted vs warm adapted differ in temperature sensitivity to KmNaDH -adaptation due to single amino acid substitution
Damselfish
-conservation of Km conserved across different temp adaptations -Kcat higher in colder adapted species, but Kcat values still conserved across different temp adaptations -temperate has higher Km than tropical -1 substitution can convert temperate LDH to tropical LDH
costs of living higher in heat
-damage to proteins -damage to DNA -higher rates of respiration -ion flux across membrane speed up, need more ATP
membrane phase
-gel phase -liquid crystalline -hexagonal at physiological temps, membrane in liquid crystalline phase
congeneric species
-good study systems for examining thermal relationships (thermal gradients, distribution patterns0
Lottia congeners
-heat perturbs binding by cold-adapted Lottia cMDH more than in the case of warm-adapted Lottia cMDH -Km ranges are smaller for warm-adapted species as temp increases -cold-adapted species have lower thermal stability
larvae raised in low pH
-high pH populations showed greater changes in allele frequency
limpets
-higher intertidal limpets maintain higher constitutive levels of Hsp and doesn't induce increased synthesis under stress
gabazine
-inhibitor of GABA receptor -gabazine reduces effects of ocean acidification
effects of climate change
-local extinction of species with LT50=MHT -species replacements: warm-adapted spread northward -tropical extinctions: if no replacement species exist
oxygen minimum zones (OMZs)
-low quantities of dissolved oxygen -in mid water -comes from respiration, organisms metabolize all oxygen available -shoaling:causes low pH water to occur at shallower depths
antarctic notothenioids
-no heat shock response -show abundant levels of Hsps despite lack of induction by heat -high levels of chaperones might be adaptive
temperature effects
-pervasive physiological influence -distribution of organsims -phenology-timing of ecological events
additional mechanisms
-preformed HSF1-HSE complexes for rapid initiation of translation -regulation of HSF1 levels in bacteria -temperature dependent RNA structure -heat induced trimeriztion of HSF1 -degradation of Hsp70 mRNA after heat stress
hydrophobic effect
-primary force establishing lipid bilayer -polar head groups seek water -non polar (hydrophobic) acyl chains avoid water
optimal values
-primary target for adaptation those values conserved across all species under normal environmental conditions, e.g., normal body temperatures.
extreme pH
-protein unfolding/damage -disrupt metabolism/affect Km values -transport of oxygen across tissues -interference with trans-membrane ion movement
Km>>>substrate(physiological)
-rate is unresponsive to changes in substrate -enzyme works at low % of capacity
optimal Km values near substrate(physiological)
-rate responsive to changes in substrate -catalytic activity rises or falls in response to physiological changes
adjusting enzymatic activity to offset Q10 effects
-regulate activity of enzymes -adjust concentrations -modify intrinsic efficiencies
ocean acidification
-rise in C02-fall in pH -increase in temp -decrease in dissolved 02
shelled pteropods
-shells based on aragonite -major contributor to zooplankton biomass -pump carbon into deep waters
Cold shock proteins (Csps)
-small -chaperones for RNA -keep RNA linear
non-covalent weak bonds
-small bond energies -give macromolecules flexibility -Vander Waals Forces + Hydrogen Bonding
increase in environmental variable
-stress shifts physiological trait out of it's optimal range of funtion and structure
enotherm hibernators
-switch diet to food w/polyunsaturated fatty acids before going into hibernation
microstate vs temp
-temperature affects distribution of microstates -increasing temp=more microstates and more that are too disordered to bind -antarctic vs tropical enzyme at 28 C, antarctic has more disordered microstates (at 0 C they have same # of microstates, both binding competent)
Natural CO2 volcanoes
-underwater sites -pH gradients 6.57-8.2 -sea grass + brown algae thrive -coral + mollusks low in abundance
thermal selection
-vent species choose temps (UST) relatively low compared to their upper thermal limit (ULT)- allows persistence in dynamic environments
Phytoplankton-coccolithophore
-when bloom is bigger, reflects sunlight, keeps water cooler -produce dimethylsulfide which helps create cloud clover -less coccolithophores=more warming
Ecological succession
. A directional, cumulative change in the species that occupy a given area, through time Primary succession - starts from barren ground, e.g. new islands or de-glaciated areas Secondary succession - starts from disturbed areas, e.g. abandoned farm land or storm ravaged land Succession starts with a pioneer community, the first organisms to occupy an area Several transitional communities may come and go A climax community, a stable, self-perpetuating array of species in equilibrium with one another and their habitat, will form.
Population Growth
. As long as per capita birth rates remain even slightly above per capita death rates, a population will grow exponentially - with ever-increasing rates and shorted "doubling times" . It took 2 million years for the world's human population to reach 1 billion, yet it took only 12 years to reach the fifth billion . If a population lives under ideal conditions it may display its biotic potential - the maximum rate of increase under ideal conditions. Few populations live under ideal conditions because a number of factors limit their growth
Community stability
. Communities are assemblages of many different species occupying the same geographical area . Communities are not static, they gradually change over time because the environment changes and species themselves tend to also change their habitats
Competitive interactions
. Competition has negative effect on both organisms competing for a resource . Because resources are limited in nature there will always be competition for them . Competition is the driving force of evolution, those that win leave more offspring . Types of competition: . Intraspecific - competition among individuals of the same species, e.g. humans compete against other humans . Interspecific - competition between different species, e.g. humans compete against a wide variety of species seeking to utilize our food resources . The theory of competitive exclusion maintains that species who utilize the same resources cannot coexist indefinitely - the "one niche, one species" concept . Resource partitioning - the resources are divided, permitting species with similar requirements to use the same resources in different areas, ways and/or times
Consumers
. Consumers which eat plants are called herbivores . Consumers which eat animals are called carnivores . Organisms such as humans, which eat both plants and animals, are called omnivores
Logistic growth
. Early on populations will exhibit very rapid growth but as they near the carrying capacity they will level off is called logistic growth and it produces an S shaped curve . Logistic growth is density dependent, i.e. the growth is affected by the density of individuals. . For example - 26 reindeer were introduced onto an island off the coast of Alaska in 1910. Within 30 years the herd increased to 2,000. However, overgrazing reduced the food supply and the population crashed to 8 animals by 1950 . High density and overcrowding put individuals at greater risk of being killed, e.g. predators, parasites and pathogens have greater numbers of prey and hosts in a smaller area to interact . Bubonic plague swept through Europe in the 14th century, killing at least 25 million. The disease spread rapidly in overcrowded cities where sanitary conditions were poor and rats were abundant . Population size and growth may also be controlled by density-independent factors, e.g. adverse weather, floods, droughts, cold temperatures
Energy flows through ecosystems via food webs, intricate pathways of energy flow and material cycling
. Ecosystems are arranged by trophic (feeding) levels between various producers, the autotrophs, and consumers, the heterotrophs: . First trophic level - contains the autotrophs which build energy containing molecules . They also absorb nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur and other molecules necessary for life . They provide both an energy-fixation base as well as the nutrient-concentration base for ecosystems . Two types of autotrophs: Photoautotrophs - plants and some Protista . Chemoautotrophs - bacteria . Second trophic level - contains the primary consumers which eat the primary producers including herbivores, decomposers and detritivores, e.g. insects, grasshoppers, deer and wildebeest . Third trophic level - contains the secondary consumers, primary carnivores which eat the herbivores, e.g. mice, spiders and many birds . Fourth trophic level - contains the tertiary consumers, secondary carnivores who eat the primary carnivores, e.g. weasel, owl, sharks and wolves. . Linear food chains as described above are probably rare in nature because the same food source may be part of several interwoven food chains and many organisms have several food sources
Ecology of Ecosystems
. Energy Flow . Community Succession and Stability . Nutrient Recycling
Structure of ecosystems
. Energy flows through ecosystems via food webs, intricate pathways of energy flow and material cycling . Ecosystems are arranged by trophic (feeding) levels between various producers, the autotrophs, and consumers, the heterotrophs: . First trophic level - contains the autotrophs which build energy containing molecules . They also absorb nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur and other molecules necessary for life . They provide both an energy-fixation base as well as the nutrient-concentration base for ecosystems . Two types of autotrophs: Photoautotrophs - plants and some Protista . Chemoautotrophs - bacteria . Second trophic level - contains the primary consumers which eat the primary producers including herbivores, decomposers and detritivores, e.g. insects, grasshoppers, deer and wildebeest . Third trophic level - contains the secondary consumers, primary carnivores which eat the herbivores, e.g. mice, spiders and many birds 5 . Fourth trophic level - contains the tertiary consumers, secondary carnivores who eat the primary carnivores, e.g. weasel, owl, sharks and wolves. . Linear food chains as described above are probably rare in nature because the same food source may be part of several interwoven food chains and many organisms have several food sources . Decomposers play a key role in ecosystems but are often not represented on food chains
Growth Curves
. Exponential (un-restricted) growth . Logistic (restricted) growth
Trophic Structure of Communities
. Food chains . Food web . Trophic pyramid
Carrying capacity
. Maximum number of individuals of a species or population a given environment can sustain. Each habitat or area can only support so many individuals . Because of limiting factors populations rarely exhibit J shaped growth curves
Species interactions
. Neutral - two species that don't interact at all . Commensalism - beneficial to one species but neutral to another, e.g. birds that nest in trees, epiphytes (plants that grow on other plants) such as tropical orchids . Mutualism - an interaction that is beneficial to both species, e.g. plants and their pollinators, plants and animals that disperse their seeds, certain fungi and plant roots . Parasitism - an interaction that benefits one species and is detrimental to another. Note that the host is generally not killed. . Predation - an interaction beneficial to one species and detrimental to another. In this case the prey is killed. Predators are those that kill and eat other animals. Although many organisms eat plants they usually don't kill them because they are a constant supply of food. Prey are killed and eaten.
Life history patterns
. Not all individuals in a population are the same age. . Different populations may have very different age structures and these will determine their growth patterns 3 . Age structure refers to the proportions of pre-reproductive, reproductive and post- reproductive age individuals in a population. The age structure of a population will determine its future . Each species has a characteristic life span and the probability of dying increases with age . Population ecologists, as well as insurance companies track cohorts and construct life tables for populations . Cohort = a group of individuals born at the same time, e.g. baby boomers are a large group of individuals born just after World War II . A life table is an age-specific death schedule. Such a schedule is often converted to a more palatable survivorship schedule. For each age interval there is an predicted life expectancy or survivorship . Ecologists divide populations into age classes and assign birth rates and mortality risks to each class. Absolute population numbers mean very little unless their age structure is known . For example, population A might have many more members than population However, all the members of A might be post-reproductive, whereas population B might consist of mostly pre-reproductive and reproductive age individuals. Population A might be in danger of extinction.
Components
. Physiological ecology . Temperature and water balance . Light and biological cycles . Physiological ecology and conservation
Characteristics of populations
. Population size . Population density . Population distribution . Age structure . Population size and growth
Life history strategies
. R-selected organisms - put most of their energy into rapid growth and reproduction. This is common of organisms that occupy unpredictable environments, e.g. weeds are usually annuals with rapid growth and early reproduction. They produce large number of seeds containing few stored nutrients . K-selected organisms - put most of their energy into growth. They are common in stable environments near carrying capacity, e.g. long lived trees such as redwoods take many years of growth to reach reproductive age
Niche
. The functional role of an organism in a community, its job or position . Each species has a potential niche - what they could do with no competitors or resource limitations but due to competition and/or resource limitations, most organisms occupy a realized niche, the part of the fundamental niche that a species actually occupies in nature
Soils
...
energy available to each successive trophic level
...
latent heat of evaporation
1 g of evaporation cools 580g of water by 1 degree celsius
latent heat fusion
1 g of water gives off 80 cal as it freezes
most populous nations
1. China, 2. India, 3. US, 4, Indonesia
Dust Bowl
1930's drought and erosion.
The Soil Conservation Service (SCS)
1935-congress founded SCS. Works withe farmers/ranchers, develop conservation plans. Now it's called the Natural Resources Conservation Service.
How much energy is lost and available to next trophic level in a food chain?
10% energy available to next level, 50% lost to metabolic processes at current level, 40% to detritus
energy flow through food web
10% of all usable energy is transferred to the next trophic level. Reason: usable energy lost as heat (2nd law of thermodynamics), not all biomass is digested & absorbed, predators expend energy to catch prey
Desertification
10% of productivity lost. Erosion, soil compaction, deforestation, overgrazing.
