Econ of edu fill in the blanks

3. Hanushek, Woesmann, Jamison, & Jamison (2008) examines the effect of both cognitive skills and years of schooling on a country's productivity. The article assumes a human capital theory of education, rather than a sorting theory of education. Could the findings of Hanushek et al. (2008) be consistent with a sorting theory of education? If yes, explain why. If no, explain why not. Be sure in your response to (1) give a brief summary of the findings in Hanushek et al. (2008) and (2) define both the human capital and sorting theories of education. Hanushek et al. found that school ________________ doesn't matter for productivity if students aren't ___________. They found that a highly ___________ workforce can raise economic growth by about ______ of a percentage point every year. The sorting theory of education is the theory that firms use education choices to draw inferences about ________________ characteristics. Education is a ________ to firms about innate worker characteristics that firms can't reward (or maybe even observe). The ___________ ______________ theory is the belief that education increases ______________, and the more educated workers should get higher wages because of productivity increases from schooling. The findings of Hanushek et al. (2008) could be consistent with a sorting theory of education. A measurement of learning and __________ ability is ________ scores. In a sorting model, firms offer _______ based on observed test results, designed to deter applications from workers who have bad private information about their ability. If firms only looked at ______ of education in order to sort out workers, this would not be consistent with the findings of Hanushek et al., ( school attainment doesn't matter for productivity if students aren't learning), because there wouldn't be a way to know if students actually gained cognitive skills and learned from their years in education. However, if test scores were used to sort applicants, this would be ________ _____ ____ __________. Test scores may show that an applicant has learned through years of schooling, and in addition may have innate ______________ that make them a better applicant.

attainment, learning, skilled, 2/3, unobserved, signal, Human Capital, productivity, cognitive, test, wages, years, consistent with the findings, characteristics

cost disease

(usually associated with personal-service industries) states that the rise in labor costs (wages) in low productivity growth industries is in response to rising wages in high productivity growth industries

Goldin (2003) lists six virtues of the 20th century American education system and how these virtues increased the average level of education in the United States. However, we have seen that school choice is becoming an increasing topic of interest in education. Consider three of the virtues Golden mentions, explain how those virtues increased average education in the United States, and make an argument for if those virtues remain in an ideal school choice system, as defined by Whitehurst (2017), or do not remain. 1 ___________ ___ ________ _______, _______ _______________ __________ (_) Small districts are generally more _______________ than large districts with respect to income, ethnicity, and cultural values Public education is likely to be funded by some of the districts, whereas at _______ level it would get no funding at all Also, small, _________ _______________ school districts compete with one another to attract residents This system can ___________ in an ideal school choice system, as defined by Whitehurst, as long as _________ are available for the cost of choice for poor families, and there are processes in place to ________ unpopular schools. 2 _________ _____ ___________ (_) A new economy arose in the early 20th century, that increased the relative demand for educated labor and enhanced the returns to education increased the ___________ for skilled and educated labor among the mass of workers Schooling could make anyone more ____________ The masses could now be educated, not just the elite few who had to prove themselves. Although the quality of schools for the poor/minorities was and remains lower than for the rich. In Whitehurst's model for an ideal school, students must take a ___________ ____________, and students must provide rich and valid information on school performance (including _____ results that incorporate student academic growth and are comparable across all schools), and they will be matched with a school based on that and their and their parent's preferences. This will put low-income minority students at a huge disadvantage. They will all end up at the same school with negative ______ ________. BUT the students will be able to attend school, no matter their test scores, performance, and parent preferences, so this virtue would _______ in Whitehurst's model. 3 __________ ____ _________ (_) Not industrial schools, like those in England designated for poor and neglected children School, not an apprenticeship and on-the-job training, enables a youth to change _____________ over a lifetime, to garner skills different from those of his or her parents, and to respond rapidly to _________________ change In Whitehurst's model, there are a variety of types of school but there aren't any _________ schools, and because all the schools have a _________ ____, they teach similar curriculum- not industrial schools that teach home skills rather than academia. (____________ ________- may be more of a focus in certain areas- this would need to be addressed). Also, they are paired with the student based on his/her _____________ and preference, so they would not be too difficult for the student- they would be practical.

