Ed Psych Unit 2

semiotic domain

"an area or set of activities where people think, act, and value in certain ways" Refers to the way people interact in the space so as to create meaning that might be unique to (or descriptive of) the space and to the people using it. Language, gestures, movements, graphs, diagrams, equations, objects, other humans ex. Image of a cross, adapted to mean diff things for diff context/ culture of the space using it.

Retrieval

the process by which people find info they've previously stored. Easier and fast when related pieces of info are stored in close assoc to one another, b/c then we know where to look to find an item. Often one needs to look in various "locations" in long term memory, searching only one location at a time, info that's been stored in a good place will be found easily, info stored w/o thought or learned in a rote fashion will req more searching. May be a process of spreading activation. Often a constructive process, may be inaccurate, when memory is incomplete we can fill in details based on what makes sense.

Chunking

the process of comboing pieces of info, which can slightly increase the amnt of into that working memory's capacity can hold.

Storage

the process of putting new info into memory.

maintenance rehersal

the process of repeating info to keep it alive in working memory, often takes the form of subvocal speech. Means for saving info from the forgetting processes of decay and interference, otherwise info quickly disappears. Upper limit of amnt of info that reflects how much can be repeated before some of it starts to fade. More freq in adults/ children than younger children. Info will disappear once repetition stops, should be stored in long term memory.

Note taking

(pos r w/ learning) funcs: keeps attention, facilitates encoding (verbally and visually), and form of external concrete storage for LTM. Best when comprehensive, including main ideas, supporting details and personal elaborations and when consistent w/ teacher's instructional goals. Can be facilitated by writing down and repeating main ideas, providing general organizational framework for students to think of material like desired. Requires students to discriminate btw important and trivial info, which can be aided w/ signals, important to ID these signals. Summarizing makes learning more efficient. When writing a summary ID: topic sent for ea paragraph, super ordinate concepts that have several more specific points, supporting info for ea main idea and then delete trivial and redundant info.

controlled processing

1 general type of info processing, reqs much of a person's atten and is likely to use most or all of one's working memory capacity.

automaticity

1 type of general info process that occurs w/ little or no conscious atten or effort and reqs little working memory capacity. "thoughtless" almost. Multi-subtasks must not overwhelm working memory, so many become automatic (in reading in order to understand info, work recog becomes automatic). Declarative/ procedural knowledge only becomes automatic w/ practice. metacognitive strategies that are commonly used can also be employed automatically and w/o intention.

Gestalt psychology

1. Perception is often different from reality. - Ex: Phi Phenomenon 2.The whole is more than the sum of its parts.- Ex: Transposition experiment with chickens 3.We impose structure on our environment and organize our experiences in predictable ways.

Active learning

1. We learn to Experience the world in new ways 2. Since semiotic domains are usually shared by groups of people with distinctive social practices, we gain the potential to Affiliate with this social group. 3. We gain resources that Prepare us for future learning & problem solving in the domain and related domains

development of epistemic beliefs

3 yr old: realist: knowledge is the same as what people say or do. 4 yr old: absolutist- knowledge isn't nec the same as people's thoughts or assertions, but it's certain and definite, and things are either absolutely right or absolutely wrong. By adol at the earliest: Multiplist: in which some knowledge is uncertain, w/ people's varying opinions all equally legit. May or may not eventually acquire evalutaivist view: people's ideas and opinions have more or less merit depending on whether evidence or logic supports them.

embodied cognition

Comprises a group of theories. Rejects dualism. The brain is not disembodied, rather our brains affect and are affected by our bodies. Believes that cog processes are deeply rooted in our bodies interaction w/ the enviro. The way we think is shaped by the way we exist in the world. Demoed in body, gestures, and lang.

retrieval cues

External information that helps bring stored information to mind, hints that may trigger the activation of certain parts of long term memory.

Zimmerman's model

Forethought phase: task analysis: goal setting, strategic planning. Self motivation beliefs: self efficacy, outcome expectations, intrinsic interest/ value, learning goal orientation. Performance phase: Self-control: imagery, self instruction, attention focusing, task strategies. Self observation: self-recording/ experimentation. Self reflection phase: self judgement: self evaluation, casual attribution. Self reaction: self satisfaction/ affect, adaptive/ defensive.