Tropical Dry Forest
10-25 latitude
Hydrophobic effect
2 hydrophobic surfaces come together to exclude water
nuclear fusion
2 isotopes of light elements forced together at high temperatures till they fuse to form a heavier nucleus. Happens in Sun, very difficult to accomplish on Earth, prohibitively expensive
US population
290 million
overlapping generations living together reproductive and non-reproductive castes cooperative care
3 major characteristics of eusociality
Desert
30N and 30S
Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in brain
3x higher in cold-adapted fish at common T of assay
Temperate Forest
40-50 latitude
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus/calcium
5 elements that make up 93-97% of biomass of plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria
Where/what is the Mediterranean climate and how does it affect biodiversity?
5 regions, on west sides of continents, between 30-45 degree latitude. Climate is cool wet winters and hot dry summers. Causes exceptionally high biodiversity (plants evolved to defend themselves during dry summers)
Boreal Forest
50-65N latitude
In natural ecosystems
50-90% of pest species are kept under control by: predators, diseases, parasites
composition of water on earth
97.5% seawater, 2.5% freshwater
head groups
=class -variation among species and within a given species at different temps
LT50
=heat tolerance
gene expression in Mytilus californianus
>30 new genes turn on under extreme stress moderate stress is experienced almost every day
Given a total fertility rate (TFR) of 2.1, which statement is a correct description of this value?
A TFR of 2.1 means that the average male and female in the population will be replaced by two children plus a fraction to compensate for the death of offspring.
succession
A change involving a series of species replacements following a disturbance Primary succession occurs in areas where there is no soil formation After volcanic eruption Wind, water, and other abiotic factors start the formation of soil Secondary succession begins in areas where soil is present The first species to begin secondary succeession are called pioneer species Succession in a particular area will always lead to the same type of community, a climax community
Ecosystem
A community plus its abiotic actors, e.g. soil, rain, temperatures, etc. Virtually all energy on earth comes from the sun, via photoautotrophs (primarily plants), and it is ultimately distributed throughout ecosystems.
Ecological pyramid
A graph representing trophic level numbers within an ecosystem. The primary producer level is at the base of the pyramid with the consumer levels above.
What are the characteristics of mollisol soils?
A horizon is high in humus; most of the temperate grassland soil.
ecosystem
A largely self-sustaining collection of organisms and their physical environment.
niche
A niche is the particular biological role of an organism in a community It is a pattern of living
Natural selection
A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits. ADAPTATION
Malnutrition
A shortage of nutrients the body needs.
mutualism
A symbiotic relationship in which both members of the association benefit Bacteria in human intestinal tract- vitamin K Cleaning symbiosis Mycorrhiozhae
Watershed
A watershed or drainage basin is an area of land where water from rain and melting snow or ice drains downhill into a body of water, such as a river, lake, reservoir, wetland. All of the major terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are impacted by what happens in a watershed.
During oxidative phosphorylation in cellular respiration, electron transport chains convert chemical energy to (blank) in the process called chemiosmosis
ATP
Outputs of the light reactions include...
ATP and NADPH
The light reactions sustain the Calvin cycle by regenerating (blank) and (blank)
ATP and NADPH
Environment
Abiotic (physical factors) and biotic (other organisms)
Inputs of citric acid cycle
Acetyl CoA
Pyruvate is oxidized to (blank)
Acetyl CoA
Outputs of pyruvate oxidation
Acetyl CoA and CO₂
What are the characteristics of podzol soils?
Acidic, clay leached out. A is sandy, B has some Iron and Aluminum deposits. Creates conifer forests.
What causes a monsoon and where does it affect?
Air above land heats faster and rises, pulling cooler air over ocean to land (with lots of precipitation). Affects India and Africa, seasonally.
What is adiabatic cooling?
Air expands as altitude increases and cools as it expands.
Biosphere
All ecosystems on earth
community
All organisms that live together in an area are called a community. The different species compete and cooperate with each other to make the community stable
What is the tropical rain forest dominant plants?
Almost all broadleaved trees
Photosystem I
An Electron Transport Chain carries electrons and H+ ions across thylakoid membrane until trapped by NADP+ to form NADPH2.
Define ecosystem
An assemblage of organisms and many species and their physical abiotic environments
Define community
An assemblage of organisms of many species living in the same place
NADPH
An electron carrier involved in photosynthesis. Light drives electrons from chlorophyll to NADP+, forming NADPH, which provides the high-energy electrons for the reduction of carbon dioxide to sugar in the Calvin cycle.
Aposematic Coloration
Animals with effective chemical defense often exhibit bright warning coloration called this?
Uric Acid
an insoluble precipitate of nitrogenous waste excreted by land snails, insects, birds and some reptiles
Cellular respiration takes place in the (blank) of the plant cell
Mitochondria
Limiting factor
Any resource that is in short supply, e.g. food, minerals, light, living space, refuge from predators, etc.
Biotechnology
Application of DNA manipulation to create products derived from organisms. Medical applications, pollution control, food.
chernobyl, Ukraine
April 26, 1986, unauthorized safety test, leads to fire and explosion at nuclear power plant--- millions exposed to unsafe levels of radiation
Deposition
Arrival of eroded material at a new place.
We can be used for cooling
As mentioned in last lecture, evaporation (sweating or panting) can reduce body temperatures. Fine in mild climates or when water is available Potentially lethal in deserts!
Turgot pressure
At the whole-plant level, all forms of are usually negative. But that's not true at the cellular level. o inside cells is lower than o in the surrounding fluid, causing water to move into the cells. Plant cell walls are rigid, so as water moves into cells, a positive p develops inside. This is called turgor pressure which keeps the plant from wilting.
Soil-plant-air system: plant
At the whole-plant level, almost all forms of psi are negative. m inside the plant is created by interaction between water and cell walls of plants. o is created by dissolved solutes in the cells. Plants are usually hyperosmotic relative to the soil, so water will move into the plant.
What is the temperate seasonal forests soil?
Not as podsolized, often brownish/neutral
Biodiversity
Biodiversity, the number of different species within an area, is greatest in tropical areas near the equator and it decreases towards the poles Tropical areas have more sunlight and of greater intensity, more rainfall and longer growing seasons for plants This environment is quite stable and contains many vertical "layers" which provide more microhabitats These areas can support more species, e.g. the number of bird species is directly correlated with latitude
BOD
Biological Oxygen Demand, amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic materials
What is biomass?
Biological material from living (or recently living) organisms and their energy
biodiversity
Biologically diverse ecosystems are in general more stable than simple ones Species richness refers to the number of species in an ecosystem It is the quantity usually measured by biologists to characterize an ecosystem's biodiversity Two factors are important in promoting biodiversity Ecosystem size Location of place on earth (latitude) The number of species in the tropics is far more than that in the arctic region
Weather and climate
Biome = a large region of land characterized by the climax vegetation of the ecosystems within its boundaries The distribution and key features of biomes are the outcome of temperatures, soils and moisture levels (which vary with latitude and altitude), and evolutionary history Weather = the condition of the atmosphere at any given time Climate = the accumulation of weather events over a long period of time (temperatures, humidity, wind, cloud cover, rainfall) Climate is dependent upon several factors: Solar radiation The earth's daily rotation The earth's rotation around the sun The distributions of continents and oceans
Which color light do carotenoids primarily absorb?
Blue
Which color lights does chlorophyll primarily absorb?
Blue and red
Fresh-water fish (lakes, streams)
Body is hyperosmotic relative to water. Water is constantly moving in due to osmosis. Fish maintain balance by excreting large quantities of very dilute urine. Salts lost in this process are replaced in food by chloride cells in gills that actively take in chloride and sodium
Salt water fish (oceans)
Body is hypoosmotic relative to surrounding sea-water. Water is constantly being lost to environment by osmosis. They drink lots of water to compensate. But the water they drink is salty, so chloride cells and kidneys work hard to excrete excess salts.
Sharks, Rays, Skates
Body is more nearly isoosmotic, due to stored urea and TMAO (trimethylamine oxide) In fact, they are usually slightly hyperosmotic to the sea water, so water tends to move into the body by osmosis. Excess water and salt excreted in urine.
Energy is stored in...
Bonds
Ex. Siberia, Russia
Boreal Forest
Mutualism
Both benefit
Calvin Cycle occurs in the (blank) cells
Bundle Sheath
What is the tropical season forests fire regime?
Not common
G3P
C-C-C-P
C3 or C4 plants are unaffected by rising temperatures and CO₂ levels
C4
Ozone depletion caused by
CFCs, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, halon, methyl bromide all of which attack stratospheric ozone
Give examples of greenhouse gases
CO2, N2O, CH4
Inputs of the Calvin Cycle include...
CO₂
Outputs of citric acid cycle
CO₂
Photorespiration consumes organic fuel and releases (blank) without producing ATP or carbohydrates.
CO₂
The acetyl CoA that was oxidized by pyruvate is then oxidized to (blank) in the citric acid cycle.
CO₂
Inputs (reactants) of photosynthesis include...
CO₂ and H₂O
heart failure in porcelain crabs
CTmax and LT50 of higher intertidal species is much closer to maximal habitat temp -lower thermal safety margin -most warm adapted species least able to acclimate to higher temp
How does an increase in CO2 affect CaCO3?
Can potentially destroy CaCO3 organisms/formations through acidification
CO2
Carbon Dioxide
glycolysis
Catabolism of glucose or other monosaccharides to pyruvate and 2 molecules of ATP in the absence of oxygen or 34 molecules of ATP in the presence of oxygen.
What man made solution eliminates Nitrogen in atmosphere?
Catalytic converters
C6H12O6
Chemical Formula for Glucose
ATP and NADPH store...
Chemical energy
2 most serious nuclear accidents
Chernobyl, Ukraine, & Three Mile Island, PA
Photosynthesis takes place in the (blank) of plants
Chloroplasts
Closed vs. Open communities
Closed: sharp boundaries Open: lack boundaries
Kcat vs temp
Colder adapted organisms have higher Kcats (as temp increases, Kcat decreases) -antarctic fish have extremely fast enzymes (higher Kcat)
synthesis
Combining of small molecules or substances into larger, more complex ones
Numbers pyramid
Compares the number of individuals in each trophic level.
Energy pyramid
Compares the total amount of energy available in each trophic level. This energy is usually measured in kilocalories.
Biomass pyramid
Compares the total dry weight of the organisms in each trophic level.
Define ecological population interactions
Competition for resources, facilitation, transmission of disease
competition
Competition is the struggle of two organisms to use the same resource (light, space, or nutrients).
Nutrients
Compounds in food that the body requires for proper growth, maintenance, and functioning.
How do evaporation and transpiration transfer energy?
Converts H2O to liquid or gas
CAFE standards
Corporate Average Fuel Economy standards enacted into law in 1975, established fuel efficiency standards for passenger cars and light trucks. The Fuel economy ratings for a manufacturer's entire line of passenger cars must currently average at least 27.5 mpg for the manufacturer to comply with the standard
Sulfur forms which key amino acids?
Cystein and Methionine
Part of light reactions, it transfers electrons between PS II and PS I, it also facilitates H⁺ diffusion into the lumen
Cytochrome Complex
Glycolysis happens in the (blank) of the cell
Cytosol
Outputs (products) of photosynthesis include...
C₆H₁₂O₆ and H₂O and O₂
What is the tropical rain forest fire regime?
Not natural, used in slash/burn agriculture
Recombinant DNA
DNA created from multiple organisms.
Bhopal, India
December 2, 1984m methyl isocyanate released accidentally by Union Carbide pesticide plant kills over 5,000
What is the temperate seasonal forests dominant plants?
Deciduous broadleaved trees
Homeostasis
Delicate balance
What is acid deposition?
Deposition of nitric and/or sulfuric acid (HNO3, H2SO4) in rain, fog, and snow
food web
Describes who eats whom Because animals eat at different trophic levels, most ecosystems have paths of energy that are not linear Represents interconnecting paths of energy flow Describes trophic relationships
Ex. Saharra
Desert
Ws
Desert animals often excrete very concentrated urine, so that as little water as possible is lost. It is energetically costly for kidneys to produce highly concentrated urine. Kidneys are a big user of energy in the body of desert animals.