1 Managed by numerous small, fiscally independent districts (R), homogenous, state, fiscally independent, remain, subsidies, close 2 Open and forgiving (R), demand, productive, common application, test, peer effects, remain 3 Academic yet Practical (Remain) occupations, technological, default, common app, magnet schools, performance,

15. Education in most developed nation is highly subsidized and frequently publicly provided. What market failure is the government trying to correct? Further, what are two spillover effects of education, as outlined by Wolfe & Haveman (2002)? Name two spillover effects documented from the Perry Preschool Program. What is the difference between a "positive externality" and a "public good"? Why is education classified as one and not the other? Market failure the government is trying to correct: _________ from unrealized gains from ___________ externality of education; private motives and society's do not align __________ demand is higher than private and public demand (D social = D private + D public) government can subsidize education to __________ cost = removing DWL Marginal cost should equal marginal benefit but social marginal cost is __________ than social marginal benefit for education Unrealized ____________ → ____________ market A well functioning market with no government _____________ requires: -No _____________ -Full ____________ (don't exist in education market) Spillover Effects W&H Social cohesion / _______ reduction Greater _______ participation Efficiency in services technological change: research, development, and diffusion of new tech less likely to use government ________ (welfare) PPP more productive labor force → higher _________ productivity Higher living standards for __________ (better health, fertility, education levels, consumer choice efficiency, savings) ____ growth due to compound effect of better labor ---Positive Externality _____________ that accrues to those outside of the market _______________ ----Public Good a good that is non-_________ and non-rival Education is a _________ _____________. it doesn't classify as a public good because it is rival and competitive. children compete for spots in schools

DWL, positive, motives, Social, decrease, less, benefits, inefficient, intervention, externalities, information, crime, civic, services, market, children, GDP, benefit, transaction, excludable, positive externality,

18. Education frequently has impacts that are only observable in the long-run, as seen in Sawhill, Tebbs, & Dickens (2006). Explain why this is, particularly for early education interventions. Further, explain why this is related to arguments made about the instantaneous relationship between the economy and the education system made in A Nation at Risk and rebutted by Harris, Handel, and Mishel (2014). In order to see the impacts of education on _______ we have to wait until the analyzed individuals receiving the education enter the __________. For early education interventions, particularly in the Perry Preschool Program, the children with the ________ ___________ educations had higher educational _____________ and gains in non-cognitive characteristics such as persistence and ____________. In the _______ run, these characteristics gained from the early intervention raised their overall _______________ increasing the GDP. This is related to the arguments made about the ______________ relationship between the economy and the education system because they use wages and education as a ________ of productivity. However, in this article they claim that education does not make someone more __________, but more productive people tend to get a higher education. They state that education does not add _______ to a person it is just a ____________ displaying that they are a hard worker. A Nation at risk looks at the current spending on education and the ___________ state of the economy noting increased spending on education with a ____________ dip in the economy, failing to take into account that the students receiving the ______________ that they were analyzing had not entered the ___________ yet.

GDP, workforce, higher quality, attainments, diligence, long, productivity, instantaneous, signal, productive, value, certificate, current, simultaneous, education, workforce

