EDUC 2110 Final

Special Education

" Such pioneers as Grace Fernald, Marianne Frostig, and Heinz Werner—to name but a few—conducted research, developed programs, and gave new impetus to the field of special education. "

Federal Role in Financing Schools

" categorical grants—funds directed at specific categories and targeted educational needs. Categorical grants have provided funding for preschool programs for poor children, library construction, acquisition of new technology, educational opportunities for veterans, the training of teachers and administrators, educational reform, lunches for low-income youth, and loans to college students. By targeting funds, federal aid, although limited, has had a significant impact in schools. The federal government also funds schools through block grants, large sums of money given directly to the states with few strings attached. Block grants reduce the obligations, rules, and even competition associated with seeking federal dollars. You can see that each type of grant has strengths and weaknesses. Categorical grants identify critical education areas for federal financial support. Block grants give the states the power to make their own spending decisions."

Expectation Theory

" some children do poorly because their teachers do not expect much of kids from certain racial and ethnic groups. As a result, they teach these students differently, and the students' academic performance suffers. This insight was first made popular by a classic study done by Rosenthal and Jacobson"

Multicultural Education

"(1) expanding the curriculum to reflect America's diversity; (2) using teaching strategies that are responsive to different learning styles; (3) supporting the multi-cultural competence of teachers "

IDEA

"1975 Congress passed the groundbreaking Education for all Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94-142), establishing the right of all students with disabilities to a "free and appropriate public education." Congress has reauthorized Public Law 94-142 five times, most recently in 2004. In the 1990s, the law was renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, more commonly known by its acronym, IDEA" 1. Zero Reject and Free and Appropriate Education 2.Parental Participation 3.Nondiscriminatory Education 4.Least Restrictive Environment 5.Procedural due process 6. Individualized Education Program

John Goodland

"A Place Called School" found four main purposes of school 1. Academic 2. Vocational 3. Social and Civic $. Personal

Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971)

"the Court established three criteria for using gov-ernment funds in religious schools. The so-called Lemon test says that the funds (1) must have a secular purpose, (2) must not primarily advance or prohibit religion, and (3) must not result in excessive government entanglement with religion"

Charter Schools

"A charter school is a tax-supported public school with legal permission (called a charter or a contract) to operate an "alternative" school. In effect, charter schools gain greater freedom to operate outside many normal public school regulations—but only for a fixed period. A local or state school board issues the charter (usually for five years) with the right to renew if the school is successful. Most charter schools are publicly funded and privately run, often by a for-profit corporation." " Children with severe disabilities seldom attend charters, and are far more expensive for "traditional" schools to educate effectively—forcing them to bear a disproportionate cost at the expense of their other students. Traditional schools must still pay fixed costs (maintenance, electricity, heat, bond service, administration) even as they lose funding when their students " corporate stakes

Vouchers

"An educational voucher functions as an admission ticket to any school. In a voucher system, the government gives parents a certain amount of money (variable by state) which parents can use to "shop" for the best public or private school. In effect, vouchers are public taxpayer money that parents use in any school they want. The chosen school gets paid by turning in the student's voucher to a local or state government, and the government pays the money the voucher is worth. In theory, good schools will attract many students, collect their vouchers, redeem them with the local government, and receive cash. The theory goes, good schools will thrive, and perhaps even expand. Meanwhile, weak schools will have difficulty attracting "customers" and eventually go out of business. Private good, Public Bad " vouchers appear to have little impact on student achievement while reducing funding to public schools"

Normal Schools

"As a result of his efforts, several normal schools were founded in Massachusetts, schools devoted to preparing teachers in pedagogy, the best ways to teach children. He opposed the routine practice of corporal punishment and sought ways to positively motivate students to learn. Mann emphasized practical subjects useful to children and to adult society, rather than the mastery of Greek and Latin. Mann saw education as a great investment, for individuals and for the country,"

Chief State School Officer

"Called superintendent, commissioner, secretary of education, or director of instruction, the chief state school officer is responsible for overseeing, regulating, and planning school activities, as well as implementing the policies of the board of education. The state superintendent is usually selected by the board of education but sometimes campaigns for the position in an election."