Avoiding excessive We
Desert animals often have a waterproof exterior to avoid unnecessaryWe BUT, all organisms must have some moist surfaces for gas exchange (e.g. lungs) Therefore evaporation is unavoidable, and is often the main source of water loss (more than excretion)
Detritivores
Detritivores are decomposers which eat detritus - organic wastes and dead organisms
What is the tropical season forests climate?
Dry and wet seasons (no snow). Hotter in dry season, lack of H2O a challenge to plants/animals. (Monsoons often occur in these biomes)
What is the tropical season forests dominant plants?
Dry season deciduous broadleaved trees
ENSO
El Nino Southern Oscillation, trade winds weaken & warm, surface water moves toward South America. Diminished fisheries off S. America, drought in W. Pacific, increased precipitation in southwestern N. America, fewer Atlantic hurricanes
What is EM radiation?
EM energy; Energy in form of photons that behave in wavelike fashion
Sun Angle
Earth tilted at 23.4 degrees, solar equator at lower latitudes than equator (more EMR)
During non El Nino year
Easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the West coast of S. America
Shannon Diversity
Ecologists use many tools to quantitatively compare the diversity of different communities across time and space. They often calculate indexes of diversity based on species richness and relative abundance. One widely used index is this?
structure of the community
Ecology - Study of interactions of living organisms with one another and their physical environment. Habitat - The place where an organism lives. Ecosystem - A largely self-sustaining collection of organisms and their physical environment. Population - A group of individuals of the same species living together.
autecology
Ecology at the lowest level of organization involves the individual interacting with the environment
What is a biome?
Ecosystem categories based on climate and classified by most dominant organisms (largest, most abundant plants)
What are the finer spatial scale factors of biomes?
Edaphic (soil, parent material), Hydrology (depth, frequency, etc. of flooding and saturated soil), Fire, and Land Use History
What do "scrubber towers" eliminate in the air and how?
Eliminate SO2 by lining industrial exhausts with calcium substrate
chemical energy
Energy stored in chemical bonds
national environmental policy act
Environmental Impact Statements must be done before any project affecting federal lands can be started
the Hydrologic Cycle
Evaporation and Transpiration==>Clouds==>Precipitation==>Evaporation and Consumed by organisms and Groundwater and Surface Water==> Rivers, Ponds, Streams==> Ocean
What is the boreal forest dominant plants?
Evergreen conifers
What is the temperate seasonal forests human use?
Extensive crop cultivation, urban/rural interference
What is the Haber-Bosch Process?
Fertilizer production; burn fossil fuels and introduce catalyst (Fe or Ru) to turn N2 into NH4
water balance
For proper physiological function, all organisms must maintain relatively constant water content. Losing or gaining too much water can be harmful.
What is the boreal forest location?
Forest across Canada, Alaska, Siberia, and Scandinavia. Also, forests at higher elevations (but below treeline) in mountains of North America, Europe, New Zealand and Chile.
What are rainshadow deserts?
Found on opposite side of oceanic mountains; air cools as moving up altitude of mountain, high precipitation near peak, falling air on other side of mountain warms and can't hold any more water vapor so no rain
Biofuels
Fuels derived from organic materials, potentially renewable
What are mycorrhizae?
Fungi with symbiotic/mutualistic relationship with plants (grow on roots), exchange water and Phosphorus for energy (carbohydrates)
Population growth formula
G = rN Where G = population growth per unit time, r = rate of increase and N= the number of individuals. When plotted against time a graph in the shape of a J will be obtained denoting exponential growth, i.e. one variable increases much faster than the other
What is the alpine tundra location?
High elevation, many different latitudes. Similar to high latitude tundra climate, dominant plant family, diversity BUT may have low growing woody shrubs in addition.
Inputs of glycolysis
Glucose
What are the characteristics of graminoids?
Grasses and grass-like plants (includes wheat, most important for human life)
20%
Great Lakes contain this percent of freshwater in the world
Gaia
Greek goddess Mother Earth
Energy flow though ecosystems
Gross primary productivity = the rate at which the primary producers capture and store energy per unit time since the primary producers expend energy during respiration the net primary productivity is considerably lower than the gross productivity Productivity is usually measured as biomass (dry weight of organic matter) per unit area per a specified time interval, e.g. kg/m2/yr The trophic structure of an ecosystem is often represented by an ecological pyramid, with the primary producers at the base and the other levels above Most of the food eaten by organisms is converted to biomass, or used to maintain metabolic functions, or lost as heat, only about 10% of the energy makes it to the next level This massive energy loss between trophic levels explains why food chains can't contain more than a few levels It takes billions of primary producers (plants) to support millions of primary consumers, which support a few secondary consumers. This is why there are so few large carnivores on earth An energy pyramid is a more useful way to depict an ecosystem's trophic structure Each block of the pyramid is proportional to the amount of energy it contains Pyramids may also represent biomass or numbers of individuals The energy pyramid concept helps explain the phenomenon of biological magnification - the tendency for toxic substances to increase in concentration at progressively higher levels of the food chain
What is GPP?
Gross primary productivity; total energy assimilated by photosynthesis
Define population
Group of living organisms at the same place of the same species
Food Security
Guarantee of adequate, safe, nutrition, reliable food supply.
Which global ocean currents are warm water moving north and where do they come from?
Gulf Stream and Japan Current; come from equator
Photosystem 2
H2O is split into H+ ions and O atom (photolysis), O2 is released as a gas, H+ ions move back through thylakoid membrane by chemiosmosis generating energy to form ATP.
What is a wetland?
Has saturated soil for some or all of the year and is not continuously under water
Elevation or Depth of Light Penetration
Heat energy from the sun drives the earth's weather systems, which ultimately determine the composition of ecosystems
The thylakoid space has high/low H⁺ concentration
High
What is Paramo and where is it found?
High altitude tropical grasslands, usually above 2,000 meters alt in the Andes of Ecuador. ("Summer every day and winter every night")
What is the temperate seasonal forests diversity?
Higher than most temperate ecosystems, limited by dormant periods
What is the tropical rain forest diversity?
Highest species diversity in the world
Ecology
How organisms interact with one another and with their environment.
cellular thermometer: Autoregulation
Hsp70 regulates its own synthesis by interacting with HSF1 in 4-protein complex and with HSF1 in nuclear trimers bound to HSE.
natural and human activities affects on cycles
Human activities are placing a severe stress on the biosphere. Damage done to one of the world's ecosystems can have ill effects on many others Widespread effects on the worldwide ecosystem are termed global change Patterns of global change include Pollution- industrial pollution is one of the key problems Acid precipitation Ozone hole Greenhouse effect Loss of biodiversity
Natural Rate of Population
If a population has more deaths than births in a given year, its Natural Rate of Population will be a negative value.
Exponential growth
If birth and death rates of a population remain constant they can be combined into one variable r = net reproduction per individual per unit time (rate of increase)
directional selection
In a population of birds, large beak size is selected against and average and small sized beaks are selected for. This is an example of what type of selection?
nature of ecosysyems
In an ecosystem, Populations interact among themselves Populations interact with the physical environment The abiotic components of an ecosystem are the nonliving components: Atmosphere Water Soil
Aquatic Organisms
In aquatic organisms, water balance depends on osmosis. Osmosis is movement of water across a membrane. Water moves from the side with fewer dissolved salts (hypotonic side) to the side with more dissolved salts (hypertonic side)
Water balance in plants
In general, water enters plants through roots Direct absorption of rainwater into leaves is very minor in most species. Water travels up stem in xylem cells. Water is lost from leaves by evaporation through stomata (pores in leaf), a process called transpiration. Water is also broken down in photosynthesis 6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 but this consumes very minor amounts compared with transpirational water loss.
stroma
In plants, the solution that surrounds the thylakoids in a chloroplast.
Individual
Individual organisms
Type II survivorship curve
Individuals die at a constant rate (e.g., birds, rodents, and perennial plants).
Which two ways does the earth lose energy to space?
Infrared radiation and the reflection of visible light
Population size and growth
Is dependent on births, immigration, deaths, and emigration
Age structure
It defines the relative proportions of individuals of each age: Pre-reproductive, Reproductive, and Post-reproductive
What is the tropical rain forest soil?
Lateritic, poor due to rapid decomposition (high temp and moisture prevent humus from accumulating) and heavy leaching (high rainfall)
Michaelis-Menten constant (Km)
Km=substrate@1/2Vmax -low Km=strong binding (high affinity for substrate)
Kwashiorkor
Lack of protein, essential amino acids.
What is the high latitude tundra soil?
Large amounts of peat (partially decomposed organic matter)
Industrial Agriculture
Large-scale machines, fossil fuels to boost yields. Irrigation, fertilizers, pesticides.
What is soil?
Layer of abiotic/biotic altered material over unaltered parent material (rock, sand, etc.) on surface of earth
Photosynthesis Summary
Light reactions -produced ATP -produced NADPH -consumed H2O -produced O2 as byproduct Calvin cycle -consumed CO2 -produced G3P (sugar) -regenerated ADP -regenerated NADP
What processes turn N2 into NH4?
Lightning, fertilizer factories, all the bacteria, etc. on the right side of Nitrogen cycle..
Competitive Exclusion
Local elimination of a competing species. This principle states that two species competing for the same limiting resources cannot coexist in the same place.
ecotype
Locally adapted and genetically distinctive populations within a species are referred to as
What is leaching of soil?
Loss of dissolved solutes, usually by water moving through soil.
How is phosphorus lost and added in aquatic systems?
Lost by sinking below photic zone (where light is sufficient for photosynthesis). Added by upwelling and runoff.
The stroma has high/low H⁺ concentration
Low
What is the high latitude tundra dominant plants?
Low shrubs, forbs, graminoids (no trees)
What is the boreal forest diversity?
Low; short warm zone of deposition, B Horizon season
What is the high latitude tundra diversity?
Low; very short growing seasons. Almost all plants/animals dormant in winter.
What is the boreal forest human use?
Lumber
What is the tropical rain forest human use?
Lumbering, cattle grazing, rice farming, oil/mineral extraction
Valdez, Alaska
March 24, 1989, tanker Exxon Valdez hits submerged rocks in Prince William Sound- worst oil spill in US waters
Three-Mile Island, Pennsylvania
March 29, 1979, nuclear power plant loses cooling water, 50% of core melts, radioactgive materials escape into atmosphere, near meltdown
Benthic, Pelagic, Littoral, Neritic, Oceanic
Marine Environments
What is the C Horizon of soil?
Material similar to parent material; weathered rock fragments with little/no plant or animal life.
Ex. Mediterranean basin
Mediterranean Woodland and Shrubland
Type III survivorship curve
Most individuals die early in life (e.g., fishes, invertebrates, and plants).
Type I survivorship curve
Most individuals live out their life span and die of old age (e.g., humans).
What is the temperate seasonal forests location?
Most of eastern US, eastern China and Japan, much of Europe
What is humus?
Mostly decomposed organic matter in soil; more stable/broken down version of detritus
Ex. Himalayas
Mountains
What are the characteristics of shrubs?
Multi-stemmed and shorter than trees
What are the characteristics of a shrubland?
Multi-trunked plants of lower height than trees, mostly continuous
Tropical Savanna
N/S of Dry Forests
Which two things carry electrons in cellular respiration?
NADH and FADH₂
After Rubisco does its job, (blank) and (blank) that came from the light reactions donate phosphate groups in the reduction part of the calvin cycle.
NADPH and ATP
What is the terminal electron receptor in light reactions?
NADP⁺
What is nitrification?
NH4 (ammonia) -> NO3 (nitrate) [oxidation]
What is denitrification?
NO3 -> N2 (reduction)
multiple use public lands
National Forest & National Resource lands
Restricted Use Public Lands
National Parks & National Wilderness Preservation System
Moderately Restricted Use Public Lands
National Wildlife Refuges
effects of ozone depletion
Negative effects include increased UV, skin cancer, cataracts, and decreased plant growth
What is NPP?
Net primary productivity; energy available to herbivores and detritivores
Plant growth limited by _____ (terrestrial) and ______ (aquatic)
Nitrogen (terrestrial) Nitrogen or Phosphorus (aquatic)
What is N2O and how does it form?