9 Hanushek & Rivkin (1996) document the ways that U.S. K-12 education spending has changed, and Archibald & Feldman (2008) document the ways that costs for U.S. higher education have changed. What are two factors that explain spending growth in K-12? What are two factors that explain cost growth in higher education? Are the factors increasing costs and spending in K-12 and higher education related? Are the factors you discuss under the control of either education system? 2 factors that explain spending growth in K-12 1 2 2 factors that explain cost growth in higher education 1 2 ________ ____________: low productivity, service industries experience ____________ costs for wages because they are competing for labor with high productivity industries Traditional example is the fine arts - no way to increase productivity _______ higher ed and K-12 can suffer from this because low productivity growth and service oriented Unclear how technology can lower costs Are the factors increasing costs and spending in K-12 and higher education related? Yes they are related because of cost disease, (usually associated with personal-service industries) which states that the rise in labor costs (wages) in low productivity growth industries is in response to rising wages in high productivity growth industries. The highly-educated labor necessary in universities means the wages must be high. The increase in teacher wages for k-12 can be explained by cost disease as well. Both of these sectors have difficulty increasing ___________. Are the factors you discuss under the control of either education system? In the K-12 system, the lower-pupil teacher ratio and the increase in teacher wages are essential for increasing student ___________. These are two of the biggest reasons for ___________ ____________, and although the wages could be decreased and the class sizes increased, it would come with a big cost to the students. Further, because of cost _______, this would not be entirely under the K-12 system's control. As for the higher education system, the fact that higher education is a personal-service industry and higher education relies on _________ skilled labor can't be controlled- but the costs associated with these factors can be helped partly by people within the system- there may be ______________ management that needs fixing, as well as _______________ ratchet. But, in the higher education system, there are also forces outside of their control, such as cost disease, ____________ output, and the _____________ problem. Multidimensional output: colleges don't only produce human capital (in all its varied forms), they also create _____________ and ____________ Information problem: unclear what makes a college a quality college, unclear how to increase _______________

Lower pupil-teacher ratio, Increase in teacher wages, Higher education is a personal-service industry, Higher education relies on highly educated labor, Cost disease, increasing, Both, productivity, learning, spending increases, disease, highly, ineffective, administrative, multidimensional, information, service, research, productivity

17. We have discussed state-level, district-level, and school-level reforms to education in class. At the school-level, we covered the reform of George Washington Carver Academy in Milwaukee. What types of resources and changes were used to reform George Washington Carver Academy? What were three results of the reform, and what caused these results? Were these the expected results? How might be results have been different if the reform had been at the district-level rather than the school-level? Why might a school choice environment lead to negative results in some instances but positive results in others? The resources and changes used to reform George Washington Carver Academy were a supply of _________ ___ ____________ teachers, additional classroom __________ and tutors, coaching for administrators, and _________ and __________ supplied by the Northwestern Mutual Foundation. The actual results were not as good as the predicted results of higher standardized _______ __________, less ____________ problems, and ________ student turnover. High rates of at Carver caused the _______ ___________ to remain low. The school's ________ improved, suspensions went _______, and ____________ ticked up. What caused these results: Suspensions went down as students were sent to a special ______ to regroup rather than being sent straight home They met with new families to stress the importance of ________ Each classroom started with a morning _________ to build community But after 5 years, just 5% of students were proficient in _________ on the state exam, scarcely better than before. If the reform had been at district-level, then the results would have shown more improvement in the _______ of the students in the district in english proficiency. Because students were in and out of schools so often, they were ending up spending time at ____-performing schools, even if they started or ended up at Carver. Further, because student turnover is so high, teachers can't learn how to teach certain students in a productive way-by the time they finally figure out how to get a student to calm down and learn, the student transfers. A school choice environment can lead to negative results in that students with low-income parents may have to move them around so often that the student can't absorb information and a solid foundation of learning. They may have to move because they have been evicted, or become homeless, or because their parents living in poverty are more concerned with securing food, shelter, and safety than sticking to one school. A school choice environment can lead to positive results in that it enables families who value education to get their child to a more organized and successful school. It also means low-income families who may have to move into cheaper housing/neighborhoods can keep their children in school, as stated in Whitehurst's 2017 article on school choice.

Teach for America, aides, money, advice, test scores, behavioral, lower, student turnover, culture, down, attendance, room, attendance, meeting, english, scores, low,

10. News media reports on student loans focus on students with large amounts of student loan debt. Dynarski (2014) examines if student loans are a positive or negative for students from an economist's perspective. Is there evidence that having a larger student loan (in dollars) leads to increased likelihood of default? Why or why not? What market failure does she argue these loans address? What does she argue is the major reform needed in the student loan system? There isn't evidence that having a larger student loan (in dollars) leads to increased likelihood of _________. Most defaults occur on much _________ loans. Most students don't default. The _____________ rate is much higher than the default rate. Delinquency: a payment was _________ Default: payments have _____________ (usually for at least 9 months) Student loans correct a capital _____________ ___________: the ___________ sector will not provide loans that are ___________ only by a borrower's future earnings (no present assets/collateral) Student loans address the market failure of the lack of ___________ that students have. Major reform needed: We are not in a debt crisis, but a repayment crisis. An __________-based repayment system determines loan payments based on __________. Payments should adjust automatically with ________.

