Educational Psychology and Development of Children and Adolescents

Vygotsky's - zone of proximal development

**The level of development just above where a learner is currently functioning According to this concept, a child may be able to achieve a skill on his or her own, but when offered guidance or scaffolding from a more knowledgeable person, the child may acquire the skill much more quickly the zone of proximal development is the difference between what a child attains independently and what a child attains with the support of someone who is more skilled

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

1. trust vs. mistrust 2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt 3. initiative vs. guilt 4. industry vs. inferiority 5. identity vs. role confusion 6. intimacy vs. isolation 7. generativity vs. stagnation 8. integrity vs. despair

Holophrastic Stage

10-12 month Infants may attempt first words, which may or may not sound like the adult pronunciation.

The Formal Operational Stage (Piaget)

12 and up *At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems *Abstract thought emerges *Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning *Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information

Two Word Stage

18-24 month Toddlers have moved from single words to two-word phrases by 18-24 months of age.

The Preoperational Stage (Piaget)

2-7 yr old *Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects. *Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others. *While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete terms.

Babbling Stage

4-9 month Infants begin to babble at 4-6 months of age and produce more complex, word-like babbling sounds at 6-9 months of age.

During which age range does Erikson's industry versus inferiority stage of psychosocial development usually occur? (Social and Emotional Development)

5 to 12 years

The Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)

7-11 *During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events *They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example *Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete *Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle

According to Vygotsky's theory, which child is experiencing learning from "a more knowledgeable other?" (Cognitive Development)

A child watching parents brush their teeth

Constructivist theory believes that knowledge is created and even co-created as learning typically involves more than one person. The concept of a more knowledgeable other is directly out of constructivist theory as is the Vygotskian concept of the zone of proximal development.

A four-year-old female student is learning to count. She can count to 10 independently, but with help from a more knowledgeable other she can count to 30. The range from 10 to 30 is her zone of proximal development.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

A motivation theory that suggests that human needs fall into a hierarchy and that as each need is met, people become motivated to meet the next-highest need in the pyramid.

Behavioral learning theory is focused on students being taught skills directly, usually through direct instruction. Research suggests that students with reading disabilities benefit from learning specific techniques to accommodate for their visual difficulties.

A nine-year-old male student has been diagnosed with a learning disability. The school psychologist has determined that he has a form of dyslexia, impacting his ability to read.

Stages of Physical Development from Infancy to Adolescence Adolescence

Adolescence (10-18 years): Weight and height begin to increase rapidly in early adolescence, and puberty typically begins. Girls usually begin puberty at an earlier age than boys. For both sexes, the increase in hormones may impact behavior. They may begin to think of themselves as adults and reject adult authority, which includes teachers. By late adolescence, boys have grown taller and more muscular than most girls of the same age. Older adolescents reach sexual maturity and girls' physical growth slows, though boys may continue to grow into early adulthood.

Which type of assessment approach uses learning concepts such as the "zone of proximal development"?

An assessment approach that uses collaborative learning and mentoring concepts like the "zone of proximal development" is reflective of the theory of social constructivism.

Which type of assessment approach focuses on the recall of basic facts and concepts?

An assessment that focuses on the recall of basic facts and concepts is reflective of the belief of behaviorism.

Behavioral learning focuses on the student producing the required response to receive reinforcement. In this scenario, the desired response is 80 percent correct on each quiz. The reinforcement is passing the quiz and being able to move onto the next section. The ultimate reinforcement is completing the social studies requirement and graduating from high school.

An eighteen-year-old female student has completed high school through self-paced learning modules. She needs only to finish one final social studies requirement to be eligible for graduation. This module consists of eight sections. She reads the content in the section and must pass a quiz with 80 percent accuracy to move onto the next section.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development Autonomy VS Shame & Doubt

As toddlers (ages one to three years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler's main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy versus shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is the "me do it" stage.

The Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget)

Birth-2 *The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations *Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening *Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence) *They are separate beings from the people and objects around them They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects.

What are some of the advantages of competency-based assessment (CBA)?

CBA allows students to demonstrate their competency in a variety of ways. It focuses on students mastering the skills being taught, in whatever way works best for each individual student. CBA also allows students to select their preferred learning style in their attempt to demonstrate the particular competency. Perhaps the biggest advantage of CBA is that it transfers ownership of learning from the teacher to the student. It puts the responsibility of demonstrating competency squarely on the student.

Children are born with a language acquisition device or the innate ability to learn language. which theorist?