Nitrous Oxide; Green House Gas. Byproduct of ammonification and denitrification.
What is the high latitude tundra fire regime?
No fire regime
competitive exclusion priniciple
No two species can indefinitely occupy the same niche at the same time Resource Partitioning decreases competition between species Resource partitioning leads to niche specialization and less niche overlap between species Examples: Both owls and hawks feed on small rodents but owls feed at night and hawks feed during the day Finches on the Galápagos Islands Warblers in North American forest
What are the characteristics of forbs?
Non-grass, non-woody plants
What are the characteristics of laterite soils?
Nonacidic, deeply weathered, clay leached out, very little A Horizon, B Horizon has lots of Iron. Found in tropical lowland forests.
Tundra
North of Arctic Circle 66, 33'N
Population size
Number of individuals making up its gene pool
Population density
Number of individuals per unit of area or volume, e.g. persons/square mile
Energy vs. Nutrients
Nutrients are cyclic - biogeochemical cycles Energy flow is one way
Interspecific Competition
Occurs when species compete for a resource in short supply
What is the high latitude tundra human use?
Oil/mineral extraction (lots of accumulated biomass for fuel)
Parasitism
One benefits, one harmed but not killed
Predation
One benefits, other killed
Commensalism
One benefits, other neutral
significance of mimicry
One species resembles another species that possesses an overt antipredator defense Batesian Mimicry - Mimic lacks defense of the organism it resembles Müllerian Mimicry - Mimic shares a protective defense with other species
Which global ocean currents are cold water moving north and where do they come from?
Peru Current and Benguela Current; come from Antartica (South Pole)
What is ammonification?
Organic Nitrogen compounds to NH4
Transgenic Organism:
Organism that contains DNA from another species
Population
Organisms of same species in same area (biotic factors)
Climate
Overall weather in an area over a long period of time
fructose-1, 6bP
P-C-C-C-C-C-C-P
During photorespiration, when rubisco can't fix carbon, (blank) does it for it.
PEP Carboxylase (happens on a hot, dry day)
parasitism
Parasite derives nourishment from a host, and may use host as habitat and mode of transmission
What is the D (or R) Horizon of soil?
Parent material; underlying rock, sand, gravel. Bedrock.
What is the alpine tundra soil?
Permafrost - soil at or below freezing point of H2O for 2+ years (found in both types of tundras)
how competition affects the communityy in the ecosytem
Persistent competition is rare in natural communities Either one species drives the other to extinction Or natural selection reduces the competition between them
phosphorus cycle
Phosphorus (P) has no atmospheric form Exists mostly as the mineral calcium phosphate Phosphate ions are absorbed by plant roots and used to build organic molecules like ATP and DNA When animals and plants die and decay, bacteria convert organic phosphorus into ions Low phosphorus levels in freshwater lakes limits the overgrowth of algae An excessive increase in phosphorus is called eutrophication
Process that introduces a phosphate group into a molecule or compound
Phosphorylation
In (blank), O₂ substitutes for CO₂ in the active site of rubisco.
Photorespiration
What happens when temperatures rise to C3 plants and photorespiration?
Photorespiration increases
Process that converts light energy to the chemical energy of food
Photosynthesis
Which process produces more energy? Photosynthesis or photorespiration?
Photosynthesis
What is PAR and which organisms use it?
Photosynthetically active radiation (blues and reds of UV light, NOT green); plants
Part of light reactions, it transfers electrons to the enzyme that facilitates the terminal electron acceptance of NADP⁺ to NADPH
Photosystem I
Part of the light reactions, it uses light energy to excite electrons
Photosystem II
What is weathering?
Physical breaking up and chemical alteration of rocks and materials at earth's surface. Happens IN SITU (no movement), not to be confused with erosion.
Ecology of individual organisms
Physiological ecology, temperature and water balance, light and biological cycles, physiological ecology and conservation
What is a cropland?
Planted with graminoids/shrubs/or fruit trees for food/fuel/or fiber (excludes stands of trees planted for lumber)
defenses used by plants and animals
Plants have evolved many mechanisms to defend themselves from herbivores Morphological (structural) defenses Thorns, spines and prickles Chemical defenses Secondary chemical compounds Found in most algae as well Mustard oils Found in the mustard family Some animals receive an added benefit from eating plants rich in secondary chemical compounds Caterpillars of monarch butterflies concentrate and store these compounds defensive coloration chemical defense: Stings - Bees and wasps Toxic alkaloids - Dendrobatid frogs
photosynthesis
Plants use the sun's energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars
How are poverty and population growth rates correlated?
Poorer societies tend to show higher population growth rates than do wealthier societies.
4 levels of ecological organization
Population, community, ecosystem, biosphere
predator-prey interactions
Predator-prey interactions are essential in the maintenance of species-diverse communities Predator is larger Predator has lower reproductive rate Prey usually entirely consumed Presence of predators can decrease prey densities, and vice-versa Predators greatly reduce competitive exclusion by reducing the individuals of competing species For example, sea stars prevent bivalves from dominating intertidal habitats Other organisms can share their habitat
Cellular Respiration
Process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen
Food chain
Producer-->1st order Consumer or Herbivore-->2nd order Consumer or 1st order Carnivore-->3rd order Consumer or 2nd order Carnivore-->4th order Consumer or 3rd order Carnivore-->Decomposers - consume dead and decaying matter
Marasmus
Protein deficiency, insufficient calories.
Soil-plant-air system: air
Psi of air is usually much less than in leaves (about -100 MPa for dry air). Thus, water moves out of leaves into the atmosphere by transpiration. A negative Psi(p) (= tension or suction) is created by transpiration This tension pulls water up the plant.
During glycolosis, two glucose molecules are broken down into two molecules of the compound (blank)
Pyruvate
Inputs of pyruvate oxidation
Pyruvate
Hadley Cells (where are rainy regions and desert regions)
Rain at 0, 60N and 60S Desert at 30N and 30S
What is the tropical season forests human use?
Rain-based farming, grazing. *Largest populations in tropical countries usually in this biome, EX Costa Rica
What is the tropical rain forest climate?
Rainfall abundant, well distributed throughout year
What is eutrophication?
Rapid movement of a body of water's trophic status in the direction of increasing plant biomass (major bloom, decomposes, no oxygen [hypoxic], organisms die)
We
Rate of evaporation depends on relative humidity of the air. At low RH (often associated with high temperature), organisms will lose more water to evaporation.
Undernutrition
Receiving fewer calories than ones minimum dietary requirements.
What is nitrogen fixation?
Reduction; from inert N2 to ammonia (NH4)
The last part of the Calvin Cycle is the (blank) of the CO₂ receptor, rubisco
Regeneration
What happens on a chemical level during leaching?
Removal of Ca and Mg ions, increases Al and Fe concentration (thus why it's red)
Gregor Mendel
Researcher: discovered characteristics pass from parent to offspring in form of discrete packets
Nalini Nadkarni
Researcher: found that much of the nutrients in the rainforest canopies are associated with epiphytes
Robert McArthur
Researcher: studied ecology of warbler species in North American forests
Dan Jenzen
Researcher: studied extinct megafauna as former seed dispersers in the Costa Rica dry forest
Margaret Davis
Researcher: used pollen to track long-term changes in vegitation
RuBisCo
Ribulose carboxylase, the enzyme that catalyzes the first step of the Calvin cycle (the addition of CO2 to RuBP, or ribulose bisphosphate).
stable, energy, area
SEA
What is an example of a detritus based food chain?
Salt marsh (little/no herbivores because of high salt concentrations)
Community
Several populations in same area (biotic factors)
What happens during the Fall Overturn of a temperate lake?
Shallow H2O gets colder faster than deep H2O, cool H2O falls (rich with oxygen & nutrients), warm H2O rises (rich with sediment & detritus) which increases availability of food for herbivores/detritivores
What are the characteristics of a shrub savanna?
Single shrubs or clusters separated by matrix of herbaceous plants, usually graminoids
What are the characteristics of a tree savanna?
Single trees or clusters separated by matrix of herbaceous plants (non-woody graminoids)
Low-Input Agriculture
Smaller amounts of pesticides, fertilizers, growth hormones, antibiotics, water, and fossil fuels than industrial agriculture.
What is formed by NO and NO2 in the atmosphere?
Smog :(
What is the boreal forest climate?
Snow in winter, rain in summer. Equally distributed precipitation throughout year.
Inputs of Light Reactions include...
Solar energy and H₂O
Wf
Some desert animals are able to survive without ever drinking, just on the water they get from their food. Includes moisture in the food. Also includes metabolic water produced when food is broken down. C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
Carbon Monoxide
Sources include incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. Effects: binds to hemoglobin reducing blood's ability to carry O2. Reduction accomplished by catalytic converters, oxygenated fuel, mass transit
Carbon dioxide
Sources include the combustion of fossil fuels. EEffects: greenhouse gas-contributes to global warming. Reduction accomplished by increased fuel efficiency, mass transit
Outputs of the Calvin Cycle include...
Sugar
What is the boreal forest soil?
Spodosol soil (acidic), lots of biomass because of acidic needle leaves and lots of H2O.
Closing (blank) during the day helps desert plants conserve water, but it also prevents CO₂ from entering the leaves
Stomata
As electrons move through the light reactions and chemiosmosis, hydrogen ions are removed from the (blank) and are deposited into the thylakoid space
Stroma
The Calvin Cycle takes place in the (blank) of the chloroplasts
Stroma
What are the conditions of a "normal year" without El Nino Oscillation?
Strong trade wind, Peru current brings cold water from South (upwelling). Peru has desert on land but productive aquatic ecosystem. Heavy rainfall in Indonesia.
What is the B Horizon of soil?
Subsoil; zone of deposition. Poor in humus, rich in minerals.
What is the O Horizon of soil?
Surface detritus
Ex. Eastern Asia
Temperate Forest
Ex. Prairie and Pacific Grassland of North America
Temperate Grassland
What would happen if there were no NADH and FADH₂ in cellular respiration?
The ETC would fail which would prevent the creation of ATP. The electrons would not go through the chain so this would affect the whole cellular respiration process.
Abiotic environment
The abiotic environment includes all the nonliving factors and processes in an ecosystem. Sunlight, soil, water, and pollution, for example, are all important abiotic factors of an environment that affect life.
allele
The alternate form of a gene
What happens when CO₂ levels rise to C3 plants?
The amount of photorespiration that occurs is lowered
nitrogen cycle
The atmosphere is 78% nitrogen gas (N2) Most organisms are unable to use N2 The triple covalent bond is very difficult to break Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by bacteria Some bacteria can break the triple bond and bind its N atoms to hydrogen forming ammonia (NH3) This process is termed nitrogen fixation Animals eat plants that have taken up fixed nitrogen Nitrogen reenters the ecosystem through Animal excretion Decomposition by detritivores and decomposers
Biotic environment
The biotic environment is composed of all the living organisms in an ecosystem, and includes factors such as disease, predators, prey, and human activity.
carbon cycle
The carbon cycle is begun by plants who use CO2 to build organic molecules Carbon atoms are returned to the atmosphere by Respiration Most organisms extract energy from food and release CO2 as a by-product Combustion Burning of wood or fossil fuels (coal or oil) releases trapped carbon in the form of CO2 Erosion When limestone (calcium carbonate in sediment) erodes, CO2 is released Atmosphere is an exchange pool for carbon dioxide. In water, carbon dioxide combines with water to produce bicarbonate ions. Bicarbonate in the water is in equilibrium with carbon dioxide in the air. The total amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been increasing every year due to human activities such as fossil fuel combustion
What powers ATP synthase?
The diffusion of H⁺ from the thylakoid space back to the stroma (along with the H⁺ concentration gradient) powers ATPase.
Define spatial scale
The distance or area of an ecological phenomenon or condition
Population distribution
The general pattern in which the population members are dispersed through its habitat, may be: Clumped (most common), Uniformly dispersed (rare), or Randomly dispersed
What is soil erosion?
The loss/break up of bulk soil, usually by wind or water. Involves movement.
Soil-plant-air system: soil
The most important factor in soil is m, attraction to the surface of soil particles. Typical value -0.5 MPa but affected by particle size. Strongest for clay, weakest for sand. Soil water usually has few dissolved solutes, so Psi(o) is close to zero. Exception is very salty soils, which lowers psi of the soil to the point that plants cannot get water from it.