default, smaller, delinquency, missed, stopped, market failure, private, secured, collateral , income, income, earnings

16. What is the "college wage premium" as defined by Abel & Deitz (2014)? How can the college wage premium be rising if (1) wages for most college graduates are stagnating and (2) college tuitions are rising faster than inflation? In your answer, be sure to consider and define both direct costs of college and the opportunity costs of college. The "college wage premium," as defined by Abel & Deitz, is the ___________ in earnings between _________ and non-degree holders -this ___________ is earned every ______________ year once in the labor force -main reason why college is sought out right after completing high school -Depends on major and gender (factors into major) -Rises with more _____________ __________ Rising ________ -wages of those without a __________ _______ have also been ___________, -keeping the college wage __________ near an all-time high while reducing the ____________ cost of going to school. -Those with degrees earn significantly more -Implicit _____________ cost of forgone money due to not obtaining a degree is larger than the direct cost of rising tuition costs -People with college degrees less likely to be affected by economic ___________ -such as Recessions and Unemployment -Issue isn't too many people going to college, but the __________ rate -60% for 4-year universities for 6 years

differential, degree, premium, consecutive, advanced degrees, premium, college degree, falling, premium, opportunity, opportunity, downturns, dropout,

1. One common concern for economists is the difference between causation and correlation. Assume student effort and student achievement are positively related, and you are a researcher interested in examining the effect of student effort on student achievement. What is simultaneity and what is omitted variable bias? Why might a researcher be concerned about both of these biases in the above context (examining the relationship between student effort and student achievement)? Give a specific example of an omitted variable a researcher may be concerned about and explain if the bias created by that omitted variable would lead to an overestimation or underestimation of the effect of student effort on student achievement. In this context, why might a researcher use an instrumental variable to address concern about omitted variable bias? In particular, explain which variable (student effort or student achievement) the instrument variable must be correlated with and which variable it must not be correlated with. Simultaneity Interaction issue Not just an omitted variable, but an omitted ___________ Y doesn't just affect X, but X also affects Y Examining the relationship between student _______ and student achievement- student achievement and student effort affect each other and the relationship does not run just _____ way. That is, student achievement also has an _______ on student effort Omitted variable bias Trying to change an ____________ but we have non-experimental data Which inputs matter? Variables measuring school ____________, variables representing environmental ____________ on learning outside the school, variables representing the student's __________ and initial level of learning attained by the student ________ to entry into the school An omitted variable a researcher may be concerned about: changes in _______ _______________ (divorces, income changes, parental occupation change, etc) Would lead to an _____estimation of the effect of student effort on student achievement A researcher may use an _______________ variable to address concern about omitted variable bias Used to estimate the __________ relationships when controlled experiments are not feasible Must be correlated with student ____________ and must not be correlated with student ____________ in order to isolate the effect of student effort on student achievement and find causation

equation, effort, one, effect, outcome, environment, influence, ability, prior, home background, over, instrumental, causal, effort, achievement