Chomsky Chomsky believed the ability to learn a language is innate, not socially influenced.

Lucas is a fourth-grade student who has read almost every book in the classroom library. He asks his teacher if she will bring him some "bigger kid" books to read because he is bored with the material in the classroom. Which need is Lucas trying to satisfy? *Transcendence *Cognitive *Love and Belonging *Physiological

Cognitive

A student understands that a deflated balloon can be inflated with air.According to Piaget, which cognitive level is this student demonstrating? (Cognitive Development)

Concrete Operational

Constructivist Theory

Constructivists believe students should be engaged in active learning and that the teacher's role is to assist her students in what they are doing. Students should be given the opportunity to explore a problem, try out solutions, build on this new knowledge to make adjustments and evolve new solutions.

What is a difference between criterion- and norm-referenced assessments?

Criterion-referenced assessment is designed to measure skills and knowledge a student has mastered. Criterion-referenced assessment is designed to measure skills and knowledge a student has mastered. It does not rank students. If students' performance were ranked according to their score, the assessment would be norm-referenced.

How Educators Meet the Need:. The school calls an assembly each quarter to distribute academic achievement awards to students who have maintained a B average or higher for the quarter.

Deficiency Need: Esteem When students' achievements are recognized, their self-esteem improves.

How Educators Meet the Need: A teacher provides students with multiple opportunities for cooperative group activities.

Deficiency Need: Love & Belonging Social needs can be met when students work together to solve problems or create projects.

How Educators Meet the Need: The school cafeteria opens early to provide free and reduced price breakfasts to eligible students.

Deficiency Need: Physiological Physiological needs include basic necessities such as adequate sleep, warm clothing, and nutritious food.

How Educators Meet the Need: A school institutes a rigorous antibullying program.

Deficiency Need: Safety An antibullying program can help students feel safer and more secure in the classroom and on the playground.

An Asian third-grade student is getting average grades in math and English. However, when asked to participate in discussions, the student does not make eye contact and is silent for long periods of time.Which factor is likely affecting this student's learning and performance? *Long Term Memory Retrieval Deficit *Sensory Processing Disorder *Sensorieneural Hearing Impairment *Different Cultural Norms

Different Cultural Norms

Stages of Physical Development from Infancy to Adolescence Early Childhood

Early childhood (two to six years): In early childhood, significant improvements occur in both gross and fine motor skills. Toddlers love to run, hop, tumble, climb, and swing. Fine motor skill development allows them to string beads and put together jigsaw puzzles. They also begin to scribble and later print and draw rudimentary figures. By age four, many children can print their names. Young children also typically begin to dress and undress themselves and eat with utensils.

Which behavior would Piaget classify as characteristic of the concrete operational cognitive development stage? (Cognitive Development)

Explaining the commutative Property in addition

How does female growth differ than male growth during the adolescent stage? (Physical Development)

Females usually complete physical growth before males

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Aesthetic

Focus on the search for and expression of beauty and balance, which can be found in nature or artistic pursuits such as painting, architecture, and music

What are formative assessments designed to do?

Formative assessments are designed to check for understanding in an effective way in order to guide instruction. Formative assessments are used during instruction rather than at the end of a unit or course of study.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development Trust VS Mistrust

From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child's basic needs for survival

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (new)

From top to bottom: transcendence, self-actualization, aesthetic, cognitive, esteem, love and belonging, safety, and physiological. The top four levels represent growth needs. The bottom four levels represent deficiency needs.

What is a key concept of B. F. Skinner's operant conditioning in behavioral theory?

Good behavior can be encouraged by continual positive reinforcement.

A teacher wants to understand students' mastery of a concept and wants some subjectivity in grading.How should the teacher assess in this scenario? *Have students complete a constructed-response question *Have students complete a true/false quiz *Have students complete a multiple-choice test *Have students complete a fill-in-the-blank question

Have students complete a constructed-response question

It can be challenging for adolescents to decide who they are and what their place in the world will be. Industry VS Inferiority Identity VS Role Confusion or Intimacy VS Isolation

Identity VS Role Confusion

Skinner also stated that children learn language through three key processes:

Imitating others (e.g., seeing a sibling ask for an apple and then asking for one) Prompting from others (e.g., a parent might ask, "Do you want an apple?") Shaping from others (e.g., a parent might affirm and refine a child's response: "Yes, that's a fruit. It's an apple. Did you want it?")