Define convection
The movement of heat energy by movement of warm or cold air or water
Survivorship
The percentage of remaining survivors of a population over time; usually shown graphically
habitat
The place where an organism lives
What would happen if the crisae membrane split?
The split of the membrane would allow the protons to form an equilibrium. The protons from the high concentration would mix with the low concentration of protons, resulting in no gradient, which in turn would stop the process of ATP synthase, creating no ATP. Nothing in the ETC would be affected.
light reactions
The steps in photosynthesis that occur on the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast and that convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH, evolving oxygen in the process.
Community Ecology
The study of how different species interact within communities
Population Ecology
The study of how populations interact with their environment
Ecological Niches
The sum of a species' use of biotic and abiotic resources is called this?
Define temporal scale
The time units at which something happens
Define conduction
The transfer of heat energy from a warmer object to cooler object by direct contact
Irrigation
artificially providing water to support agriculture. Unproductive regions become productive farmland.
Currently, how large is the worldwide population of humans relative to Earth's carrying capacity for humans?
There is insufficient information to answer this question.
Ectoparasite
These are parasites that live on the external surface of their host.
Endoparasite
These are parasites that live within the body of their host.
Functions of protons:
They drive chemiosmosis by means of a concentration gradient
What are the functions of the H+ electrons in the light reactions?
They reduce NADP⁺ to NADPH which is used for the Calvin Cycle
Interspecific Interactions
This is a relationship between species in a community
Vector
This is an intermediate species that transmits a disease from one individual to another.
Nonequilibrium model
This model describes communities as constantly changing after being buffeted by disturbances.
The light reactions take place in the (blank) of the chloroplasts
Thylakoid Membrane
What is the A Horizon of soil?
Topsoil; mostly humus. Also the zone of leaching/eluviation
Transpiration
Transpiration is evaporative loss of water from leaves. Plants can regulate transpiration by closing stomata (pores in leaves). BUT they can't eliminate transpiration, or they wouldn't be able to exchange necessary gases (take in CO2, release O2)
What are the characteristics of a grassland?
Treeless, graminoid cover
What are the characteristics of a woodland?
Trees of lower height, more open than forests
Ex. Costa Rica
Tropical Dry Forest
Ex. Amazon, Brazil
Tropical Rainforest
Ex. Serengeti, East Africa
Tropical Savanna
What is the tropical season forests soil?
Tropical soil with better nutrient content than usual (slower decomposition)
What is the tropical season forests location?
Tropics
What is the tropical rain forest location?
Tropics, including forests from sea level to treeline
Ex.Antarctica
Tundra
Neutral
Two species do not interact
Nuclear Waste policy Act
US government must develop a high level nuclear waste site by 2015 (Yucca Mountain)
Why does water move up a plant?
Understand a little biophysics. (psi) - water potential, i.e. the potential energy of water. Water will always tend to move to the point in the system where its (psi0) is least. (Compare to water running downhill.) Measured in pressure units (MPa = megapascals)
water cycle
Unlike energy, the physical components of ecosystems are passed around and reused Recycling or cycling In each cycle the chemical resides for a time in an organism, then returns to the non-living environment A biogeochemical cycle Water evaporates from bodies of water, land, and from plants (transpiration) Precipitation on land enters the ground, surface waters, or aquifers Water eventually returns to the oceans
What is a "Zone of Upwelling" and why is it important?
Upward movement of water due to wind / movement of surface waters away from continent. Important because it brings Nitrogen and Phosphorus to surface to create high biological productivity.
What is the temperate seasonal forests fire regime?
Usually absent, relatively uncommon
What is the tropical season forests diversity?
Very high compared to most temperate ecosystems
What is the high latitude tundra climate?
Very wet to very dry (very cold)
What are feedbacks and complexities of the Carbon Cycle?
Warming temperatures increase decomposition in Northern soils, urbanization/desertification reduce vegetation/photosynthesis, warmer water holds less dissolved CO2, warmer ocean more stratified (less dissolved CO2 and HCO3 in deeper water), ocean acidification reduces available CaCO3 plankton (reduces photosynthesis)
What is the proton (H⁺) donor and in what reactions do the H⁺'s participate in?
Water is the source of H⁺, the protons drive the phosphorylation of ADP into ATP through chemiosmosis
CO2 vs pH
as CO2 rises, ocean pH declines
The rivers will eventually flow into large rivers which become estuaries and flow into the oceans.
Watershed surface water management plans are implemented to reduce flooding, improve water quality, and enhance stream and wetland habitat. Land usage and water treatment methods are important in maintaining water quality in the watershed Sources of water pollution may include point source pollution from a clearly identifiable location or nonpoint source pollution that comes from many different places. Sources of pollution usually fall into four main categories - industrial, residential, commercial, and environmental Some types of pollution may include o organic pollution - decomposition of living organisms and their bi-products o inorganic pollution - dissolved and suspended solids as silt, salts, and minerals o toxic pollution - heavy medals and other chemical compounds that are lethal to organisms o thermal pollution - waste heat from industrial and power generation processes
What are the conditions of an El Nino year?
Weak trade winds, Peru current is weak, upwelling weak. Non-productive ocean in Peru with rain on land. Drought in Indonesia. (Also causes drought in South Africa)
Age Structure Diagram
When a population's age structure diagram has a wide base and narrower top, the population is predicted to grow larger over time.
Secondary Succession
begins in an area where soil remains after a disturbance.
Habitat
Where a species normally lives
Decomposers
Which includes fungi and bacteria, obtain their energy by breaking down the remains or products of organisms
Water Balance Equation for Animals
Wi = Wd + Wf + Wa - We - Ws Wi = internal water Wd= water taken in by drinking Wf = water taken in with food Wa= water absorbed from the air (usu. minor) We= water lost to evaporation Ws= water lost through secretion (includes urine, feces, etc.)
What is the temperate seasonal forests climate?
Winters cool to cold, summers hot. Precipitation distributed throughout year.
food chain
a diagram showing a single path of energy flow in an ecosystem. Assumes linear path
delhi sands flower-loving fly
a 1-inch long insect currently restricted to only 12 known populations in San Bernardino and Riverside counties. Estimated 98% of its habitat has been converted to residential, agricultural, and commercial use
eutrophication
a body of water develops a high concentration of nutrients, causes increase in algae, organisms below deprived of light, large die off, decompose, DO lowers
poikilotherm
a creature whose body temperature varies with environmental temperatures is considered to be this
Ureter
a duct that conveys urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder
Urethra
a duct that conveys urine from the urinary bladder to the outside. In male, this duct also conveys semen out of the body during ejaculation
Filtrate
a fluid extracted by the excretory system from the blood or after removing valuable solutes from it and concentrating it
Batesian Mimicry
a form of mimicry typified by a situation where a harmless species has evolved to imitate the warning signals of a harmful species
population
a group of individuals of a single species inhabiting a specific area
metapopulation
a group of subpopulations living in a spatially isolated patched connected by exchange of individuals among patches
world population
a little over 6 billion
Batesian Mimicry
a palatable or harmless species mimics an unpalatable or harmful model.
competitive exclusion
a proposition which states that two species competing for the same resources cannot stably coexist if other ecological factors are constant
ore
a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine
Ammonia
a small and very toxic nitrogenous waste excreted by mammals and most adult amphibians
parasite
a species feeding on the tissue of its host, while not killing it directly
brownfield
abandoned industrial sites
resistance
ability to maintain structure and function in face of potential disturbance
resilence
ability to recover from disturbance
8.1%
about this percent of global undisturbed forests were lost from 2000 to 2013
stability
absence of change
high specific heat
absorbs heat without greatly changing temperature
stabilizing selection
acts to impede changes in a population by acting against extreme phenotypes and favoring average phenotypes
heat stress to membrane
acyl chains fan out, inverted hexagonal phase, membranes fall apart and can start forming new structures, or membrane fusion
cold stress on membrane
acyl chains tighten up, parts of membrane in liquid crystalline, parts in gel phase -decrease in motion -can lead to leakage
excess phosphorus
added to aquatic ecosystems by runoff of animal wastes, fertilizer, sewage discharge
homeophasic adaptation in rainbow trout and fruit flies
adjust PC/PE ration depending on their environment, to maintain phase
rapid response
adjusting activities of preexisting machinery
archaea
adjusts ratio of diether lipids to tetraether lipids in response to tem changes -diether decreases as temp increases -tetraether (more stabilizing, longer chain) increases as temp increases
Swidden Agriculture
after cultivation, plot left to regrow into forest - tropical areas.
endolithic (inside of rocks) life
algae fungi -very old -might only photosynthesize for few hours/year -metabolize at -15 C
BIOSPHERE
all ecosystems on earth
Anfinsen Paradigm
all info needed to direct folding is encoded in amino acid of protein
heterozygous
an individual having two different alleles of a gene at a particular locus
watershed
all of the land that drains into a body of water
low level radioactive policy act
all states must have facilities to handle low level radioactive wastes
metabolic compensation
allows organisms to compensate for physics of temperature
Conservation
allows use of resources in a responsible manner
Top-Down Model
also called the trophic cascade model, proposes that control comes from the trophic level above. In this case predators control herbivores, which in turn control primary producers.
intrinsic adaptations
alter amino acid sequences to improve stability
extrinsic adaptations
alter composition of the mileau bathing the protein to enhance stability
physiological stress
alteration of a physiological system by the environment, such that the system no long exists in an optimal state
nitrification
ammonia is converted to nitrate ions
ED-50
amount of a chemical that causes an effect in 50% of the animals in a test population
LD-50
amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the animals in a test population
body burden
amount of concentration of a toxic chemical in an individual
salinity
amount of dissolved salt in water
Kcat (catalytic rate constant)
amount of substrate converted to product per unit time
hypoosmotic
an aquatic creature is considered this if its body fluids have higher water concentration and lower salt concentration than its external environment
adaptation
an attribute of a trait that enhances its survival under a particular set of conditions
membrane fluidity
an estimate of the static order of the membrane
simultaneous hermaphrodite
an organism that can change its sex from male to female or female to male
parasitoid
an organism that spends a significant portion of its life history attached to or within a single host organism which it ultimately kills (and often consumes) in the process
chemosynthetic
an organism that uses inorganic molecules as a source of carbon and energy
inclusive fitness
an organism's classical fitness (how many of its own offspring it produces and supports) plus the number of equivalents of its own offspring it can add to the population by supporting others
field, lab, observational, manipulative
approaches to ecology
persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
are now banned, DDT, PCBs (liquid insulators in electric transformers), and dioxins(byproduct of herbicide production)
Nephron
are the functional units of the kidneys, extract a fluid filtrate from the blood, refine the filtrate to produce urine
Dominant Species
are those that are most abundant or have the highest biomass
Behavior
are used by endotherms and ectotherms ad include, moving to the sun or shade, migrating and bathing
wetlands
areas of standing water wet all or most of the year that support aquatic plants including marshes, swamps, and bogs. Species diversity is very high. Includes bogs, swamps, sloughs, and marshes
latitude vs metabolism
at higher latitudes organisms have higher metabolic rates to compensate for Arrenhius Equation
Water Quality Act
attempt to reduce non-point source pollution
producer
autotrophs Require only inorganic nutrients and an outside energy source to produce organic nutrients Photoautotrophs Chemoautotrophs
total fertility rate
average number of children expected to be born to a woman throughout her childbearing years
future for ocean
average pH of surface water depends on total CO2 released and the release time -faster release=larger drop in pH
countercurrent heat exchangers
chilled venous blood is warmed by arterial blood as it re-enters body core
3 major insecticide groups
chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT), organophosphates (malathion), carbamates (aldicarb)
denitrification
bacteria convert ammonia back into N
hopanoids
bacterial "cholesterol" -inserts into bilayer, stabilizing membrane -increases with growth temp -synthesized without need for O2
Ocean Dumping Ban Act
bans ocean dumping of sewage sludge & industrial waste in the ocean
nitrogen fixation
because atmospheric N cannot be used directly by plants, it must be first converted to ammonia by bacteria
reduce amount of waste at the source
best solution for waste problem
conservation and increase efficiency
best solution to energy shortage
natural pest control
better agricultural practices, genetically resistant plans, natural enemies, and biopesticides, sex attractants
Filtration
blood pressure forces water and many small molecules through a capillary wall into the start of the kidney tubule
isoosmotic
body fluids and external fluid are the same concentration
hyperosmotic
body fluids have a lower water concentration and higher salt concentration than external environment
ectotherms
body temp same as ambient temp -aquatic: body temp=water temp -terrestrial: body temp varies w/solar, behavior
sociobiology
branch of biology concerned with study of social relations
age structure diagrams
broad base --> rapid growth; narrow base --> negative growth; uniform shape --> zero growth
Salinization
buildup of salts in surface soil layers. Worse in dry-land.