fixed vs growth mindset

"Carol Dweck describes it this way: A fixed mindset views intelligence as ability-focused, finite, and determined at birth. An individual's IQ measures intel-ligence, and it does not change. Growth mindset, on the other hand, suggests that rather than being fixed at birth, intelligence can be developed through life, if we exert effort. But here's the key: which view you hold about intelligence affects how you go about learning. "

Child Abuse Warning Signs

"Exhibit signs of injury , e.g. ,burns , blackeyes , welts , or bitemarks Wear long sleeves even in very warm weather• Not show emotion, e.g., joy, pain, or anger• Be apathetic toward school and friends• Be frequently absent or tardy• Be unusually eager to please• Demonstrate hostility or distress• Be dirty or unbathed• Show signs of alcohol and/or drug abuse• Show symptoms of an eating disorder • Exhibit signs of extreme hunger• Exhibit unusually sophisticated knowledge of sexual behavior" "Create stories or drawings of an unusually sexual nature• Have difficulty sitting or walking• Show signs of depression• Lack concentration• Fear adults"

Progressive Education Movement

"First, it broadens the school program to include health concerns, family and community life issues, and a concern for vocational education. Second, progressivism applies new research in psychology and the social sciences to classroom practices. Third, progressivism emphasizes a more democratic educational approach, accepting the interests and needs of an increasingly diverse student body.This model of education assumes that students learn best when their learning follows their interests. Progressivists believe that knowledge is not an inert body of facts to be committed to memory; rather, it consists of experiences that should be used to help solve present problems. Passively listening to the teacher, according to the progressive movement, is not the most effective learning strategy. Students' interests should serve as a springboard to understanding and mastering contemporary issues. The role of the teacher is to identify student needs and interests and provide an educational environment that builds on them. "

Concerns for adolescents: Bullying, drugs/alcohol, sex/sexuality

"For many high school students, peer relationships are central to school life. When asked to identify the one best thing about their high school, "my friends" usu-ally ranks at the top of the list. Sports activities rank second. "Nothing" ranks higher than "classes I'm taking" and "teachers." David Owen "He likened adolescents to adults visiting a foreign country and a dif-ferent culture. Experimenting with new behavior, they are terrified of being noticed doing something stupid" "Many adolescents spend their high school years in a seemingly endless contest for the best grades, highest test scores, and the most impressive collection of resume-building accolades, all the tools they need to pry open the doors to a top college. Despite their tremendous abilities and stellar performances, many of these students succumb to the pressure. They experience a sense of purposeless, emptiness, and fear that emerge as mental health problems.28 This stressful adolescent world is not sustainable.With the best of intentions, adults can undermine the normal process of youthful growth and idealism, eliminating exploration, engagement, risk-taking, and the freedom to experiment. Overprotective and over-involved parents, "

Public vs Private Interests

"transferring a public service, like education or prisons, to a private, for-profit business. Even within traditional neighborhood schools, businesses have a big stake in textbooks, transportation services, equipment like smart boards, security apparatus and personnel, tutoring services, standardized tests" corporations and wealthy people influence " More than $500 billion is spent every year on K-12 education in the United States. Overall, education accounts for nine percent of the gross domestic product. The growing number of charter schools under private management has contributed to substantial profits."

Common Schools

"Horace Mann became the nation's leading advocate for the establishment of a common school open to all. Today, we know this common school as the public elementary school. Historians consider Horace Mann to be the outstanding proponent of education for the common person (the Common School Movement), and he is often referred to as "the father of the public school." Mann helped create the Massachusetts State Board of Education and in 1837 became its secretary, a position similar to today's state superintendent of schools. In this role, Mann began an effort to reform education, believing that public education should serve both practical and idealistic goals. In practical terms, both business and industry would benefit from educated workers, resulting in a more productive economy. In idealistic terms, public schools should help us identify and nurture the talents in poor as well as wealthy children, and schools should ameliorate social disharmony.6"

IEP

"IDEA requires that a "free appropriate public education" be defined on an individual basis, using a written IEP. Each IEP must be reviewed and revised annu-ally, ensuring that the educational goals designed for a child align with his or her learning needs and that these plans are actually delivered. " Must include 1. a statement of the students current performance, including long terms goals and short term objectives 2. A description of the nature and duration of the instructional services designed to meet the prescribed goals. 3. "An overview of the methods of evaluation that will be used to monitor the child's progress and to determine whether the goals and objectives have been met."

Teacher Liability

"Misfeasance. Failure to conduct in an appropriate manner an act that might other-wise have been lawfully performed; for example, unintentionally using too much force in breaking up a fight• Nonfeasance. Failure to perform an act that one has a duty to perform; for example, the cafeteria situation is nonfeasance, since the teacher did not supervise an assigned area of responsibility.• Malfeasance. An act that cannot be done lawfully regardless of how it is performed; for example, starting a fistfight or bringing marijuana to school"

School Districts- Local School Boards and Superintendent

"Most local school districts mirror the state organization, with a local school board that is usually elected, a superintendent, and an office of education. Local school districts may be responsible for school construction, taxing, budgeting, the hiring of school personnel, curriculum decisions, and local school policy. Although school districts operate at the local level, their authority derives from the state, and they must operate within the rules and regulations specified by the state"

Hidden School Government

"Parents, vocal individuals, the school secretary, and community groups have covert power and can bring significant pressure to bear on which teachers stay in a school, and which leave" Custodian, Cafeteria

San Antonio v. Rodriguez (1973)

"Rodriguez went to court, claiming that the system violated the U.S. Constitution's guarantee for equal protection under the law." " the Supreme Court ruled against Rodriguez, deferring to the long history of local communities funding neighborhood schools. The Court declared that education was not a "fundamental right" under the U.S. Constitution and that preserving local control was a legitimate reason to use the property tax system. Although the Court recognized that educational funding through the property tax was a seriously flawed system, it was left up to the states to change it"

State Board of Education

"The state board of education is responsible for formulating educational policy. The members are usually appointed by the governor, but sometimes they are chosen in a statewide election."

Cultural Difference Theory

"asserts that academic problems can be over-come if educators study and mediate the cultural gap separating school and home. "

Existentialism

"asserts that the purpose of education is to help children find the meaning and direction in their lives, and it rejects the notion that adults should or could direct meaningful learning for children. Existentialists do not believe that "truth" is objective and applicable to all. Instead, each of us must look within ourselves to discover our own truth, our own purpose in life. Teaching students what adults believe they should learn is neither efficient nor effective; in fact, most of this "learning" will be forgotten. Instead, each student should decide what he or she needs to learn, and when to learn it." summerhill, sudbury valley, developing your meaning student centered

John Dewey

"considered by many to be the most influential educator of the twentieth century. " "The criticism of Dewey and progressive education came from individuals who felt that the school curriculum was not academically sound and undermined traditional American values."

Social Reconstructionism

"encourages schools, teachers, and students to focus their studies and energies on alleviating pervasive social inequities and, as the name implies, reconstruct society into a new and more just social order. Although social reconstructionists agree with progressivists that schools should concentrate on the needs of students, they split from progressivism in the 1920s after growing impatient with the slow pace of change in schools and in society" George Counts "outlined a more ambitious, and clearly more radical, approach to education. Counts's book, written in 1932, was no doubt influenced by the human cost of the Great Depression. He proposed that schools focus on reforming society, an idea that caught the imagination and sparked the ideals of educators both in this country and abroad." tear everything down and build it back up, pissed Paulo Freire student centered

Culturally Responsive Teaching/ Pedagogy

"focuses on the learning strengths of students and mediates the frequent mismatch between home and school cultures. Gloria Ladson- Billings""to teach in these more challenging schools and felt responsible for the academic success of each student. Second, they were sensitive to race discrimination in society; they actively fought bias and prejudice and wanted their students to do the same. " " finally, the teachers viewed both the home and school as connected and seized opportunities to learn from their neighborhoods.""Students must experience academic success, which leads to a stronger self- esteem. Esteem is built on solid academic accomplishment.""Students should develop and maintain cultural competence, and the student's home culture is an opportunity for learning. "" Students must develop critical consciousness and actively challenge social injustice."