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development Identity VS Role Confusion

In adolescence (ages 12-18), children face the task of identity versus role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent's main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as "Who am I?" and "What do I want to do with my life?"

Children in school are busy with many different activities but may compare themselves negatively with peers. Industry VS Inferiority Identity VS Role Confusion or Intimacy VS Isolation

Industry VS Inferiority

Stages of Physical Development from Infancy to Adolescence Infancy

Infancy (birth-two years): Children add dozens of motor skills to their repertoire during their first two years. Infants hold up their heads, roll over, reach for things, sit, crawl, and walk. In their second year, infants begin to walk with increased coordination and manipulate small toys with their hands. By the time they are two, most infants can feed themselves with their hands, make a small tower of cubes, jump and run awkwardly, throw a ball, and use a zipper.

Social and Emotional Skills: What to Expect at Different Ages

Infants and Babies By 2 months Cry to get needs met Occasionally self-soothe by sucking on hands and fingers Start to smile and look directly at you By 4 months Cry in different ways to show hunger, pain, or being tired Smile in response to caregiver's smile Play with toys by shaking them By 6 months Are more aware of which people are familiar and which are strangers Can respond to other people's emotions by crying, smiling, or laughing Enjoy looking at themselves in the mirror By 9 months Start to show stranger anxiety May cry when familiar faces aren't around Start to prefer some toys over others By 12 months Play favorites with familiar people Are more interactive (like handing over a toy or a book or making a specific noise to get a caregiver's attention) Enjoy simple interactive games, like patty-cake and peekaboo Ages 18 months-2 years Have more temper tantrums and become more defiant as they try to communicate and be independent Start simple pretend play, like imitating what adults or other kids are doing Become interested in having other kids around, but are more likely to play alongside them (parallel play) than with them (cooperative play) Ages 3-4 years Start to show and verbalize a wider range of emotion Are interested in pretend play, but may confuse real and "make believe" Are spontaneously kind and caring Start playing with other kids and separate from caregivers more easily May still have tantrums because of changes in routine or not getting what they want Grade-Schoolers Ages 5-6 years Enjoy playing with other kids and are more conversational and independent Test boundaries but are still eager to please and help out Begin to understand what it means to feel embarrassed Ages 7-8 years Are more aware of others' perceptions May complain about friendships and other kids' reactions Want to behave well, but aren't as attentive to directions Try to express feelings with words, but may resort to aggression when upset Ages 9-10 years Share secrets and jokes with friends May start to develop own identity by withdrawing from family activities and conversations Are affectionate, silly, and curious, but can also be selfish, rude, and argumentative Middle-Schoolers and High-Schoolers Ages 11-15 years Start thinking more logically Are introspective and moody and need privacy Value friends' and others' opinions more and more May test out new ideas, clothing styles, and mannerisms while figuring out where/how to fit in Ages 16-18 years Strive to be independent and may start emotionally distancing from caregivers Start trying to discover strengths and weaknesses, at times seeming self-centered, impulsive, or moody Show pride in successes Spend a lot of time with friends and may be interested in dating

Which theoretical learning approach aligns to playing trivia games to review class material?

Information processing theory

Collaborative Learning

Instruction is student-led The focus is on the process more than the product. Students of similar abilities are grouped together. Students work in groups to explore a significant question.

Which key concept is associated with the constructivism theory of learning?

Interactive experiences

Young adults must figure out their own place in the world in order to have strong relationships with others. Industry VS Inferiority Identity VS Role Confusion or Intimacy VS Isolation

Intimacy VS Isolation

According to Kohlberg, which behavior is characteristic of the final stage of his moral development theory? (Social and Emotional Development)

Justifying a moral decision on the basis of self-chosen principles even when there is a conflict with official rules and laws

Moral Development Theory

Kohlberg's theory that human moral development proceeds through clearly defined stages of moral reasoning

Why are learning objectives linked to standards?

Linking standards and learning objectives makes certain that students are studying the material they should be learning. By using standards as a foundation for what to teach, students are studying what they are intended to learn.

What's Metacognition—and Why Does It Matter

Metacognition can be thought of as "students thinking about their thinking," but it is so much more than that. Metacognition is a way that teachers can put students in charge of their own learning.

Allowing a student to focus on safety needs (both physical and emotional) is clearly something supported by humanistic learning theory. Maslow believes that students have to have their physiological needs met before their academic needs will matter to them.