Cryptic Coloration
camouflage makes prey difficult to spot.
Biomanipulation
can help restore polluted communities.
largest reservoirs of Carbon
carbonate rocks first, oceans second
chloroflurocarbons
catalyze breakdown of ozone
Mediterranean Woodland and Shrubland
climate cool and moist most of year, but hot and dry in summer
climbers
climbing plants and vines
geographic range of species habitat tolerance local population size
commonness classification based on 3 factors
disruptive selection
creates bimodal distributions by favoring two or more extreme phenotypes over the average phenotype in a population
ECOSYSTEM
community plus abiotic factors
interspecific
competition with members of different species
intraspecific competition
competition with members of their own species
Feedlots (factory farms)
concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs). Huge warehouse/pens.
Urine
concentrated filtrate produced by the kidneys and excreted by the bladder
P50
concentration (partial pressure) of 02 at which hemoglobin is 1/2 saturation
acid precipitation
condensed ot frozen water vapor that includes acid rain, acid fog, and acid snow. pH below 5.5. Cause: anthropogenic release of pollutants like SO2 & nitrogen oxides
random mating, no mutations, large population size, no immigration, equal fitness between all genotypes
conditions necessary to maintain constant allele frequencies
Grizzly Bear
conflict with humans and development that resulted in habitat loss and framentation
destabilizing forces
conformational entropy: increase in order when protein folds into organized 3D structure (-entropy)
soil conservation methods
conservation tillage, crop rotation, contour plowing, organic fertilizers
nuclear reactor parts
consists of a core, control rods, moderator, steam generator, turbine, containment building
Kyoto Protocol
controlling global warming by setting greenhouse gas emissions targets for developed countries
Resource Conservation & Recovery Act
controls hazardous waste with a cradle to grave system
Yucca Mountain, Nevada
controversial as proposed site for permanent storage of high-level nuclear waste, 70-miles northwest of Las Vegas, near volcano and earthquake faults
deserts
covers about 1/5 of Earth's surface and occur where rainfall is less than 50 cm/year. Most deserts occur at low latitudesm have a considerable amount of specialized vegetation, as well as specialized animals. Soils have abundant nutrients, need only water to become productive, and have little or no organic matter. Common disturbances inclujde occasional fires or cold weather, and sudden, infrequent, but intense rains that cause flooding
porcelain crabs
crabs with higher vertical position have higher LT50
ammonification
decomposers convert organic waste into ammonia
resource partitioning
decreases competition between species Resource partitioning leads to niche specialization and less niche overlap between species
upwelling
deeper ocean water comes to surface, increases pH
fresh water
defined as having a low salt concentration (less than 1%). Plants and animals are adjusted to the low salt content and would not be able to survive in areas of high salt concentration ( ex. ocean). There are different types of freshwater regions: ponds and lakes, streams and rivers, and estuaries
Thermo Neutral Zone
defined as the range of environmental temperature where an organism's metabolism is steady at resting rate
Homeostasis
delicate balance
preindustrial stage
demographic transitional model stage, birth & death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high
transitional stage
demographic transitional model stage, death rate (infant mortality) lower, birth rate remains high, better health care, population grows fast
industrial stage
demographic transitional model stage, decline in birth rate, population growth slows
postindustrial stage
demographic transitional model stage, low birth & death rates
exploitative competition
depleting resources
exploitative competition
depletion of resource
illuviation
deposit of leached material in lower soil layers (B)
saturation horizon
depth below which calcareous shells of marine organisms dissolve
Endotherm
derive body heat mainly from their metabolism, include bird, mammals and a few reptiles and fish and many insects
Zero population growth
designates a near balance of births and deaths
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation & Liability Act
designed to identify and clean up abandoned hazardous waste dump sites
phosphorus
does not exist as a gas; released by weathering of phosphate rocks, it is a major limiting factor for plant growth. Phosphorus cycle is slow, and not atmospheric
primary succession
development of communities in a lifeless area not recently inhabited by life
vapor pressure deficit
difference between WVP and SWVP at a particular temp
aerobic scope
difference between resting metabolic rate and max metabolic rate
sexual selection
differences in reproductive rates among individuals as a result of differences in mating success
Polyculture
different crops planted in one field.
calcification
difficulty in forming and maintaining skeletons made of calcium carbonate -3 forms of carbonate: Calcite, aragonite, and magnesium calcite -at low pH stability decreases
DHAP
dihydroxyacetone phosphate P-C-C-C
DPH
diphenylhexatriene commonly used probe in fluorescence polarization -high polarization=low fluidity (higher static order)
Extirpation
disappearance of population from an area, but not extinct globally. Can lead to extinction.
pathogens
diseases
Low Quality Energy
disorganized, dispersed
keystone species
disproportionate influence
Arrenhius Equation
dlnk/dt=Ea/RT predicted C02 added to atmosphere would warm earth
First law of thermodynamics
energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another
random distribution
equal chance of being anywhere. uniform distribution of resources
Organic Food Production Act (1990)
establishes national standards for organic products.
10 half lives
estimate of how long a radioactive isotope must be stored until it decays to a safe level
Hydrologic cycle components
evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, precipitation, and infiltration
Keystone Species
exert strong control on a community by their ecological roles, or niches
Biodiversity Loss
extinction and declining population sizes. Smaller populations=smaller geographic ranges. Lower genetic, ecosystem, and species diversity.
Temperate Grassland
extremely widespread distribution
Arrenhius break temps (ABTs)
failure in ATP production -as temp increases, respiration increases, then at certain POINT respiration starts to decrease -correlates with adaptation temps (higher adaptation to temp=higher ABT) -hot species have ABTs nearer to body temp
methods to decrease birth rates
family planning, contraception, economic rewards & penalties
Conservation Reserve Program (1985)
farmers paid to put highly erodable land in conservation reserves. Income for farmers, trees and grasses planted instead of crops.
aquaculture
farming aquatic species, commonly salmon, shrimp, tilapia, oysters
climax community
late successional community. remains stable until disrupted by disturbance
pesticide cons
genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, and biological magnification
chlorine
good= disinfection of water, bad= forms trihalomethanes
succession
gradual change in plant and animal communities in an area following disturbance
Habitat Fragmentation
gradual, piecemeal degradation and loss of habitat
graminoids
grass and grass-like plants
savannas
grassland with scattered individual trees. Cover almost half the surface of Africa and large areas of Australia, South America, and India. Warm or hot climates where the annual rainfall is 20-50 inches per year. The rainfall is concentrated in six or eight months of the year, followed by a long period of drought when fires can occur
overdraft
groundwater withdrawal when the amount pumped from wells exceeds natural rate of replenishment
guild
group of organisms, usually animals, that all make their living in the same fashion
Families
groups of genera
Genera
groups of related species
Crop Rotation
growing different crops from one year to the next. Returns nutrients to soil. Prevents erosion, reduces pests.
psychrophilic
grows best in cold temps
thermophilic
grows best in hot temps
true cost/external costs
harmful environmental side effects that are not reflected in a product's cost
Life Expectancy
has increased due largely to fewer children dying in infancy.
oligotrophic
has low primary productivity, the result of low nutrient content. These lakes have low algal production, and consequently, often have very clear waters, with high-drinking quality
most endangered species
have a small range, require large territory, have long generations, have a very specialized niche, or live on an island
Studies have shown that family planning programs _______.
have been very effective at lowering TFR and population growth rates.
Osmoconformers
have body fluid with a solute concentration equal to that of seawater, face no substantial challenges in water balance, and include many marine invertebrates
Osmoregulators
have body fluids whose solute concentration differ from that of their environment, must actively regulate water movement and include many land animals and freshwater animals such as trout, marine vertebrate such as sharks
bacterial and archael membranes
have chemical inserts for bilayer that increase rigidity enabling them to survive very hot temperatures
Hyperosmotic organisms
have higher internal salt concentration than surrounding water Water tends to move in; salts tend to be lost.
Hypoosmotic organisms
have lower internal salt concentrations than surrounding water. Water tends to move out; salts diffuse in.
Isoosmotic organisms
have same osmotic status as their surrounding water (invertebrates)
CTmax
heart failure temp -lethal, no recovery -CTmax=LT50
greenhouse effect
heat is trapped near the earth's surface by greenhouse gases
landscape
heterogeneous area composed of several ecosystems
decomposer
heterotrophs Bacteria and fungi Break down dead organic matter
consumer
heterotrophs Require a source of preformed organic nutrients Herbivores - Feed on plants Carnivores - Feed on other animals Omnivores - Feed on plants and animals Detritivores- Feed on dead organisms
C6H12O6 amount of chemical energy
high
eurotrophic
high biological production, but may be depleted of oxygen
Diverse Habitats
high species diversity and evenness. Tropical dry forests, rainforests, ecotones.
synaptic function
high temp=leaky membrane=release of large amount of acetylcolene (ACh) -rapid loss of binding ability by AChe -high Km values=low binding ability
Maxwell-Boltzmann Energy Distribution Curves
higher temp leads to greater fraction of molecules w/energy greater than Ea
competitive ability
highest in k selected species
intrinsic rate of increase
highest in r selected species
thermal safety margin
hot species < cold species
florida panther
hunting and development that resulted in habitat loss and fragmentation
mineral reserve
identified deposits currently profitable to extract
Endangered Species Act
identifies threatened and endangered species in the US, and puts their protection ahead of economic considerations
Principle of Allocation
if organisms use energy for one function such as growth, the amount of energy for other functions is decreased
Sherwood Rowland & Mario Molina
in 1974, determined that CFCs destroy stratospheric ozone
soil salinization
in arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behind (ex. Fertile crescent, southwestern US)
stress tolerant
in low disturbance, high stress
competitive
in low disturbance, low stress
community structure
includes attributes such as number of species, relative species abundance, species diversity, and their interactions
bilayer inserts and spanners
increase membrane stability
Circulatory
increased or decreased blood flow to skin
temp vs Km
increased temp=increased Km (lower binding affinity) -temperature perturbs binding of substrate
intrinsic stablity
increases if: -increased ionic interactions and H-bonds - increased hydrophobic interactions -reduced conformational entropy -reduced # sites for covalent bond damage
fecal coliform
indicator of sewage contamination
selective cutting
individual trees are marked and cut
cohort
individuals born during a specified time period
Type II survivorship curve
individuals die at a constant rate (e.g., birds, rodents, and perennial plants).
Parent Material
lava, volcanic ash rock, dunes
bald eagle
ingested DDt by eating contaminated fish. DDT caused shells of the bird's eggs to thin and resulted in nesting failures. Loss of nesting habitat and hunting for feathers also contributed to the population decline. Reclassified from endangered to threatened (1995)
peregrine falcon
ingested DDt by eating smaller birds, which had eaten contaminated prey. The presticide caused the shells of the bird's eggs to thin and resulted in nesting failures. Removed from the list of endangered species by the Fish and Wildlife Service in August 1999
manatee
initial population decreases resulted from overharvesting for meat, oil, and leather. Today, heavy mortality occurs from accidental collisions with boats and barges, and from canal lock operations
assimilation
inorganic N is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids & proteins
temperature
intensity of heat energy
atlantic salmon
interbreeding with and competition from escaped farm-raised salmon from the aquaculture industry threaten the wild salmon population
orthologs
interspecific variants on a theme
no-till agriculture
involves not plowing the land, using herbicides and integrated pest management to keep down weeds, and allowing some weeds to grow
Food Webs
is a branching food chain with complex trophic interactions.
Symbiosis
is a relationship where two or more species live in direct and intimate contact with one another.
Character Displacement
is a tendency for characteristics to be more divergent in sympatric populations of two species than in allopatric populations of the same two species.