Thomas Jefferson

"wanted to go beyond educating a small elite class or providing only religious in-struction. Jefferson maintained that education should be more widely available to white children from all economic and social classes. "

Perennialism

"is a cousin to essentialism. Both advocate teacher-centered classrooms. Both tolerate little flexibility in the curriculum. Both implement rigorous standards. Both aim to sharpen students' intellectual powers and enhance their moral qualities. ""Perennialists organize their schools around books, ideas, and concepts and criticize essentialists for the vast amount of factual information they require students to absorb in their push for "cultural literacy." Perennial means "everlasting"—a perennialist education focuses on enduring themes and questions that span the ages. Perennialists recommend that students learn directly from the Great Books—works by history's finest thinkers and writers, books as meaningful today as when they were first written.What You See and What You Get Perennialists believe that the goal of education should be to develop rational thought and to discipline minds to think rigorously. Perennialists see education as a sorting mechanism, a way to identify and prepare the intellectually gifted for leadership, while providing vocational training for the rest of society. They lament the change in universities over the centuries, from institutions where a few gifted students (and teachers) rigorously pursued truth for its own sake, to a glorified training ground for future careers" no tracking high standards, learning for the sake of learning, teacher oriented

James Banks 4 Levels of multicultural education

"multicultural education often begins with the contributions approach, in which the study of ethnic heroes" "In the additive approach, a unit or course is incorporated, often during a "special" week or month.""In the transformation approach, the entire Eurocentric nature of the curriculum is changed. Students are taught to view events and issues from diverse ethnic and cultural perspectives. "" The fourth level, social action, goes beyond the transformation approach. Students not only learn to view issues from multiple perspectives, but also become directly involved in solving related problems. At this level, a school would address social and economic needs here and abroad, advocate human rights and peace, and work to ensure that the school building and activities did not harm the environment."

Progressivism

"organizes schools around the concerns, curiosity, and real-world experiences of students. The progressive teacher facilitates learning by helping students formulate meaningful questions and devise strategies to answer those questions. Answers are not drawn from lists or even Great Books; they are discovered through real-world experience. Progressivism is the educational application of a philosophy called pragmatism" "the way to determine if an idea has merit is simple: Test it. If the idea works in the real world, then it has merit. Both pragmatism and progressivism originated in America, the home of a very practical and pragmatic people. John Dewey refined and applied pragmatism to education, establishing what became known as progressivism." cooperation, growth, eduactive experience student centered

Benjamin Franklin

"penned Proposals Relating to the Youth of Pennsylvania, suggesting a new kind of secondary school to replace the Latin grammar school—" "Two years later, the Franklin Academy was established, free of religious influence and offering a variety of practical subjects, including mathematics, astronomy, athletics, navigation, dramatics, and bookkeeping. Students were able to choose some of their courses, thus setting the precedent for elective courses and programs at the secondary level. The Franklin Academy accepted both girls and boys who could afford the tuition, and the practical curriculum became an attractive innovation. Franklin's Academy sparked the establishment of six thousand academies in the century that followed. The original Franklin Academy eventually became the University of Pennsylvania.5"

State Department of Education

"performs the administrative tasks needed to implement state policy. This includes licensing teachers, testing student progress, providing information and training to teachers, distributing state and federal funds, seeing that local school systems comply with state laws, and conducting educational research and development. The state superintendent usually manages state department of education activities"

Zelman v. Simmons-Harris (2002)

"publicly funded vouchers could be used to send children to Cleveland's private religious schools. The majority argued that government-funded vouchers were not public monies going to support religious schools. Rather, the court interpreted vouchers as public funds going to parents. It is the parents who decided to spend the money at a religious school, not the government."

Essentialism

"strives to teach students the accumulated knowledge of our civilization through core courses in the traditional academic disciplines. Essentialists aim to in-still students with the "essentials" of academic knowledge, patriotism, and character development. This traditional or back-to-basics approach is meant to train the mind, promote reasoning, and ensure a common culture among all Americans." What we experience, hierarchy, conform to compete in economy, dictatorship with a smile "factors such as the launching of Sputnik in 1957, the 1983 report A Nation at Risk, standardized testing mandated by No Child Left Behind, intense global economic competition, and increased immigration into the United States have all kept essentialism at center stage. Some educators refer to the present period as neo-essentialism because of the increased core graduation requirements, stronger standards, and more testing of both students and teachers." teacher-oriented

Teachers/ Teachers as Gate Keepers

"teachers must determine who will talk, when, and for how long, as well as the basic direction of the communication" ", classroom interactions do not teach students to become active, inquiring, self-reliant learners. Students are expected to be quiet and passive, to think quickly (and perhaps superficially), to rely on memory, and to be dependent on the teacher." " Many believe that it is easier for students with similar skills and intellectual abilities to learn together, in same-ability, homogeneous classes. Educators following this belief test and sort students according to their abilities and, as a result, send them down different school paths, profoundly shaping their futures. " "Ability grouping offers an alternative to tracking. Whereas tracking suggests permanence, ability grouping is more transitory."