Michelle has faced some teasing both in school and on social media. Michelle's English teacher is focusing on her feeling accepted in class. The writing prompt the teacher had selected was related to bullying, but Michelle was clearly not comfortable writing about bullying so the teacher allowed her to select any writing theme.

Stages of Physical Development from Infancy to Adolescence Middle Childhood

Middle childhood (6-10 years): Older children continue to gain weight and height—slowly but steadily. Permanent teeth also begin to come in during this time. Children in middle childhood often begin to participate in organized sports as their speed and coordination skills advance. Continued refinement of fine motor skills results in improved handwriting, and their drawings become increasingly representational. Many children use their fine motor skills to sew, build models, or do other crafts.

What is the correct order for the basic model of motivation?

Needs > behavior action > goals and achievement

A fifth-grade student is having difficulty listening and retaining information. The teacher notices that the student looks pale and has brittle hair and nails.Which physical barrier is likely affecting this student's learning and performance? *Nutrition *Sleep *Stress *Hearing

Nutrition

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development Iniative VS Guilt

Once children reach the preschool stage (ages three to six years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative versus guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task.

A high school teacher notices a sudden drop in a student's grades and a change in the way the student dresses for school.Which developmental barrier is likely affecting this student's performance? *Poverty *Bullying *Peer Pressure *Self Esteem

Peer Pressure

What is a key concept of the humanistic theory of learning?

People are innately good.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development Intimacy VS Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy versus isolation. After they have developed a sense of self in adolescence, they are ready to share their lives with others.

According to Bandura, which factor can affect reproduction? (Social and Emotional Development)

Physical capabilities

A teacher's theoretical belief is based in behaviorism. What is one way this teacher might successfully deal with class periods that seem too short?

Planning from the learner's perspective is a way to deal with the time challenge. Taking in the learner's perspective as a means of motivating the students is in line with behavioral theory.

A teacher wants to know how students apply the things they learned over time and in different ways.Which type of assessment should this teacher use? *Portfolio performance *Selected-response *Short-answer. *True/false

Portfolio performance

Because of circumstances, an individual seeks medical advice to remove a parent from life support.According to Gilligan, which moral stage of development is represented by this scenario? (Social and Emotional Development)

Postconventional

A teacher pours juice for Alice in a tall, narrow glass and for William in a short, squat glass. Although both glasses contain the same amount of juice, Will exclaims, "Hey! No fair! I have less than Alice!" Which of Piaget's developmental stages is William in? Preoperational Sensorimotor Formal Operational Concrete Operational

Preoperational William is old enough to talk but not old enough to have grasped conservation.

Diagnostic Assessment

Pretest Happen at the beginning of a unit, lesson, quarter, or period of time. Goal of understanding student's current position to inform effective instruction Identify strengths and areas of improvement for the student Low-stakes assessments (Usually do not count as a grade)

At which developmental stage would a child be expected to tie shoes? (Physical Development)

Primary School

According to Vygotsky, what should a teacher do to help a student move through the zone of proximal development? (Cognitive Development)

Provide Instructional Scaffolding

Which characteristic is consistent with a student in the middle childhood physical development stage? (Physical Development)

Refining of motor coordination

What does metacognition encourage students to do?

Reflect on what they have learned.

According to B. F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning, what is an example of negative reinforcement? (Language Development)

Removing a restriction if a student pays attention in class

What is identified with the babbling stage of the language development process? (Language Development)

Repeating vowel sounds

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Esteem

Self respect, respect from others, achievement, independence, status and prestige

A teacher has a large group of students to assess. The teacher wants to accurately assess the knowledge students have in a fairly short amount of time.Which type of assessment should this teacher use? *Short answer *Exhibition *Essay *Portfolio

Short answer

Language learning occurs when you receive a positive response to communication, increasing your motivation to try again. Which theorist?

Skinner Skinner believed that positive feedback helped condition you to keep communicating, making language use a learned behavior.

A fourth-grade student complains of headaches, stomach pain, and nausea. The teacher notices the student seems anxious and has difficulty focusing.Based on this information, which barrier is likely affecting this student's learning and performance? *Poverty *Stress *Poor Nutrition *Sleep Deprivation

Stress

Describe three ways that teachers might use Vygotsky's theories to support their students' language and cognitive development in the classroom

Teachers might use Vygotsky's theories by increasing opportunities for students to speak with each other in order to develop their cognitive skills through language. Teachers might also create a positive classroom culture through team-building activities to help students grow effectively and learn language embedded in classroom activities. For example, teachers might provide social skills lessons as well as language lessons. Last, teachers should include extensive scaffolding (for both language activities and academic skills in general) so that students can practice new skills, using Vygotsky's concept of the "zone of proximal development," to build and support students' skills so that they can gradually become more independent.