Community
is an assemblage of populations of various species living close enough for potential interaction.
Disturbance
is an event, such as a storm, fire, flood, drought, overgrazing, or human activity, that changes a community by removing organisms from it or altering resource availability.
Mutualism
is an interspecific interaction that benefits both species
Resource Partitioning
is differentiation of ecological niches, enabling similar species to coexist in a community.
Evapotranspiration
is evaporation of water from soil plus transpiration of water from plants.
Insulation
is provided by hair, feathers and fat layers
Total Fertility Rate
is the average number of children born per woman in her lifetime for a given population.
Trophic Structure
is the feeding relationships between organisms in a community. It is a key factor in community dynamics.
Replacement Fertility Rate
is the fertility level needed to maintain a stable population size.
Osmoregulation
is the homeostatic control of the uptake and loss of water and solutes such as salts and other ions. Osmosis is one process whereby animals regulate their uptake and loss of fluid
Survivorship
is the percentage of remaining survivors of a population over time; usually shown graphically
Thermoregulaton
is the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature with a tolerable range and a form of homeostasis
Relative Abundance
is the proportion each species represents of the total individuals in the community.
Ecological Succession
is the sequence of community and ecosystem changes after a disturbance
Species Richness
is the total number of different species in the community.
Species Diversity
is the variety of organisms that make up the community.
homeophasic
keep membranes in correct phase by head group changes -cold temp=increase PE (more fanned out head group) -hot temp=increase PC (more rigid0
predators
kill and consume other organisms
Genetic Engineering
laboratory manipulation of genetic material. Add, delete, modify DNA.
undernourishment
lack of calories
malnourishment
lack of specific components of food (proteins or vitamins)
Kwashiorkor
lack of sufficient protein in diet, leads to failure of neural development in infants and therefore learning disabilities
contour plowing
land is plowed perpendicular to the slopes and as horizontally as possible
biome
large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants & animals
Aral Sea, Uzbekistan/Kazakhstan
large inland sea is drying up as a result of water diversion
beta diversity
large number of different communities in a given area, each with a distinctive species
alpha diversity
large number of species live within most tropical forest communities
temperature, atmospheric circulation, precipitation
large scale patterns of climate variation
macroclimate
large-scale weather variation
tolerance
late successional can tolerate conditions early in succession; early successional species make things worse for themselves but do not facilitate these later successional species
threshold
level below which no effect occurs and above which effects begin to occur
secondary succession
life progresses where soil remains
CAM photosynthesis
limited to succulent plants in arid and semi-arid environments
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
lists species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products
parasitoids
live on host tissue
ENVIRONMENT
living and non-living components
Oxidation in Nitrogen cycle ____ electrons and ____ energy
loses; releases
Soil Degradation
loss foil quality and productivity
CO2 amount of chemical energy
low
thermoprotectent molecules
low molecular mass organic solutes that stabilize proteins
Inbreeding Depression
low populations, genetically similar parents mate produce inferior offspring.
mobility
low temp=low mobility=strong DPH signal (high polarization) high temp=high mobility=low DPH signal (low polarization)
Human Disturbance
lower diversity. Habitats homogenized and fragmented.
pH vs P50
lower pH=higher P50
Temperate Prairies
lower rainfall, less nutrient leaching, higher fertility.
MHT
maximal habitat temperature
cone of depression
lowering of the water table around a pumping well
homeoviscous
maintaining fluidity of membrane by changing saturation
alphastat pH regulation
maintains fractional charge of immidizole groups at stable volume (near pK)
Sustainable Agriculture
maintains healthy soil, clean water, and genetic diversity. Treats agricultural systems as ecosystems.
nitrogen oxides
major source is auto exhaust. Primary and secondary effects include acidification of lakes, respiratory irritation, leads to smog and ozone. Reduced using catalytic converters
activated sludge
mass of living bacterial organisms feeding on waste material that has settled, is recycled to aeration tank
petroleum formation
microscopic aquatic organisms in sediments converted by heat and pressure into a mixture of hydrocarbons
Inorganic Fertilizers
mined or synthetically manufactures mineral supplements.
activation energy (Ea)
minimal level of energy need for a reaction to occur
Genetic Engineering
mixes genes of different species. In a lab, directly creates novel combinations of genes.
madrid protocol
moratorium on mineral exploration for 50 years in Antarctica
Equitorial Areas
more solar energy, heat, humidity. Climate stability, more plant growth, more niches, allows specialist species to coexist.
LT50=MHT
more warm-adapted species are most threatened by rising temp because their LT50 is very close to their MHT
low status of women
most important factor keeping population growth rates high
Type III survivorship curve
most individuals die early in life (e.g., fishes, invertebrates, and plants).
Type I survivorship curve
most individuals live out their life span and die of old age (e.g., humans).
ionization
most low molecular mass metabolites ionized around pH 7.0 -cell benefits from having metabolites with charge (less able to pass through membrane)
greenhouse gases
most significant- H2O, CO2, CH4, CFCs. Trap outgoing infrared energy causing Earth to warm
proteins
move laterally along plane of membrane fluidity is very important -movement governed by viscosity of membrane
Rarity II
narrow habitat tolerance
stenotherms
narrow thermal tolerance
salt water intrusion
near the coast, overpumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into aquifer
genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
new organisms created by altering the genetic material (DNA) of existing organisms; usually in an attempt to remove undesirable or create desirable characteristics in the new organisms
Organic Agriculture
no synthetic fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides, or herbicides.
Mountains
not a specific biome cooler than surrounding lowlands important "habitat islands"
nuclear fission
nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons
Ecosystem Diversity
number and variety of ecosystems. Different communities and habitats in area.
replacement level fertility
number of children a couple must have to replace themselves (averages 2.1 in more developed nations, 2.7 in less developed nations)
carrying capacity
number of individuals of a population that an environment can support indefinitely
general fertility rate
number of live births expected in a year per 1,000 women aged 15 to 49 years
fitness
number of offspring (genes) contributed by an individual to future generations
incidence rate
number of people contracting a disease during a time period
species richness
number of species in the community
gamma rays
one of three kinds of nuclear radiation; type of EM radiation emitted from the isotope similar to X gays but more energetic and penetrating
Parasitism
one organism, the parasite, derives nourishment from another organism, its host, which is harmed in the process.
temperate forests
occur in eastern North America, Japan, northeatern Asia, and western and central Europe. Dominated by tall deciduous trees. Well-defined seaons include a distinct winter. Logged extensively, only scattered remnants of original temperate forests remain
temperate shrub lands
occurs along the coast of Southern California and the Mediterranean region. Characterized by areas of Chaparral-miniature woodlands dominated by dense stands of shrubs
metabolic cold adaptation
occurs at 3 levels -whole fish 02 consumption -mitochondrial 02 consumption -enzyme activity: citrate synthase
acute effect
occurs soon after exposure
adaptive radiation
occurs when a species enters a new habitat that has unoccupied niches and evolves into a group of new species, each adapted to one of these niches
Metabolic Heat Production
occurs when hormonal changes boost the metabolic rate in birds and mammals, birds, birds and mammals shiver, organisms increase their physical activity and honeybees cluster and shiver
self fitting
occurs when individuals of a species grow at high population density, resulting in a negative relationship between individuals per area and average individual mass
Primary Succession
occurs where no soil exists when succession begins.
25%
oceans contribute this percent of total photosynthesis
weather
one example of a density-dependent factor that influence population growth
naked mole rat
one example of a eusocial mammal
forbs
one of the major plant growth form includes herbaceous, non-graminoids plants
alpha particle
one of the major types of nuclear radiation, consisting of two protons and two neutrons
dioxin
one of the most toxic human-made chemicals. Stable, long-lived, by-product of herbicide production, enters environment as fallout from incineration of municipal and medical waste and persists for many years
beta particle
one of three kinds of nuclear radiation; electrons that are emitted when one of the protons or neutrons in the nucleus of an isotope spontaneously changes
histadine
only amino acid side chain that has pk near pHi
humus
organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms
extremophilic
organism thrives in physically extreme conditions
POPULATION
organisms of same species in same area (biotic factors)
Genetically Modified (GM) Organisms
organisms that have been genetically engineered using...
producer/autotroph
organisms that make their own food--- photosynthetic life
natural selection
organisms that possess favorable adaptations pass them onto the next generation
High Quality Energy
organized & concentrated, can perform useful work
water vapor pressure
partial pressure due to water vapor
soil mosaics
patches of material deposited during floods originating in nearby mountains
ranks of coal
peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite
.93%
percent of Argon in the atmosphere
.003%
percent of CO2 in the air
78%
percent of Nitrogen in atmosphere
71%
percent of earth's surface covered by water
.00005%
percent of ozone in the atmosphere
97%
percent of the Earth's water found in oceans
21%
percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere
loam
perfect agricultural soil with equal portions of sand, silt, clay
Endler
performed natural selection study to test color pattern in guppies
La Nina
periods of lower sea surface temps and higher than average pressure in east tropical pacific
Montreal Protocol
phaseout of ozone deleting substances
metapopulations
populations occur in spatially isolated patches with exchange of individuals
Subspecies
populations of species that occur in different areas and differ morphologically.
Piping plover
predation and human disturbance are thought to be main causes of plover's decline. Listed as endangered in Great Lakes region and as threatened in the Great Plains and on the Atlantic Coast
coal formation
prehistoric plants buried un-decomposed in oxygen-depleted water of swamps/bogs converted by heat and pressure
total atmospheric pressure
pressure exerted by all gases in the air
saturation water vapor pressure
pressure exerted by water vapor in air saturated by water
interference competition
preventing access to resources
Components of water potential
psi(total) = Psi(o) + Psi(p) + Psi(m) o = osmotic potential, the effect of dissolved solutes; defined as 0 for absolutely pure H2O, so must be negative if anything is dissolved in the water p = pressure potential; can be positive if water is under pressure, or negative if water is under tension m = matric potential, adhesion to solid surfaces like soil particles or cell walls; always negative
Garret Hardin
published "The Tragedy of the Commons" in the journal Science in 1968; argued that rational people will exploit shared resources
Rachel Carson
published Silent Spring in 1962; documented the environmental damage done by DDT and other pesticides. Heightened public awareness at start of the modern environmental movement
Outputs of glycolysis
pyruvate
Species-Area Curve
quantifies the idea that, all other factors being equal, a larger geographic area has more species.
metabolic labeling
quantifying incorporation of radio-labeled amino acids into newly synthesized hsp's—best technique for studying induction of hsp's in response to stress
western analysis
quantifying standing-stock levels of hsp's using specific antibodies—best technique for looking at longer-term accumulations of hsp's
saturation WVD
quantity of water vapor air can potentially hold (changes with temp)
Ionizing radiation
radiation with enough energy to free electrons from atoms forming ions, may cause cancer
Radon
radioactive gas, formed from the decay of Uranium, causes lung cancer
Aquaculture
raising aquatic organisms in controlled environment
Eutrophication
rapid algal growth caused by an excess of nitrogen & phosphorus, blocks sunlight, causing the death/decomposition of aquatic plants, decreasing dissolved oxygen (DO), suffocating fish
According to the demographic transition model of populations, over time _______.
rapid population growth is a short-term phenomenon between the drop in death rate and the drop in birth rate in a population.
california condor
reasons for decline include shootings, poisoning, lead poisoning, collisions with power lines, egg collecting, pesticides, habitat loss, and decline of large and medium-size native mammals due to encroachments of agriculture and urbanization
Overnutrition
receiving too many calories each day.
conformational microstate model
recognizing the dynamic nature of a population of proteins
Conservation Tillage
reduces the amount of tilling. No-till farming disturbs the soil even less.
oligotrophic
referring to bodies of water having low concentration of chemical elements required for life
Herbivory
refers to an interaction in which an herbivore eats part of a plant or algae. This has led to the evolution of plant mechanical and chemical defense and adaptations.