Dual store model of memory

Input into sensory registry, attention causes conversion to working or short term memory, which through in-depth processing can cause the information to go into long term memory through encoding to be retrieved later, or is lost. Info can also go from LTM to WM. All managed by the central executive. More metaphorical than true to neurology. Memory = ability to recall previously acquired information (≠ learning, which is the acquisition of new information or skills)

figure ground

Gessalt psych. When people are focusing on the details of one obj, they cannot also inspect other things in their line of sight, things that become the background for the object. People may notice a few salient characteristics of background items ex color, but gain lil other info about them. From this perspective, the only way to gain detailed info about 2+ items is to shift focus from one item to another. ex. Peter paul goblet.

law of closure

Gestalt Principle. When a space is enclosed by a contour, it tends to be perceived as a complete figure.

Law of proximity

Gestalt psych. elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit ex. ONEVERYHIGHWAY

law of similarity

Gestalt psych. objects that are similar tend to be grouped together

false memories

Inaccurate memory created by the power of imagination or suggestion. Children esp vulnerable b/c have hard time distinguishing fantasy from reality. Common when certain stim or events might have logically or reasonably been experienced. (recalling close associates of words on a list)

effortful control

Individual differences in how people inhibit impulsive behaviors. But also effects central executive and affect learners ability to resist distraction and keep their atten on what they are supposed to be doing. Predicts hi achievers.

isolation effect

Items that are distinctive w/in grouping are better remembered ex. artichoke.

procedural knowledge

Knowledge concerning how to do something (e.g., a skill). Includes conditional knowledge- knowing when (if... then knowledge) Often learned as behaviors, spec actions that w/ more practice are gradually stored and refined. But some procedures, esp those w/ a mental component may be learned as declarative knowledge or as info about how to do something, slower until become a procedure rather than info on how to guide a procedure. May be an evolution or may be a diff of explicit (declarative) vs implicit. Can still use imagery, verbal rehearsal, demos to learn like declarative knowledge. Always has mental and physical components.

metacognitve knowledge

Knowledge of our cognitive processes and how to regulate those processes in order for learning to take place Person Knowledge (understanding your own capabilities- strengths, weaknesses, personal accommodations) Task Knowledge (how we perceive the task. Difficulty- content, length, type of assignment. Relevance- what am I doing this? what is my goal?. Changes as we age) Strategy Knowledge (awareness of the strategies that we can use to improve out learning as well as when and why to apply them- diff than just knowing the strategy, it's using it.)

metcognitive knowledge 2

Knowledge of our cognitive processes and how to regulate those processes in order for learning to take place. Three types: Declarative Knowledge (fact that one is aware they possess. Issues: may be incorrect, doesn't say much about learning, and poorly predicts learning outcomes) Procedural Knowledge (being aware of process or actions for addressing a task issues: procedures may become automatic and then implicit, so then metacognition is low) Conditional Knowledge (knowing how to use declarative and procedural knowledge, being aware of when to apply knowledge esp in unfamilar or complex situations. Issue: requires a lot of awareness about context and ability to transfer knowledge)

Declarative knowledge

Knowledge related to "what is"—that is, to the nature of how things are, were, or will be. Most info in long term memory. Knowing that, includes episodic knowledge (personal life experiences) and semantic knowledge (general knowledge of the world)

Language

Lakoff and Johnson: Metaphors are found in everday life, perception and action. Our conceptual system is metaphorical in nature and this evidences that. Often spatial metaphors (happy/ life/ consciousness/ control/ more as up, and sadness/ death/ unconsciousness/ being controlled/ less as down) Many metaphors are based on how are bodies are oriented in our world (change culture to culture) and this is evidence of how we think about things (concepts perceived spatially- embodied cognition)

Ebbinghaus's learning curve

Learning: slow beginning, steep acceleration, then plateau. Forgetting: steep decline then plateau. Forget much more quickly, forget faster if info harder, less meaningful. Infl by how info is learned/ presented and by sleep, stress and drinking. Individual differences in rate. More remembered at depth than breath.