A student is able to make a sentence with a subject, verb, and object.Which stage of language development is this student in? (Language Development)

Telegraphic

Describe at least three factors that must be considered when establishing an instructional context.

The age of the students must be considered when establishing the instructional context. As you have learned from previous modules, the developmental levels of students impact their ability to think and plan, so student age is important because it suggests certain cognitive skills sets. The content being taught must also be considered when establishing the instructional context. If the content is primarily factual in nature, the types of instructional choices will change. If the content requires more critical analysis, that will also impact the decisions teachers make. Finally, the purpose of the lesson or unit must be considered when establishing the instructional context. The purpose will also influence the type of assessment that is used.

Cooperative Learning

The focus is on the product more than the process. Students of mixed abilities are grouped together. Students work in groups on a structured activity. Instruction is teacher-led.

Piaget & Vygotsky

The main difference between Piaget and Vygotsky is that Piaget suggests classroom experiences should focus on already existing cognitive structures within the particular stage the child has reached, while Vygotsky argues that cognitive advances can be made through active learning. → Cooperative Learning and Reciprocal Teaching methods have stemmed from Vygotsky's work

What is the zone of proximal development?

The zone of proximal development is the space between a student's actual and potential ability, and social interaction and scaffolding can help students maximize their potential. Social interaction can help students learn language, as language growth does not happen in isolation. Social interaction can help students move closer to proficient language use and maximize their potential.

According to Piaget, what is an important accomplishment at the preoperational stage? (Cognitive Development)

Thinking symbolically

Level 2: Conventional (Kohlberg)

Throughout the conventional level, a child's sense of morality is tied to personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order. Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation In this stage, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being "nice" to others. Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation In this stage, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of his or her importance in maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is "supposed" to do is seen as valuable and important.

Level 3: Postconventional (Kohlberg)

Throughout the postconventional level, a person's sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation In this stage, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation In this stage, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty.

Level 1: Preconventional (Kohlberg)

Throughout the preconventional level, a child's sense of morality is externally controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers. Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation This stage focuses on the child's desire to obey rules and avoid being punished Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation This stage expresses the "what's in it for me?" position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in his or her best interest. Stage 2 reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it might further the individual's own interests.

Which characteristic is consistent with a student in the early childhood physical development stage? (Physical Development)

Ties Shoelaces

What is one reason a school would use a criterion-referenced reading assessment? *To assess whether students have mastered a particular national reading standard *To assess whether students were reading at, above, or below the national average *To assess which student in a particular class was the strongest reader *To assess which students could read at the same rate as most other students their age

To assess whether students have mastered a particular national reading standard

An infant who looks to a caregiver for reassurance illustrates Erikson's stage of

Trust VS Mistrust

Toddlers and young children are learning to take control of their surroundings and must be nurtured, not stifled. Trust VS Mistrust or Initiative VS Guilt

Trust VS Mistrust

Which action characterizes the holophrastic stage of language development? (Language Development)

Uttering single words

Language learning occurs when you receive a positive response to communication, increasing your motivation to try again. Which theorist

Vygotsky Vygotsky believed that the interactive element of communication was a critical part of language learning.

While solving a multistep math problem, a student forgets the second and third steps while implementing the first. During reading, the student often forgets what was at the beginning of the paragraph before reaching the end of a paragraph.Which memory deficit is likely affecting this student's learning and performance? *Working Memory *Short Term Memory *Long Term Memory Storage *Long Term Memory Retrieval

Working Memory

Bloom's taxonomy

You can use the taxonomy to create assessments, plan lessons, evaluate the complexity of assignments, develop courses, and so much more. pyramid from bottom up: remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, create

A schema

a group of similar thoughts that children use to respond to their environment. Example: Diego knows that a horse is a large animal with four legs, a tail, and body hair. The first time he sees a cow, he calls it a horse. The word "horse" fits with Diego's schema for the characteristics of a cow.

Cognitivist teaching methods

aim to assist students in assimilating new information to existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their existing intellectual framework to accommodate that information. For instance, asking students to explain new material in their own words can assist them in assimilating it by forcing them to re-express the new ideas in their existing vocabulary

Standardized tests

are often used to compare students' performance against each other. Standardized tests are norm-referenced, so the results can be compared for students in different schools, districts, and states, and sometimes even different countries. Authentic or performance-based assessments are more individualized.

Learning Outcomes

are what students will achieve or produce.

objectives

are what students will be learning.

Lev Vygotsky's theory of language development

believed that language is not learned in a vacuum but depends on the interaction and communication between the learner and his or her peers

Chomsky's Theory of Language Development

believes children instinctively learn language without any formal instruction. He also believes that children have a natural need to use language, and that in the absence of formal language children will develop a system of communication to meet their needs. He has observed that all children make the same type of language errors, regardless of the language they are taught. Chomsky also believes in the existence of a "universal grammar," which posits that there are certain grammatical rules all human languages share.

Lev Vygotsky theory of cognitive development

children are born with certain "elementary mental functions"— attention, sensation, perception, and memory—which become more sophisticated as children interact with their environment. the environment and community play a key role in children's "meaning making" ***Much learning occurs via social interaction.

Alternative Assessment

esigned by the teacher to gauge students' understanding of material. Examples of these measurements are open-ended questions, written compositions, oral presentations, projects, experiments, and portfolios of student work.

B. F. Skinner Theory of Language

held that language use, like other behaviors, was conditioned or influenced by the responses you receive from others around you believed that children learn language through operant conditioning; in other words, children receive "rewards" for using language in a functional manner. For example, a child learns to say the word "drink" when she is thirsty; she receives something to drink, which reinforces her use of the word for getting a drink, and thus she will continue to do so.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Safety

include protection from the elements, financial and physical security, law and order, and freedom from fear

Preschoolers are learning to engage on their own terms with their environment. When appropriately reinforced, they develop healthy self-confidence. Trust VS Mistrust or Initiative VS Guilt

initiative vs. Guilt

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Cognitive

involve curiosity, knowledge and intellectual exploration

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Self-Actualization

involve personal growth and fulfillment and the realization of one's personal potential as a human being/ a desire "to become everything one is capable of becoming"

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Love and Belonging

involves interpersonal relationships-friendships, intimacy, trust, romance, and love, and being part of a group

Formative assessment

is designed to provide the teacher with feedback about student learning. It can take many forms. For example, it could involve students holding up whiteboards with their answers. It could be a short quiz on the assigned reading. It could also be an exit ticket at the end of the class. The goal of formative assessment is to let the instructor know the level of mastery students have achieved. It is also used to determine whether more instruction is needed before moving on to the next lesson.

Extrinsic motivation

is motivation that is based on external factors like money, rewards, obligations, or approval. For example, my brother sells a specific number of snowboards each year because he needs to make money and wants to earn rewards from his job

Intrinsic motivation

is motivation that is based on internal factors like what you like to do and things that make you happy. For example, my brother works for a snowboard company because he loves snowboarding and is happiest when he is on the slopes.

Summative assessment

is the final assessment in a unit of study. It is done after all instruction has been administered. As the name implies, it is the summary of what students have learned over a unit of study. It is done at the completion of a unit. Typically, there will be no more specific instruction on that unit's content.

Bandura's theories of observational learning and modeling

learning can occur by watching others and then modeling what they do or say. This is known as observational learning. There are specific steps in the process of modeling that must be followed if learning is to be successful. These steps include attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Through modeling, Bandura has shown that children learn many things both good and bad simply by watching their parents, siblings, and others.

Arnold Gesell

maturational-developmental theory of child development postulated that children develop according to distinct developmental stages.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Physicological

needs are biological requirements for survival such as food, water, shelter, and clothing

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Transcendence

needs involve meeting spiritual needs or helping others achieve self-actualization

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional

Social Constructivism Learning

require learners to develop teamwork skills and to see individual learning as essentially related to the success of group learning. The optimal size for group learning is four or five people. learning should be seen as a process of peer interaction that is mediated and structured by the teacher.

Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

suggests that children move through four different stages of mental development. *Sensorimotor Stage: Birth-2yr old *Preoperational Stage: 2-7yr old *Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11yr old *Formal Operational Stage: 12 and up Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information. biological maturation, activity, social experiences, and equilibration.

Behaviorism teaching methods

tend to rely on so-called "skill and drill" exercises to provide the consistent repetition necessary for effective reinforcement of response patterns. Other methods include question (stimulus) and answer (response) frameworks in which questions are of gradually increasing difficulty; guided practice; and regular reviews of material.