2. Numerous studies we have examined have attempted to establish causal relationships using different strategies. Carrell & Hoekstra (2009) examining peer effects For one study, explain why the author(s) might be concerned about causality. What strategy do they use to address this concern? Under what circumstances would this strategy fail? How would this bias the results the author(s) find(s)? Be sure to include a brief summary of the study's research question and their findings in your answer. Carrell & Hoekstra Question: Do children who are ___________ ___ _____________ ____________ within the home generate spillover effects in school? They found that presence of a troubled peer _________ test scores for classmates, and increased ______________ infractions. Results only significant for _____________ violence. Key assumption: student unlikely to be _________ ____ of cohort because of domestic violence in peer's home (no difference when they look at only families with siblings at the same school) Why the author(s) might be concerned about causality? Concerned with ___________ issue- see if students are systematically placed into or pulled out of a particular grade cohort within a school depending on the domestic violence status of a student or their peers What strategy do they use to address this concern? Looking at _______, rather than at classroom level due to possible sorting of students into classrooms according to their achievement and behavior. Also looked at different cohorts within a school in the same grade and different _______ Looking at documented reports and effects on peers both prior to and after ______________ took place Examine if peer domestic violence has an effect on cohort size or student characteristics Calculated peer effects only on children w ________ in the school (would pull out if bad cohort) Under what circumstances would this strategy fail? How would this bias the results the author finds? This strategy would fail if parents ____ pull their children out of classes in which their peers were exposed to domestic violence in the home If this were the case, this would bias the results the author finds because children whose family _______ ____________ _______ (who would pull their child out of a class with high levels of negative peer effects), would then decrease the __________ levels of the cohort as a whole because their child is more likely to be high achieving and have a _________ peer effect (because of their family's value on education) When families who value education more pull their students into another class, leaving students whose families valued education less in one class, which would induce more ____________ externalities via peer effects: these students would both be more likely to be exposed to domestic violence, and would be _____ likely to experience positive peer effects from their peers, whose families value education less.

exposed to domestic violence, lowered, behavioral, unreported, pulled out, selection, cohorts, year, reporting, siblings, did, values education more, achievement, positive, negative, less

5 Your local school district is considering increasing teacher wages, using one of two options: (1) overall teacher wage increases (i.e. same increases for all teachers regardless of skill level) or (2) implementing a merit pay program. What are the pros and cons of each approach? Justify your answer using graphs, intuition, and/or evidence learned in class. Overall teacher wage increases Pros: Central __________ of teachers Provide high value ~____% of the variation in student achievement is due to teacher characteristics Teacher wages have _____ ______ ______ with those for other occupations Increase _________ of teachers Uniform salary increase given changing economic opportunities for women and minorities Increase # of applicants, schools can be more __________ Will increase # of effective and ineffective applicants Cons: More ___________ The skills needed to be an effective teacher are not necessarily those needed to be successful elsewhere in the __________ Single-salary structure model of teacher holds _______ teachers' salaries Unclear how to ________ salaries to those of other professionals under different employment conditions Merit pay program: Pros: Experiments are too _________- destined to fail New evidence- Project ________ in TN An experimental study of _______-_______ reductions, began in _______ Career ladder- __ levels of teacher qualification, moving up determined by class __________ Having a career-ladder teacher had a ________ _________ Career ladder not effective at distinguishing superior math teachers from those who were merely competent, but large positive effect in _________ Partially successful in ______-based pay Cons: Little ___________ appeal without some assurances of approved student achievement (teacher salaries are political) Impossible to identify specific _____________ that increase student outcomes Can't _________ identify effective teachers _________ attributes we can't measure There are goals other than cognitive achievement Discourages cooperation from teachers, creates competition and ________ If the district decides to implement a merit pay program, how would you recommend measuring teacher quality? Justify your answer using evidence from class. Use student ________ (rather than achievement) to measure level of career ladder for merit pay Holistic evaluation- _________, students, test scores Matter: Experience (in beginning years only) ________ ability (test scores) Selectivity of college ________________ Subject matter expertise (matters for more advanced coursework\) Doesn't matter: Advanced degrees

importance, 8.5, not kept pace, quality, selective, expensive, economy, down, compare, limited, STAR, class size, 1985, 3, evaluation, large effect, reading, merit, political, characteristics, accurately, Intangible, distrust, growth, principals, verbal ability, Pedagogy

8 Policies frequently have unintentional consequences. Focusing on Kane & Staiger (2002) or Deming, Cohodes, Jennings, & Jencks (2016), discuss two unintentional incentives that school accountability initiatives created. Propose a policy change that would mitigate these unintentional incentives. Be sure to outline the original school accountability system, what parts of it created unintentional incentives, and how they would be addressed by the policy change. Kane & Staiger (2002) In the article by Kane & Staiger (2002), the school accountability system is structured around __________ __________, public reports on performance, and _______________________ on performance. School success is measured by ___________________ ________ __________. Two unintentional incentives associated with this accountability system are that educators themselves may _________ or help their children cheat, and there may be too much focus on a child's test score/ too much teaching to the test. These incentives were created because teachers want ____________, so they may do everything in their power to make students receive good test grades. A policy change that would mitigate these unintentional incentives: My proposed policy change doesn't eliminate standardized testing, but it relieves some of the pressures associated with it. The main problem associated with standardized testing is that it is the only measure of student performance, and high scores are the only way teachers can gain recognition. My policy change would add in two other alternate measures of student success: ______________-based assessments and _________ and _______________ measures. The emphasis on the importance of the projects a student has created in the last year, as well as the social and emotional skills they have gained, would relieve pressure on students and teachers concerning the tests. The ___________ could be in place, but the rewards would also consider the ________-added measures of the social and emotional skills of the students, as well as the creations they have worked on in the classroom.

mandated testing, rewards/sanctions, standardized test scores, cheat, bonuses, portfolio, emotional, social, bonuses, value

7 The education production function is poorly understood. Give three reasons from Bowles (1970) that this is the case. Using evidence from one article in class, what is an input whose effects have been investigated? Were these effects significant? If so, what direction were the effects in (i.e. was the impact of the input positive or negative)? Why the Education production function is poorly understood: Selection issue- _____________ __________ bias Trying to change an outcome but we have non-experimental data Which inputs matter? Variables measuring school ____________, variables representing environmental influence on learning __________ the school, variables representing the student's __________ and initial level of learning attained by the student ______ to entry into the school _______________ Interaction issue Not just an omitted variable, but an omitted ________ Y doesn't just affect X, but X also affects Y ie) student achievement and student _______ _________ school Know little about learning process- what affects student _______________ Difficulties in ________ measurement Differences in student valuation of scholastic success and other dimensions of output Differs by community and student Examples- grad rate, job placement, college entry, achievement scores, social skills Input whose effects have been investigated: ___________ __________ ("The Mystery of Good Teaching" by Dan ___________ in Education Next) _____________ effects in positive direction One of few EPF inputs studies continuously find significant effects for. Positive qualities in teachers: ____________ (in beginning years only) _________ ability (test scores) ______________ of college _____________ ___________ matter expertise (matters for more advanced coursework)

omitted variable, environment, outside, ability, prior, simultaneity, equation, attitude toward, achievement, output, teacher quality, Goldhaber, significant, Experience, verbal, selectivity, Pedagogy, subject

13. A Nation at Risk focused on ways in which the economy was changing due to educational quality; Harris, Handel, & Mishel (2014) critiqued A Nation at Risk. Outline three arguments A Nation at Risk made about the changing quality of education (and its effects on the economy), and explain the response (and evidence presented) to each argument made by Harris, Handel, & Mishel (2014). A Nation at Risk Claims and Responses: Argument by ANAR: Education level of the coming generation will be the first to not _______, to not even _______ the education of their _________. Response: The educational level of children is highly _____ to the educational level of their parents. With each ________ that the parent gets, the likelihood of the child obtaining that degree __________. There is also a correlation between the educational level of the ____________ and the educational level that the children will attain. Argument by ANAR: Students are leaving our schools _________ for further __________ and unprepared for the real world. Response: Education better enables one to accommodate social and ____________ changes. It also makes people more informed _______ and better equipped to participate fully in their community. Argument by ANAR: America is _________ _________ the other nations in producing effective members of the workforce, we are falling behind Germany, South Korea, and Japan in ____________. Response: The United States does have ________ manufacturing growth, because we already have a ___________ manufacturing structure. Our productivity is still extremely ______ with our economy __________.

pass, equal, parents, tied, degree, increases, community, unprepared, education, technological, voters, falling behind, manufacturing, less, solidified, high, growing

12. Define school choice, and list three types of school choice mentioned by Whitehurst (2017). Could the presence of peer effects play a role in the effects of school choice that we discussed in class? Be sure to (1) define peer effects, (2) mention at least one piece of evidence on the effects of peer effects, and (3) mention at least one piece of evidence on the effects of a particular type of school choice. "School choice" is when ___________ _____________ can follow a student to a non-______________ school. Why? A great neighborhood school may be ideal but it is not every kid's reality Fosters innovation, ____________ Types of School choice: __________ Schools Schools with high degree of autonomy. Publicly funded but not publicly ____. Held to standards and can be dissolved ___________ schools Publicly funded and ________ run schools, usually with a specialized curriculum that enroll students ________ a typical school zone. Traditional public schools Traditional public schools are tied to school _________ and set their curriculums based on ________ education standards Set by geographical assignment zone. Neighborhood school Publicly funded and publicly run Could the presence of peer effects play a role in the effects of school choice that we discussed in class? Peer effects: _____________________________________________________________________ These spillovers have an influence on academic and disciplinary standards in the classroom. Evidence of the effects of peer effects: The _________ makeup in a classroom can influence overall student learning. Both boys and girls tend to perform better in reading when they are in classes with larger shares of _______, according to Hoxby's article. Evidence on the effects of a particular type of school choice In Chingos and Peterson's article, The Impact of School Vouchers on College Enrollment, ( the main article in my policy analysis), they analyze the effects of a __________ ____________ program on college enrollment for low-income, African-American students, and found that the offer of a voucher____________ the chances these students would attend a four-year college. Vouchers- public education funds provided directly to private school Challenges geographic ___________ and inequality of school quality Could the presence of peer effects play a role in the effects of school choice that we discussed in class? Yes, the presence of peer effects could play a role in the effects of school choice we discussed in class. If all students could freely choose where to go to school, then the quality of the prestigious schools could ____________, because of the negative externalities associated with peer effects. That being said, the lower achieving students would be experiencing _____________ externalities from the more experienced students around them. Children awarded whose parents are more actively involved School choice → more homogenous (race and income) Parents more likely to choose school where the other students _______ like their child

public dollars, traditional, competition, Charter, run, Magnet, publicly, outside, districts, state, the positive or negative externalities that a student's peers may inflict on the student, gender, girls, tuition voucher, increased, segregation, decrease, positive, look

11. Autor (2014) proposes that the U.S. labor market is changing in fundamental ways due to automation; in particular, he references Polanyi's Paradox to explain why some jobs are being replaced by automation and some are not. What is "Polanyi's Paradox," and how does it relate to jobs and automation? What characteristics of jobs are unlikely to be replaced by automation, according to Autor (2014)? What skills does Autor (2014) propose are going to be increasingly valued with more automation? Using what you know about teacher quality from Goldhaber (2002) and Corcoran, Evans, & Schwab (2004), what skills do effective teachers have? How would changing value placed on the skills mentioned by Autor impact the supply of effective teachers, assuming that teacher pay continues to keep up with inflation but does not alter its trajectory like pay in other occupations? Be sure to reference supply and demand in your answer. "Polanyi's Paradox" We know more than we can _____ We have knowledge we can't explicitly say we have The theory that human knowledge of how the world works and capability are, to a large extent, beyond our explicit ______________. The challenges to substituting machines for workers in tasks requiring _____________, common ________, and ________________ remain immense. The skills that will be more valued with more automation will be abstract skills: skills like ___________, judgment and common sense. Its relation to jobs and automation: Relates to the substitution of computers for labor Related to automation because in order to automate a task we must be able to give instructions (to "tell") Automated jobs are ________________ - labor market polarization Jobs- physical/mental and __________/non-__________ High growth of _______ education/wage jobs and _______ education/wage jobs Middle section disappearing, what's left: Non-routine, mental (High skill/high wage) Non-routine, physical Recent advances in AI and robotics shape our thinking about the likely trajectory of occupational change and employment growth Characteristics of jobs unlikely to be replaced by automation: _______-___________ Skills that are going to be increasingly valued with more automation: Tasks requiring flexibility, judgement and common sense Skills that effective teachers have: ________ ability, pedagogy (the ability to teach), and experience teaching (in the beginning years), selectivity of attended university How would changing value placed on the skills mentioned by Autor impact the supply of effective teachers, assuming that teacher pay continues to keep up with inflation but does not alter its trajectory like pay in other occupations? Increased __________ for teachers (since it is an abstract profession and women have more economic opportunities now) leads to a shortage in supply due to _____________ wages spots filled by lesser qualified teachers