Forgetting

Loss of information from memory or the inability to access information. Failure to store or consolidate information or Failure to retrieve information

verbal mediation

Mnemonic device in which two words or ideas are associated by a word or phrase that connects them. ex. The principal is my pal.

proactive interference

New information is lost because it is mixed up with previously learned information. Old learning interferes w/ new learning (ex. French pronunciations made my Spanish awful)

retroactive interference

Previously learned information is lost because it is mixed up with new information. New learning interferes w/ old learning. ex. Hard to recall previous addresses for applications. More like replacement.

associative memory

Recalling another word of a set that wasn't presented, b/c belongs w/in the grouping.

elaborative rehearsal

Rehearsal that helps learners make associations between the new information and things they already know

meaningful learning

Relating new information to knowledge already stored in LTM. Book differentiates between this and elaboration; for our purposes, they are synonymous. Elaboration as learning between the lines, can lead to incorrect elaborated understandings. Facilitates both storage and retrieval. Self-reference effect is particularly helpful. Examples of elaboration: Mnemonic devices, Anecdotes, Examples, Descriptions. In order to relate new info to old, people must be aware of connections (meaning both being in working memory at the same time). Also amnt of prior knowledge to relate new info to infl long term storage.

Authentic activies

Situations that mirror meaningful contexts. They use real practices and strategies you would encounter. They develop the most relevant skills for learning But it's difficult to apply abstract knowledge in context (ex. learning a language in school vs. being immersed in that culture)

visuospatial sketchpad

Some believe working memory includes this storage mech that specializes in diff sensory modalities. This allows manipulation and short term retention of visual material.

phonological loop

Some believe working memory includes this storage mech that specializes in diff sensory modalities. This an keep a small amnt of aufitory info fresh thro constant repetition.

episodic buffer

Some believe working memory includes this storage mech that specializes in diff sensory modalities. This is a place where info from multiple input modalities and also from long term memory can interact and be integrated into an overall understanding of a spec situation or episode.

Stroop test

Standard measure of effortful control over responses, requiring participants to identify to color of a word (which may name a different color). Proved that items w/ congruent color and name were processed faster than those incongruent.

enculturation

The adoption of the behaviors and belief systems of new social groups

fan effect

The finding that memory retrieval is more difficult the greater the number of items associated with the concept, involves searching among associations to determine the newness or oldness of the association to find the correct one.

word length effect

The notion that it is more difficult to remember a list of long words than a list of short words, This reflects how much can be repeated before some info in working memory starts to fade.

Perception

The process of assigning meaning to stimuli; we match input to known information. Top down vs. bottom up.

multitasking

The research is almost unanimous, it says that people who chronically multitask show an enormous range of deficits. They're basically terrible at all sorts of cognitive tasks, including multitasking. People who multitask all the time can't filter out irrelevancy. They can't manage a working memory. They're chronically distracted.They initiate much larger parts of their brain that are irrelevant to the task at hand. -Can decrease test scores and problem-solving ability- Decrease productivity -Increase time it takes to complete a task -Affects attention and focus- Can be kept in check by using central executive to control attention and self-regulate our efforts

Serial position curve

When Recalling items from a list: Primacy Effect: Good recall for initial items. Recency Effect: Good recall for last items. Middle items not recalled well

internal organization

When pieces of new information are interconnected in some way -Most effective when learner- generated (not teacher-generated) - People have a natural tendency to do this, typically based on organizational schemes they've acquired. Examples of internal organization: Hierarchies, Graphic Organizers (Charts, Tables, Graphs), Chunking into meaningful pieces

Automaticity

When responses are produced without conscious thought. Beneficial because it frees up space in WM for other cognitive activities.

Legitimate Peripheral Participation (LPP)

Within a CoP, newcomers first engage in low-risk, but productive, activities (i.e., on the periphery). Over time, they build familiarity with the language, principles, and culture of a community . Eventually, they can take on progressively more important/central tasks. Newcomers become Oldtimers This is learning from a Situated Cognition perspective.

interference

a conception of forgetting where a person mixes up numerous responses

craft apprenticeship

involves demonstrating and modeling skills and behaviors

apprenticeships

a form of training in which an expert teaches a skill to a novice through demonstration and practice. It is: domain specific, cognitive, formal and informal learning enviro, social and group based. Situated cognition emphasizes a cognitive aspect which involve explicit explanations about how to do and think like an expert in that domain. Which allows novice to acquire cog tools w/in an authentic activity and collaborate and construct knowledge socially.

information processing theories

a group of cognitive theories that focuses on how people process stimuli in our environment. Learning as the acquisition of mental representations.

communities of practice

a group of individuals that share a concern or a passion for something they do and strive to improve as they interact over time. Learning occurs during interactions between members with different levels of expertise (Oldtimers and Newcomers) Within this people will have different specializations and social relationships (dynamic). But they always share a focus and engage in activities together. 3 key characteristics: 1. shared domain of interest 2. focus on community rs for learning (sharing info, helping newcomers) 3. shared practice develops over time thro social negotiation (shared resources / experiences).

intentional learning

a learner is actively and consciously engaged in cognitive and metacognitive activities directed specifically at thinking about and learning something. Required for truly effective learning. Have particular learning goals and use self-regulatory strats to reach them. Involves automatic and controlled processes, esp important when a learner is undergoing conceptual change. Must believe that knowledge about topics conts to evolve and improve and that learning something well takes time, effort and perseverance.

retrieval induced forgetting

a process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items, b/c related memories are inhibited.

verbalization

a process that facilitates long term memory storage, talking or writing about an experience that has prev experienced or is happening (I wish I kept a travel journal in NZ)

Role of body

according to research in embodied cognition: - bodies lean backward when talking about the past/ forward for future - Holding a warm cup of coffee rate others as more warm/ cold rate colder - Thinking of approval rate room warmer/ of rejection, colder - Think heavier books as more important/ heavier currency as more valuable - Power poses and impressions of power/ competence

repression

an experience that's so painful or emo distressing that they tend not be remembered at all or only in isolated fragments. Painful info can evoke enough tension/anx that the ind steers clear of it when searching long term memory. Info hasn't disappeared just isn't consciously retrieved. A form of inhibition.

bottom up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information. Perceiving the stimulus as it.

Representations

are an abstraction of a real thing or event. They are one type of cog artifact. They have diff affordances and constraints as a result of design decisions. Strong ones can facilitate understanding and poor ones can hinder understanding. ex. Pill matrix vs. list. Good ones: 1. turn a problem into an experiential task (using perception) rather than a reflective one (having to do additional processing) 2. Capture only essential elements of the event or thing. Leaves out unimportant, unnecessary information. 3. Address the needs of the person using the representation. Easy to interpret. 4.Are appropriate for the task at hand. Help people make judgments, as well as find important patterns and structures.

selection

central executive choosing the information to attend to and subsequently encode into LTM

theory

children develop this about human beings' internal, psychological worlds. Includes increasingly complex understandings of their own and others' mental states, including people's thoughts, beliefs, feelings, motives and intentions.

Control processes

cognitive processes that directly affect memory's functioning that are involved along the way.

working memory

component of memory in which active thinking occurs, the awareness or consciousness of the memory system. It IDS info in the sensory register that warrants atten, saves the info for a longer period of time and processes it further, it may also hold and process info that it retrieves from long term memory, info that will help in interpreting newly received enviro input. Has the subcomponent of central executive. Limited capacity 7 plus or minus 2. Although number of units can't be changed, amnt of into in ea unit can thro chunking. A good deal of info stored here is encoded in auditory form esp when info is lang based. Some suggest 2+ distinct storage mechs (phonological loop, episodic buffer and visuospatial sketchpad) that specialize in diff sensory modalities, which would stretch this capacity. Duration is less than 30 s. Responsible for many processes imp for learning, thinking and beh. Resp for directing atten, drawing inferences, making decisions, solving probs and inhibiting irrelevant thoughts.

flashbulb memories

detailed memory for events surrounding a dramatic/ emotional event that is vivid and remembered with confidence. Can still be inaccurate.

enactment

engaging in an overt psychomotor behavior (doing something) that in some way reflects what's being learned. Often promotes long term memory storage ex. Experiments in school. Feedback is helpful as a source of info that helps learners improve performance. If poss feedback should be immediate so students can store it in working memory w/ recollection of what they've just done to more easily integrate the two.

gestures

evidence of embodied cognition. Hands aren't simply a communicative tool. But help us think and shape our cognition. An important cognitive tool. Used to represent info and what is going on within one's head. Piaget experiment showed that children who mixmatch gestures and words were more ready to learn conservation. Importance of this to help link representation. More than just visualization, helps augment thinking.

Cocktail party phenomenon

focus of attention on selected aspects of the environment and block out the rest. Proven in shadowing experiments, where one is "listening" to 2 convos, repeating one of the messages is easy when speakers have diff tones, are speaking about diff things or speaking from diff directions, hard sometimes imposs if similar. People who shadow one message notice very lil of the other message, often nothing. Often notice esp meaningful words, such as there own name.

Law of pragnanz

gestalt principles governed by this, perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible

Affinity spaces

groups of people associated w/ a particular semiotic domain (area of interest), share ways of thinking, acting interacting, valuing and believing. May not see ea other face to face but can recog others affiliated in that space. Not about people belonging to a community, more about the spaces where people w/ a common endeavor interact. 3 feats: Content (what the space is about) generators (what/ who creates the content) Interaction/portal (what users do w/ the content and how they connect w/ ea other around the content. Traits:1. A common endeavor is primary. 2. Participation is self-directed, multifaceted, and dynamic. 3. Portals are often multimodal. 4. Affinity spaces provide a passionate, public audience for content. 5. Socializing plays an important role in affinity space participation. 6. Leadership roles vary within and among portals. 7.Knowledge is distributed across the entire affinity space. 8. Many portals place a high value on cataloging content and documenting practices. 9. Affinity spaces encompass a variety of media specific and social networking portals.

portal

how you get into/ out of an affinity space. ex. price for admission, secret FB page, passwords, doors to access the gallery, etc.

prior misconceptions

if people think that new info is clearly wrong w/in the context of what they belief about the world they may ignore the info all together or they may distort the info to be consistent w/ their knowledge and may learn diff than what it actually is. Affects elaboration b/c can't relate new info to inaccurate prev knowledge.

distributed knowlege

in any large social or cultural group diff people gain expertise on diff topics, thereby spreading the group's collective knowledge base.

Naturalness principle

increase the mapping btw a real thing and its representation by resembling properties of the object. ex. if making a map, make the symbols look as much like the real thing as poss. Thinking isk aided (cog artifact) if representation naturally captures the property of the object being represented.

decay

info may gradually fade away if it is rarely or never used. Typically the details of an event fade more quickly than its underlying meaning or gist, unless certain details are surprising or personally significant.

top down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. Applying prior knowledge to interpret the stimuli

learning strategy

intentional use of one or more cog process to accomplish a particular learning task. Includes: meaningful learning (relating new knowledge w/ previous), organization (diagrams, outlines, concept maps- help see relationships and encode visually) and elaboration. Note taking, summary making, comprehension monitoring, mnemonics, verbal mediation, self questioning, visual imagery. Can be overt, or covert, meaning we cannot see it, ultimately the covert strats, or how info is cognitively processed determines how effectively it is learned and remembered.

cognitive apprenticeship

involves modeling cognition, in addition to skills -Showing not only what experts "do" but how they "think" about a task- Teaching novices how to think like an expert. Typical feats" modeling, coaching, scaffolding, articulation, reflection, increasingly complex/ diverse tasks, exploration.

Information processing theory

is a group of cognitive theories -Focuses on how people process the information they obtain from the environment -Early views modeled brains after computers -Knowledge is organized and interrelated. Assumptions: -Uniquely human learning processes Learning = acquisition of mental representations - Formation of mental representations or associations -Associations are formed between pieces of knowledge in the brain to facilitate acquisition and storage in memory -Learners actively participate and control learning -Observable behaviors allow for inferences about unobservable mental processes -Reaction time as a measure -Processing happens in stages, and it happens between the stimulus and the response -Information processing is involved in ALL cognitive activities -Storage, encoding, revival

visual imagery

is a mental picture that captures how something actually looked or might look and relies on some of the same processes and regions that enable visual perception. Usually remembered well and enduring. Better remembered than verbal material, and info better remembered if in both verbal and visual form. Learners differ considerably in their use of this. Images tend to be imprecise representations, also can be distorted. Constructed by combining new input w/ prev info to create understanding, often created based on how obj typically appear.

distributed cognition

is a theory of learning in which cognition is distributed across people, tools, time, and space. Emerged from a constructivist view that learning happens socially, rejects isolationist view of intelligence, instead intell is manifested in activity. From this viewpoint, cognition and intelligence occur "beyond the confines of the head" can think and learn more effectively when they offload some of the cognitive load onto something or someone else. Ex. writing down info you need to remember, using a calculator, sharing info w/ other people, drawing on multiple people's knowledge. knowledge is distributed across objects, individuals, artifacts, and tools. examples: - externalizing into lists/ notes to reduce cog load. -modifying existing reps, crossing off, underlining. - externally manipulating items into different structures to make easier certain purposes.

appropriation

key concept is situated cognition. Learning happens through adopting the behaviors and beliefs of social groups. This can happen consciously or unconsciously.

conceptual knowledge

knowing why, combines declarative and procedural knowledge.

situated cognition

knowledge is situated within authentic activity, context, and culture. Learning takes place and needs to be understood w/in a context, learning is participation and happens thro adoption of the beh and belief systems of social groups. And Learning is a tangible skill set not all inside one's head. Assumptions: Cognition originates (AND learning) from internalizing external interactions (sim to Vygotski) and Learning cannot be considered separately from prior experiences.

implicit knowledge

knowledge that effects ones behavior even tho can't consciously retrieve or inspect it.

explicit knowledge

knowledge that is easily communicated and available to everyone, such that easily recalled.

generation effect

learners elaborating on and intergrating new info to the point that on their own they construct an entirely new idea, concept, procedure or line of reasoning, often leads to better memory than if given in a prepackaged format.

self explanation

learners talk to themselves in an attempt to understand difficult subject matter. ex. Paraphrasing textbooks. More likely then to elaborate on and understand/ remember the content.

rote learning

learning information via maintenance rehearsal, doesn't help info enter LTM, susceptible to decay if not being rehearsed. Emphasizes the verbatim learning of info.

switch tasking

may appear like multitasking but actually shifting attention from one thing to another, losing processing time and atten w/ shifts.

Cognitive artifacts

mediate thinking. They contain the intelligence of their designers within them. They can augment intelligence, but they can also shape and constrain thinking, so there are trade-offs. How things are designed and represented matters for thinking and learning Representations need to be tailored to: Purpose, Person and Task. Human-made devices constructed to enhance cognition. They allow us to engage in "higher-order" thinking.

mnemonics

memory tricks, devices that facilitate learning and memory of hard to remember material (that which doesn't hang together in a logical way to elaborate on, ie foreign lang). General types: verbal mediation, visual imagery (method of loci, pegword method, keyword method) and superimposed meaningful structure. Helpful learning aids, b/c lie in conformity w/ principles of storage and retrieval. 1. They impose a structure or organization on the material to be learned 2. They help learners relate new material to info already stored in LTM ad 3. they provide retrieval cues to help learners find info at a later date.

pegword method

mnemonic device for effectively learning a list of items and their relative positions, consists of using a well known or easily learned list of items that then serves as a series of pegs on which the other list is hung thro visual imagery. ex. One is bun, two is shoe, three is tree... then form an image of bun and algae together, etc.

superimposed meaningful structure

mnemonic device where the learner imposes a structure on the body of info to be learned. This structure can be a sentence, story, rhythm, acronym or anything else the learner can easily remember. ex. ROY G BIV, HOMES, the alphabet song, every good boy does fine, a boot as shape of Italy, I before e except after C, FOIL, righty loosey lefty tighty, 30 days has September.

method of loci

mnemonic device. The process of remembering several pieces of information by mentally associating an image of each with a different location.

keyword method

mnemonic device. technique that combos verbal mediation and visual imagery, involves IDing an English word or phrase that sounds similar to the foreign word and then forming a visual image of the english sound alke word with the English meaning. Helps to remember a wide variety of paired associations.

Attention

necessary to move information from the sensory registry to working memory. Factors that infl this and then what gets put into working memory: motion, size (drawn to larger), intensity, novelty, incongruity (obj that don't make sense w/in a context) social cues, emotional associations, personal significance. Limited capacity, can't attend to everything in the sensory register, and cannot attend to 2 complex things at once, often block out others, therefore people must be selective about the info they chose to process, and they must ignore or lose much of the info they receive.

expectations

often our beliefs about what should have been there influences ones' perception (jingle bells in the book). Beliefs about how the world typically operates effects how we encode and store new info in long term memory. Often aids learning and processing if one have a good idea about the info they are going to receive but often impedes it (in reading often don't read all words but rely on context, allows for faster reading) Ambiguous stimuli is esp vulnerable to being perceived according to these. Many human social beh are ambiguous. People often interpret another's behaviors in accordance w/ their beliefs about that individual.