A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform

"the 1983 report of the National Commission on Excellence in Education" "The report cited declining test scores, the weak performance of U.S. students compared with students in other indus-trialized nations, the fear that the United States is losing ground economically to other countries, and the high number of functionally illiterate Americans. A Nation at Risk put school reform in the national spotlight. In response to the report, states increased the number of course requirements needed for graduation and required more testing of both students and teachers."

School Boards

"whether at the state or local level, determine educational policy, and their members tend to be male (more than 60 percent), white (more than 85 per-cent), and not young " " in some states, school boards and chief state school officials are elected; in others, they are appointed. Even the name for the chief state school officer differs from place to place: superintendent, commissioner, or even secretary of education"

Hidden Curriculum

"—learning that is not always intended but emerges as students are shaped by the school culture, including the attitudes and behaviors of teachers. " Competition is taught in hidden curriculum

Who and what shape the curriculum?

-Teachers; formally and informally, textbooks, interpret. -Students;Protests, choosing research topics -State Government; state standard and tests, -Standardized Tests; AP exams, SAT, ACT scores determine what is focused on more -Publisher; what goes in a textbook, buying out teachers, meet market demands -Organizations; write journals and hold conferences developing curriculum -Parents/Community Groups;advocate, object -Local Government; make curriculum decisions -Federal Government; judicial decisions, funding incentives -Education Committees; Common Core -Administrators; set school priorities

Purposes of School

-learning skills and knowledge -socializing students -sorting people into various occupations -economic development of a society -may teach religion -teaches students discipline -helps prevent crime by keeping youths off the streets -helps accumulation of human capital -prepares workforce -Social change -childcare -ethical/personal development -social mobility

Cultural Pluralism

A condition in which many cultures coexist within a society and maintain their cultural differences.

EMOs

A for profit school management , Education Management Organization

Race

A group of human beings distinguished by physical traits, blood types, genetic code patterns or genetically inherited characteristics. A group of people from a common ancestor

Neoliberalism

A strategy for economic development that calls for free markets, balanced budgets, privatization, free trade, and minimal government intervention in the economy. fatalistic, school is to get a job and be an effective market resource, human capital

Deficit Theory

A theory that asserts that the values, language patterns, and behaviors that children from certain racial and ethnic groups bring to school put them at an educational disadvantage.

Explain the factors that lead to the Atlanta Public School Cheating Scandal.

Atlanta history, the child murders, crack epidemic, public housing crisis, REDDOG, the the accountability movement, the Huston miracle, Beverly Hall becoming superintendent, standardization.

Kalamazoo, Michigan, case

An 1874 U.S. Supreme Court decision that upheld the right of states to tax citizens to provide public secondary education. "The courts saw a lack of rationality in not providing a bridge between the two.The idea of public high school slowly took hold"

Local Funding

Bears the biggest burden, property tax, home value

What is the relationship between charter schools and public schools?

Charter schools dont have to follow the same standards and guidelines as public schools, funding come partially from public school funds and some private companies, less accountability measures in charter schools, unequal curriculum charter schools can lead to public schools closing.

ESSA

Every Student Succeeds Act Replaced NCLB. "While ESSA is less draconian and detailed than NCLB, it is still intended to identify schools in need of improvement. For example, ESSA makes "failing" schools subject to state takeover, without specifying what a takeover means." -"Less federal accountability of state performance: States have almost all the responsibility for school, student, and teacher accountability" -"Annual testing flexibility. ESSA initially required standardized reading and math tests in grades 3-8 and once in high school. However, it promises more flexibility than under NCLB." -"Eliminates Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP). NCLB's rigid and nationally mandated Aca-demic Yearly Progress system strove to reach 100 percent proficiency in math and reading. ESSA allows states to determine more their own scoring targets."

Null Curriculum

Everything that is not included in the explicit curriculum, and, thus, is not expected to be learned during a student's PK-12 education. "conscious attempt to ensure that students do not learn a compelling topic that adults do not want them to learn."

Gifted and Talented Learners

Gifted students have problems as well, feeling isolated, pressure, many drop out, are not always high achievers, AP, accelerated programs, IB.

Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)

Guaranteed a student's right to protest (wearing armbands).

Lau v. Nichols (1974)

If a substantial number of non-English speaking students reside in the district, the district must provide for these students with classes in English.

Assimalation

Individual or group is absorbed into an others culture due to its dominance

Seven Forms of Bias

Invisibility, Stereotyping, Imbalance and Selectivity, Unreality, Fragmentation and Isolation, Linguistic Bias, Cosmetic Bias

Least to Most Restrictive Environment

Least restrictive is the student being mainstreamed into a regular classroom. Most restrictive is hospitalization or homebased education.

NDEA

National Defense Education Act provided money for education and training in science, math, and foreign languages "1958 to enhance "the security of the nation" and to develop "the mental resources and technical skills of its young men and women." The NDEA supported the improvement of instruction and curriculum development, funded teacher training programs, and provided loans and scholarships for college students that allowed them to major in subjects deemed important to the national defense (such as teaching)."

NCLB

No Child Left Behind - 2001 Pres. Bush designed to promote "standards-based education reform" via assessments that measure progress; results often affect funding and administration control

Federal Funding

Only 6-8 percent because no responsibilty in the constitution

What effect does neoliberalism have education?

Privatization of schools, schools for profit, private/charter schools, no public schools

Ethnicity

Refers to cultural aspects such as nationality, regional cultures, ancestry and language

States Sources of school funding

Sales Tax, Personal Income Tax, other small taxes; lottery, vehicle license fees

Exceptional Learners

Students who are gifted, talented, or have special needs, such as a disability, and need, or can benefit from, programs matched to their abilities and potential.

Pickering v. Board of Education (1968)

Supreme Court decision ruled in favor of Marvin Pickering, a teacher who wrote a letter to the newspaper criticizing the BOE and was fired. The school board violated his First Amendment right to freedom of speech. Teacher has a right to speak on issues of public importance as long as not intentionally inaccurate and reckless

Formal curriculum

Textbooks, Lesson Plans, Classroom Activities, the obvious lessons taught

Serrano v. Preist (1971)

The California Supreme Court "struck down the state's financing system as unconstitutional. The California court, faced with the glaring differences between Beverly Hills, spending $1,232 per student, and nearby Baldwin Park, spending only $577 per student, declared that education was a fundamental right under the California constitution and that the property tax system violated equal protection of that right. The court found that heavy reliance on the local property tax "makes the quality of a child's education a function of the wealth of his parents and neighbors. . . . Districts with small tax bases simply cannot levy taxes at a rate sufficient to produce the revenue that more affluent districts produce with a minimum effort." The Serrano v. Priest decision ushered in both a wave of litigation in other states and an increase in the state share of school funding"

Digital Divide

The relative lack of access to the latest technologies among low-income groups, racial and ethnic minorities, rural residents, and the citizens of developing countries

Enculturation

The social process by which culture is learned and transmitted across generations

Reasons Why Americans Tolerate Educational Inequality

Tradition of Local Control, Rags to Riches theme make your success, Some groups are genetically smarter, Culture of Poverty shapes poor people,

Ethnocentrism

evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture. belief in the superiority of ones nation/ethnic group

Academic Freedom for teachers

is not absolute, depends, in relation to "the school system's interests in students learning appropriate subject matter in an environment conducive to learning. Courts look at such factors as whether your learning activities and materials are inappropriate, irrelevant to the subjects to be covered under the syllabus, obscene, or substantially disruptive of school discipline"

Epistemology

study of the nature of knowledge, justification and rationality of belief

Fair Use

the conditions under which you can use material that is copyrighted by someone else without paying royalties "Teachers may use copyrighted materials in class under three conditions:• Written permission is obtained from the creator, author, or publisher.• Material is in the public domain (it is more than 75 years old or is published by the School Law and Ethics government).• Reproduction of material is considered fair use."

Tracking

the practice of placing students in specific curriculum groups on the basis of their test scores and other criteria. ethics: not good for students, not good for students of color, leads teachers to have expectations "Students of different abilities (low, middle, and high) are assigned to different tracks of courses and programs (vocational, general, college-bound, honors, and AP). Tracking is the term given to this process, and though some teachers believe that tracking makes instruction more manageable, others believe that it is a terribly flawed system. Either way, tracking is one of the oldest of school traditions."