tell, understanding, adaptability, sense, creativity, flexibility, disappearing, routine, routine, high, low, non-routine, verbal, demand, inflexible

14. What are three issues with the supply of effective teachers as outlined by Murnane and Steele (2007)? When schools do not have effective teachers, what are two strategies they use to fill that position when an effective teacher is unavailable? Do all schools have an equal likelihood of having effective teachers filling all their vacancies, or are some school types more likely than others to have this issue? How could this be related to the black-white test score gap documented by Fryer and LEvitt (2004) and its hypothesized cause? The supply of effective teachers depends on ______, _________ _______________, and that of __________ job offers. Three issues with the supply of effective teachers are: (1) teacher salaries adjust slowly to changes in _______________ _________, and these salaries are negotiated for a _________ time and difficult to adjust. (2) It can take a while for adults to obtain the qualifying ______________ in order to be able to teach (3) The supply of effective teachers is __________ distributed in the advantaged schools and the disadvantaged schools are left with ____________ teachers. When effective teachers are not available the school generally fills that ____________ by putting in an ______________ teacher, either someone who is teaching a subject which they are not qualified for or someone who doesn't have the required ______________. Disadvantaged schools are more likely to have a shortage of effective teachers because they have worse teaching conditions and often cannot ___________ the compensating wage differential. (can't afford to pay teachers more) This relates to the black-white test score gap documented by Fryer and Levitt (2004) because black children tend to grow up in environments that are less conducive to high achievement. Children of color also have a higher likelihood of attending a ___________ ________________ which would have a higher teacher ____________ and higher levels of ____________ students which could lead to the test score gap. These schools are less likely to attract effective teachers, so these students are likely to be stuck with under-qualified teachers.

wage, working conditions, competing, equilibrium wage, long, credentials, unevenly, ineffective, shortage, unqualified, certification, afford, disadvantage school, turnover, disruptive,

6 What is the cardinal rule of accountability as defined by Harris (2010)? If school performance is measured in levels, is this "rule" violated? Why? If school performance is measured in growth, is this "rule" violated? Why? Will the same schools necessarily have high performance if performance is measured in levels and measured in growth? Which schools are likely to have negative ratings when school performance is measured in levels rather than growth? "Cardinal Rule of Accountability:" Only hold people/institutions accountable for ______ _______ _____ ____________ _______, if school performance is measured in levels this rule ___ violated- __________ analysis (such as race and income) disadvantages integrated schools. Young children's literacy scores show a snapshot that reflects their home environment and early childhood experiences, not the _________ of the school they are now in. ___, if school performance is measured in growth this rule __ ____ violated. _________-_________ measurements try to answer how much of an effect the school/teacher/curriculum had in the past _____. These measurements are useful for __________ out-of-school influences from school influences or teacher performance. Will the same schools necessarily have high performance if performance is measured in levels and measured in growth? ___. Schools that have high performance measures if measured in levels likely have a lot of ________, funding, and less minority students. However, they may also have the advantage in value-added measurements, because of the resources at their disposal, the higher ____________ of teachers, and the base of knowledge students have: it is easier for these schools to grow. That being said, value-added measurements are more fair to low-income schools, because these schools have the chance to show the positive impact they can have on their students, over the course of a year. Which schools are likely to have negative ratings when school performance is measured in levels rather than growth? Schools with _____ ___ ____________ _________, few ___________ and low funding are likely to have negative ratings when school performance is measured in levels rather than growth.

what they can control, Yes, is, Subgroup, quality, no, is not, value-added, year, sorting, no, resources, quality, lots of minority resources