perception

our interpretation of the enviro, constructed. Usually less and more that the sensations we receive. Less b/c we can't interpret all the info that our sensory receptors receive and more. More b/c we put the info we receive together to interpret the world.

halo effect

people expect and so "see" desirable behaviors from someone they like or admire based off ambiguous human social behavior (Sarah)

horns effect

people expect and so "see" inappropriate behaviors from someone they dislike based off ambiguous human social behavior (Jordan)

misinformation effect

people's memory for an event may become distorted when they subsequently receive inaccurate info about an event, when new misleading info is integrated w/ their original knowledge in order to reconstruct what "must" have happened.

metacognition

peoples awareness and understandings of their own thinking and learning process as well as their regulation of those processes to enhance their learning and memory. The more sophisticated students are in this, the better their school learning and achievement is likely to be. closely related to the central executive, the manager or coach of a person's learning. Guides info processing and monitors effectiveness of learning strategies. Can be explicit or implicit.

epistemic beliefs

personal ideas about knowledge and learning. Often pulled together into cohesive, but not nec accurate, personal theories about human learning and cognition. Includes: the certanity of knowledge, the simplicity and structure of knowledge, the source, criteria for determining truth, the speed of learning, the nature of learning ability. Partially situation, domain or context specific (ex. knowledge in science is concrete, and more tentative in social sci) General develop as the learner grows, elementary aged children more likely to believe knowledge certain, then by MS/ HS realize that knowledge is subjective and diff perspectives can be equally valid. Also different culturally. These beliefs effect one's learning, more advanced beliefs lead to greater achievement (altho maybe reverse causality)

spreading activation

perspective of retrieval where the starting point in long term memory might be triggered by an idea or something in the enviro, then retrieval is the process of activation flowing thro connections w/in the network of stored info, b/c only a small part of the network can be activated at once, limited capacity, faster if similar concepts located close to another. Retrieve easier if used frequently (automatic) strengthening pathways.

encoding specificity

phenomenon of remembering something better when the conditions (and thought processes) under which we retrieve information are similar to the conditions under which we encoded it

Encoding

process where people modify info to store in memory, often helping them to store the info more easily. Sometimes involves changing the form of the info, or may also involve adding to new info using one's existing knowledge of the world, or by simplifying new info. For ex. by remembering the overall meaning or gist of a situation rather than the spec details.

emobdiment

processes in the human brain, including conscious thinking processes are intimately and inextricably intertwined w/ our immediate physical context and bodily reactions to it. For example, muscles used to threw a basketball are activated even if you're just thinking about it. People remember info better if they do something physical w/ it. Another manifestation is use of hand gestures when talking. all aspects of cognition are shaped by the body

affordances

refers to the perceived and actual properties of the thing, primarily those fundamental properties that determine just how the thing could possibly be used. Provide strong clues to the operations of things. Plates are for pushing. Knobs are for turning. Slots are for inserting things into. Balls are for throwing or bouncing. When taken advantage of, the user knows what to do just by looking: no picture, label, or instruction needed. Tools have these, clues about how to use them, which depend on current context/ goal, in this way objects carry intelligence in them.

self regulated learning

related to metacognition. Provide mechanisms thro which people begin to regulate their own leaning. Includes: goal setting, planning, self motivation (hi efficacy for learning, delay gratification, stay on task), attention control, use of effective goal relevant learning strategies, self monitoring, appropriate help seeking, self evaluation, self reflection. Leads to setting high goals, learning more effectively, and achieving at higher levels. Develops from oppotunities to engage in self directed learning and from exposure to models. And a transition from others regulating their learning to eventually regulating their own. Steps: Analyze, plan, implement, monitor, modify.

prospective memory

remembering to do something in the future, it's not a loss of info from long term memory but a failure to retrieve at the appropriate time (ex. packing your bag in the AM) can be solved thro an external retrieval cue (putting your paper on the counter) a physical reminder to the memory system.

context

situated learning term. Learning takes place and can only be understood within this, which provides structure and meaning. These matter, and vary for what we are learning/ performing.

Long term memory

req further processing of info stored in working memory, typically processing involves comboing new info w/ info already in long term memory. The control processes that enable storage in long term memory occur in working memory, but can only handle so much info at a time. Result is that long term storage occurs slowly and alot of info is lost in process. Working memory as a info bottle neck. Unlimited capacity, forms of storage is more flexible, encoded in a variety of ways. Can be stored as language, images, sensations, abstractions, etc. Knowledge tend to remember gist of situations of indiosyncratic interpretations, all info is interconnected to other pieces of knowledge. Not sure if info is stored here permanently but can't be retrieved (evidence by quick relearning) or if forgotten.

comprehension monitoring

students who learn more effectively tend to check themselves periodically to be sure they understand/ remember what they are reading or hearing. By asking qs or rereading. Better if evaluating specific things rather than making a global judgement. Often students don't do this and end up w/ an illusion of knowing, esp more likely if they have prior knowledge of the subject of if the material is esp difficult for them, leads to a halt in studying prematurely. A good strategy for this is self-questioning, drawing inferences and thinking of new examples. Should be done after time has elapsed to be accurate rather than immediately afterward.

Central executive

subcomponent of working memory, which controls and monitors the flow and use of info throughout the memory system, becomes increasingly effective and sophisticated over human dev. Considerable individual diff tho in how effectively they control what the attend to and how effectively and extensively they process it. Controls metacognition. Allocating attention (SR -> WM)-Maintenance Rehearsal (Keeping info in WM) Encoding (WM -> LTM) -Retrieval (LTM -> WM) -Organization (In WM, and during encoding into LTM)

Sensory register

the 1st component of the dual-store model, holds incoming info long enough for it to undergo very preliminary cog processing. Very large capacity, but very temporary. Info stored here is stored in the same form it was sensed. At this point the learner hasn't interpreted the info, holds info before any sig encoding appears. Only held for a brief time, but hard to measure how long (generally bel to be less than a sec, but up to 2 secs) Hard to measure duration b/c subconcious. Auditory info more likely to last longer, esp if louder, may be due to human's use of lang in processing. Why rapid disappearence? Interference may be involved, new info effectively replaces and erases the info there, yet even w/o new input exisiting info seems to fade or decay quickly. In any case, info not needed to be stored here for long, important info is processed sufficiently that it enters working memory. The role of atten is nec to move from this to working memory. Factors that infl attention and then what gets put into working memory: motion, size (drawn to larger), intensity, novelty, incongruity (obj that don't make sense w/in a context) social cues, emotional associations, personal significance.

Semiotics

the study of meaning-making, the philosophical theory of signs and symbols

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. Learning is sometimes slower when spaced out, but benefit in long term retention. Allows in later engagement in additional processing allowing for more elaboration, forming more and stronger associations w/ things in long term memory. And continued practice can promote automaticity.

limited processing capacity

to account for situations such as driving and having a convo, where the # of stimuli being attended to depends on how much cog processing is required for ea one. May do less on driving if became automatic. Occasionally people become good at splitting their atten btw 2 complex tasks w/ considerable practice, ideally making one or both automatic. In most circumstances tho, humans not good at multitasking.

Constraints

tools have these, characteristics that prevent them from using them in certain ways. When creating tools designers make choices that structure those tools in certain ways. Those choices may limit the way we think about tools, or the way we use them. Restricts kind of functions avail which can reduce user errors and focus their attention.

co regulate learning

transition from other regulated to self regulated learning. In which two or more people share responsibility for directing various aspects of the learning process. A form of scaffolding.

Perceptual principle

use special and perceptual representations so one can look at the representation and figure out relationships without needing to process as much. ex. Graph vs number table. Makes things detectable perceptually so its an experiential task rather than a reflective one.

Memory

used in two ways in information processing theories. 1. Used to refer to a process of saving info for a period of time, then almost the same as learning, but w/ greater emphasis on the ability to recall the info later on. 2. A specific part of the human memory system where acquired info is stored. ex. Working or long term. FOR CLASS: = ability to recall previously acquired information (≠ learning, which is the acquisition of new information or skills)

rehearsal

verbally repeating something over and over for a short period of time in order to maintain the info in working memory. Leads to rote learning, more common in children.

Facial feedback

when one forces a smile they actually feel happier. Proof of embodied cognition. Our minds shape our bodies and vice versa.

self reference effect

you will remember more information if you try to relate that information to yourself