Predation
refers to interaction where one species, the predator, kills and eats the other, the prey.
southern oscillation
refers to the oscillation in atmospheric pressure that extends across the Pacific
metabolic water
refers to water created inside a living organism through oxidizing energy-containing substances in their food
matrix forces
refers to water's tendency to adhere to container walls
Reabsorption
refines the filtrate, reclaims valuable solutes from the filtrate and returns these to the blood
heterotherm
regions of body with different temperatures
acclimatization
regulate gene expression to support changes in the protein pool
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, Rodenticide Act
regulates effectiveness of pesticides
Antidiuretic Hormone
regulates the amount of water excreted by the kidneys, by signaling nephrons to reabsorb water from the filtrate returning it to the blood, and decreasing the amount of water excreted
steric hindrance
regulation of conformational mobility and entropy of unfolding
efficient regulation
regulatory process rely on marginally stable weak bonded structures
obligate symbiont
relationship between two organisms in which neither by themselves can exist without the other
parasitism
relationship in which one organism obtains nutrients at the expense of the host
species evenness
relative abundance of species
Extreme Rarity
restricted range, narrow habitat tolerance, small populations
acid generation
relies on concentrations of dipeptides -high in more active species
endotherms
rely heavily on metabolic energy
ectotherms
rely mainly on external energy sources
Organic Fertilizers
remains or wastes of organisms. Manure, crop residues, fresh vegetation.
leaching
removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards through soil
Erosion
removal of material from one place and transport to another area. By wind or by water.
seed-tree cutting
removes all but a few seed trees to promote regeneration
boreal forests or Taiga
represent the largest terrestrial biome. Dominated by needleleaf, coniferous trees. Found in the cold climates of Eurasia and North America: two-thirds in Siberia with the rest in Scandinavia, Alaska, and Canada. Seasons are divided into short, moist, and moderately warm summers and long, cold, and dry winters. Extensive logging may soon cause their disappearance.
r-strategist
reproductive strategy in which organisms reproduce early, bear many small, unprotected offspring (insects, mice)
K-strategist
reproductive strategy in which organisms reproduce late, bear few, carerd for offspring (humans, elephants)
surface mining control & reclamation act
requires coal strip mines to reclaim land
Petroleum cons
reserves depleted soon, pollution during drilling, transport and refining, land subsidence, burning oil produces CO2
Shelterbelts (windbreaks)
rows of trees planted along edges of fields. Slows wind, can be combined with inter-cropping.
esticie pros
saves lives from insect transmitted diseases, increases food supply, and increases profits for farmers
El Nino
sea surface in east tropical pacific is warmer than average and barometric pressure is lower
stratosphere
second layer of atmosphere 10-30 miles above the Earth's surface. Contains protective ozone layer (good ozone)
secondary sewage treatment
second step of sewage treatment; bacteria breakdown organic waste, aeration accelerates process
ozone
secondary pollutant. Causes respiratory irritation and plant damage. Reduced by reducing NO emissions and VOCs
elizomes
seeds bearing this are likely to be ant-dispersed
Clean Air Act
set emission standards for cars, and limits for release of air pollutants
Safe drinking water act
set maximum contaminant levels for pollutants that may have adverse effects on human health
congeners
species classified into a common genus -hard to tell apart just by looking -good to look at for examining adaptive variation
Red List
species facing high risks of extinction.
hydrothermal vent ecosystems
species living around hotter vents have ABT that is almost equal to MHT (life on the edge) -behavioral thermal regulation (keeps species from going over the edge0
Latitudinal Gradient
species richness increases toward equator
indicator species
species that serve as early warnings than an ecosystem is being damaged
keystone species
species whose role in an ecosystem is more important than others
structural stability
stability is directly related to evolutionary adaptation temperatures -tropical species enzyme can maintain its activity for much longer when heated compared to cold temp species enzymes
cholesterol
stabilizes membrane structure in face of temp change
homeotherm
stable core temp due to control of heat flux + lots of insulation (blubber)
PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls)
stable, long-lived, carcinogenic chlorinated hydrocarbons. Produced by electronics industry
Hardy Weinberg Principle
states that in a population, mating at random in the absence of evolutionary forces, allele frequencies will remain constant: (p+q)^2=p^2+2pq+q^2
electricity is generated by
steam, from water boiled, by fossil fuels or nuclear energy, or falling water is used to turn a generator
stabilizing forces
stronger @ high T=hydrophobic interactions stronger @ low T=hydrogen bonds, ionic interactions, van der waals forces
look at things holistically
structure and function tightly interlinked, varying one function will affect another
Miller
studied age distributions of white oak
Connell
studied distributions of barnacles along an intertidal gradient
Peter and Rose Mary Grant
studied evolution of galapagos finches
Mary Wilson
studied mate choice in plants
MacArthur and Wilson
studied r-selected versus k-selected species
Demographer
studies the population dynamics of humans.
limnology
study of freshwater systems
behavioral ecology
study of interactions among organisms and environment mediated by behavior
landscape ecology
study of landscape structure and proceses
gray wolf
subject of predator eradication programs sponsored by the Federal government. Prior to Endangered Species Act(1973), exterminated from lower 48 states except for a few hundred inhabiting extreme northeastern Minnesota and a small number on Isle Royale, Michigan
Fertilizers
substances containing essential nutrients to enhance crop production.
carcinogen
substances that cause cancer
mutagen
substances that cause changes in DNA; may result in hereditary changes
teratogen
substances that cause fetus deformities (birth defects)
secondary succession
succession following disturbance that does not destroy soil
primary succession
succession on newly exposed geological substrates
Energetic Hypothesis
suggests that length is limited by inefficient energy transfer.
Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis
suggests that moderate levels of disturbance can foster greater diversity than either high or low levels of disturbance.
mutualism
symbiotic relationship where both organisms benefit
commensalism
symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits & the other is unaffected
Ubiquitin (Ub)
tag for denatured proteins
chronic effect
takes place over a long period, often as a result of exposure to low levels of a pollutant
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
techniques to suppress pests.
transform fault
tectonic plates sliding past one another (San Andres)
Divergent Plate Boundaries
tectonic plates spreading apart, new crust being formed (ex. mid-ocean ridges, rift valleys)
convergent plate boundaries
tectonic plates with the oldest crustal material on Earth moving together, one moving under another (ex. mid-ocean trenches). Mineral deposits and volcanoes are most abundant at convergent plate boundaries
pejus
temp where things start to look bad -aerobic scope is compromised
carrying capacity
the # of individuals that can be sustained in an area
Which of these was the second of the major events that stimulated an increase in the size of the human population?
the Industrial Revolution.
Sustainability
the ability to meet humanity's current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs
Which of these was the first of the major events that stimulated an increase in the size of the human population?
the advent of agriculture.
detritovore
the category of animals that eat non-living organic matter
For the foreseeable future, which types of countries will see the greatest increases in population number?
the countries that are poorest and least able to support population growth.
Which of these was the third of the major events that stimulated an increase in the size of the human population?
the discovery of vaccines and the discovery of antibiotics.
Excretion
the disposal of nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes
Radiaton
the emission of electromagnetic waves
Transgenes
the genes that have moved between organisms
control of diseases
the human population explosion resulted from lowered death rate largely due to
Our total impact on the environment is measured by a variation of Ehrlich and Holdren's 1974 formula that specifies our impact on the environment is based on _______.
the interaction among our population, affluence, and technology.
integrative adaptation to temperature
the isolated traits that we "dissect" out of systems may be intimately related with other aspects of the system
oceans
the largest of all the ecosystems. The ocean regions are separated into separate zones: intertidal, pelagic, abyssal, and benthic. All four zones have a great diversity of species
biotic
the living components of an ecosystem
Evaporation
the loss of heat from the surface of a liquid that is losing some of its molecules as a gas
osmosis
the net movement of water molecules through a semi=permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration
abiotic
the nonliving components of an ecosystem
Parasite
the organism that derives the nourishment, in a parasitic relationship.
Host
the organism that is being harmed, or providing the nourishment in a parasitic relationship.
Renal Cortex
the outer portion of the vertebrates kidney, above the renal medulla
aswan high dam, Egypt
the silt that made the Nile region fertile fills the reservoir. Lack of irrigation controls causes waterlogging and salinization. The parasitic disease schistosomiasis thrives in the stagnant water of the reservoir.
physiological ecology
the study of the interrelationship between biological function and the environment
half-life
the time it takes for half the mass of a radioisotope to decay. A radioactive isotope must be stored for approximately 10 half-lives until it decays to a safe level
Biomass
the total mass of all individuals in a population
Conduction
the transfer of heat by direct contact
Convection
the transfer of heat by movement of air or liquid past a surface
neural limitations
thermal sensitivity of action potential generation reflects adaptation temperature -at 30 C neural action potentials decrease in temperate and cold species as time increases- -shows that prior thermal history IMPORTANT when studying effects of thermal stress
Pathogens
these universally affect ecological communities, and they include disease-causing microorganisms, viruses, viroids, and prions
Mullerian Mimicry
two or more unpalatable species resemble each other.
Food Chain
this links trophic levels from producers to top carnivores.
Zoonotic Pathogens
this type of pathogen has been transferred from other animals to humans.
Lag time
time between a stimulus and the response of a system
Average residence time
time it takes for a given part of the total reservoir of a particular material to by cycled through the system
exponential curve
time versus population size graph for a population undergoing exponential growth
"s" curve
time versus population size graph for a population undergoing logistic growth
euryhaline
tolerates fresh and sea water
euryoxic
tolerates wide range of 02
Overgrazing
too many animals - eat too much plant cover and impede plant regrowth. Soil degraded and compacted. Non-native plants invade, less palatable to livestock, out-compete native vegetation.
biomass
total mass of all biological organisms for a trophic level or ecosystem.
total fertility rate
total offspring per female in lifetime
heat
total thermal energy of a system
incineration disadvantages
toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride, dioxin), scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposal
22 to 84%
toxoplasma gondi is found in this range of percentage of the human population
self thinning
tree seedlings can live at very high densities, but as they grow, density declines progressively until mature trees are at low densities
tundra
treeless plains that are the coldest of all the biomes. Occur in the arctic and Antarctica. Dominated by lichens, mosses, sedges, and dwarfed shrubs. Characterized by extremely cold climate, permanently frozen grounnd (permafrost) low biotic diversity, simple vegetation structure, limitation of drainage, short season of growth and reproduction.
9 major biomes
tropical rain forest, tropical dry forest, tropical savanna, desert, temperate woodland and shrubland, temperate grassland, temperate forest, boreal forest, tundra
Lotka-Volterra competition model
two competitors can only coexist when intraspecific competition is stronger than interspecific competition
Semidiurnal Tides
two low and two high tides daily
integrated pest management
uses a combination of methods, including bological control, certain chemical pesticides, and some methods of planting crops
Biological Control
uses pests' predators/diseases to control pest.
cogeneration
using waste heat to make electricity
intersexual selection
usually female choice
intrasexual selection
usually male-male competition
paralogs
variants of a class of enzyme encoded by multiple copies of the same gene
Biodiversity
variety of life at all levels of organization
landscape elements
visually distinctive patches in an ecosystem
incineration advantages
volume of wate reduced by 90% and waste heat can be used
inversion layer (temperature inversion)
warm layer of air above a cooler layer traps pollutants close to the Earth's surface
heat shock in Tegula
warm-adapted Ton is within habitat range cold-adapted Ton is at temp it rarely sees -subtidal species unable to synthesize proteins at mid-intertidal temps -mid-intertidal live on edge, Toff close to MHT
water logging
water completely saturates soil, starves plant roots of oxygen, rots roots
Summary: water plant air system
water is pulled from soil to roots to leaves by transpiration, but only when the stomata are open.
Waterlogging
water suffocates roots, over-irrigated.
water vapor density (WVD)
water vapor per unit volume of air
hypoxia
water with very low dissolved oxygen levels, the end result of eutrophication
shit
what does a coprovore eat?
Positive feedback
when a change in some conditions triggers a response that intensifies the changing condition
negative feedback
when a changing in some condition triggers a response that counteracts the changed condition
second law of thermodynamics
when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy
Secretion
when substances in the blood are transported into the filtrate
estuaries
where rivers mix with the sea
disturbance
which of the following environments for germinating seed is most likely to favor a plant species that makes many small seeds, compared to one that makes fewer larger seeds?
eurytolerant
wide ability to cope with diverse abiotic changes
titration of activity by pH
wide shifts in pH, as found in organism leaving/entering dormancy, can titrate metabolism between on and off states
eurytherm
wide thermal tolerance
alternate energy sources
wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells