ENVS 218 - Exam 1

MacArthur and Wilson

- Both Robert H. MacArthur and E. O. Wilson were instrumental in developing new theories of biogeography throughout the 20th century - 1963, 1967 published their works on Island Biogeography Theory thus radicalizing notions of how and why species are found on various types of islands and was a catalyst for establishing new conservation techniques

Age of Exploration

- Europeans wanted to conquer the world - this knowledge sharing changed how we view naturalism - a great discovery was discovery of unifiers among species which rooted the foundation of major themes in biology: unity and diversity

Quick Facts

- Plant Earth is estimated to be ~4.55 billion years old, based on studying the decay rates of isotopes - The oldest rocks still present on Earth are estimated to be 3.8 billion years old in Greenland, others are a bit younger and found in South Africa and Australia - Studying these rocks has indicated that Earth has supported life for much of its history, albeit rather simplistic life forms

VISTA

- Variation - random mutation or changes in DNA that can be passed down - Inheritance - Selection - differential reproduction thus increasing biological fitness - Time - Adaptation

Wallace's Line

- a biogeographic line making boundaries thus separating Asian and Australian animals

Taxa (taxon)

- a group of populations of an organism which forms a unit

Species

- a group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring - species is lowercased

Genus

- a group of similar species - Genus is always capitalized - italicized

Clinton Hart Merriam

- coined biogeography - confirmed elevational changes in vegetation type and species composition are equivalent to latitudinal changes

Joseph Banks

- collected specimens adding to the global collection - affirmed Buffon's law and expanded it to assemblages in specific regions - cosmopolitan species

Milankovitch cycles

- cycles which account for glacial cycles - changes in interception and reabsorption of solar radiation by Earth's surface due to shifts in orbit - earth's orbit caries in ellipticity (eccentricity) with a period of 100k yrs - tilt of earth (obliquity) varies 22.1 to 24.5 degrees - Earth's orientation (precession) wanders over the north pole from one North Star to another

Nonrandom

- different geographic regions throughout the world - variability across spatial and temporal scales - We can see that these ecosystems (biotic and abiotic entities of a given region) vary tremendously •Can elucidate patterns based on various factors

dunes

- dunes around the shorelines of the great lakes are also a consequence of Pleistocene glaciation - the till that accumulated during this period left formations, wind from lake moves sand on top of moraines (landforms comprised of till)

Ice Age

- experienced cycles of glacial and interglacial periods and is characterized by rapid temperature changes

Charles Lyell

- father of geology and paleobotany - studied fossils and their records; denotes extinctions of species - believed species could not and did not change

Alexander von Humboldt

- father of photogeography - understanding patterns in plants - illumination of biogeographical patterns saying a) plants are distributed in elevation zones, b) floristic belts = elevation zones, c) topical zones were found in lower/equatorial elevations boreal and arctic regions at summits

Carl Linnaeus

- father of taxonomy - believed that God spoke through the natural world - coined "species to classify organisms based on relationships within a hierarchal system of taxonomy - created binomial nomenclature (Genus species)

Seafloor spreading

- first of many indicators from ocean geology - is a process at mid-ocean ridges where tectonic plates split apart - occurs when magma pushes up into the ridges

20th Centry Developments

- formulation of a unifying theory on the origin, movement, and destruction of Earth's tectonic plates - genetic code - establishment of unified theories in biogeography discussing immigration, extinction, and evolution thus giving rise to new understandings of patterns across spatial and temporal scales

Eon

- largest portion of geological time - Archaean, Proterozoic, Phanerozoic

Tectonic Plates

- low oxygen, high sulfur - 2.78 bya, lots of action - mantle was hotter - coasts appear to "fit" together - Alfred Wegner and continental drift

Wisconsin Glaciation

- most recent period of glaciation - occurred 20k yrs ago - shifted all the geography north of the Ohio river

Biogeography Roots

- muddled, nonlinear, and a weird conglomerate of science puzzles assembled together - embedded in several disciplines such as: geography, ecology, biology, and more - is not experimental but is mostly based on observations in nature

Pattern

- nonrandom, repetitive variation of focal elements among units or along relevant gradients - when we see patterns, causation is implied by a process

Joseph Dalton Hooker

- proposed that long distance dispersal across open oceans may give rise to species present on remote islands - vicariance biogeography

Measuring time

- radiometric data - carbon dating - half life

adaptive radiation

- rapid diversification of a lineage over a short time period a) mass extinction of a previous group of species b) invasion of an ecologically simple/underused systems c) development of key innovation in the ancestral species`

Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace

- revolutionized evolutionary biology and biogeography - both wanted to describe diversification of life, including origin, spread, and differences

Era

- second largest unit of geologic time, lasting tens to hundreds of millions of years and consisting of two or more periods - 10 eras

non-glaciated regions

- thermal attitudes from the equator to the poles (newer phenomenon) - avg. temp was 4-8 C cooler - snow lines shifted as much as 1000 ft in elevation b/w periods - resulted in geographic shifts in climactic zones

Spatial autocorrelation

-environmental conditions which tend to be more dissimilar distance between sites increases -environmental conditions exhibit specific patterns of variation along geographic gradients

Island formation

1) continental - once connected to a continent 2) tidal - type of continental where land connecting the mainland has not eroded but underwater at high tide 3) oceanic islands - never connected to mainland

Common Themes

1- classifying geographic regions based on biotas 2- speciation and construction and reconstruction of lineages and biogas, from their origin to their spread and diversification 3- studying the differences and patterns that emerge in number and the type of species across geographic areas 4- explaining geographic differences based on similar individuals and populations of closely related species

Continental Drift Evidence

1- stratigraphic evidence- island and mountain formation; fossil deposits 2- paleoclimatic evidence - presence of southern hemisphere glacial deposits (tillities) 3- fossil distribution

polyspecific association

2 or more species function as if one social group working together but not benefiting each other

Laurentia

300 mya when the Appalachian Mts formed and Pangaea starts; ice age

commensalism

A relationship between two organisms in which one organism benefits and the other is unaffected

parasitism

A relationship between two organisms of different species where one benefits and the other is harmed

mutualism

A relationship between two species in which both species benefit

phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits

Domains

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

tropical easterlies

Band of easterly winds that exists where northern and southern trade winds converge from 0 to 30 degrees

terrestrial biomes

Biomes on land (forests, taiga, tundra, etc.) which are driven by temperature and precipitaiton

phylogenetic trees

Branching diagrams that depict hypotheses about evolutionary relationships

sexual dichromatism

Color pattern variation between genders of the same species

Tectonic plate theory

Earth's solid outer crust (lithosphere) is separated into plates which move over the asthenosphere

competitive exclusion principle

Ecological rule that states that no two species can occupy the same exact niche in the same habitat at the same time

Buffon's Law

Environmentally similar but isolated regions have distinct assemblages of mammals and birds

phylogeny

Evolutionary history of a species; lines of evolutionary descent from. common ancestor

logistic growth

Growth pattern in which a population's growth rate slows or stops following a period of exponential growth

carrying capacity

Largest number of individuals of a population that a environment can support

polar easterlies

Prevailing winds that blow from east to west between 60 degrees to 90 degrees latitude in both hemispheres

Kindoms

Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia

density independent

Referring to any characteristic that is not affected by population density.

Continental Drift

The hypothesis that states that the continents once formed a single landmass, broke up, and drifted to their present locations

death rate

The number of deaths in a population in a certain amount of time

subduction

The process by which oceanic crust sinks beneath a deep-ocean trench and back into the mantle at a convergent plate boundary.

taxonomic inflation

The view that species are too often split into distinct species without sufficient, objective justification

genetic drift

a change in allele frequency due to a chance event

bottleneck effect

a consequence of an event reducing population size where a subset of that population remains, leaving a smaller population with less genetic variation

metapopulation

a group of spatially distinct populations that are connected by occasional movements of individuals between them

clade

a grouping including a common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor

Biome

a large area of land with common ecological conditions that are characterized by the plants and animals found there

biological fitness

a measure of the ability to survive and reproduce relative to other members of the population

Driftless area

a portion of Wisconsin that did not have any glacial drift (tillites or till) from the Laurentide glacier

founder effect

a small subset of a population leaves the general population and start a new population elsewhere and thus generic variability decreases

Cosmopolitan species

a species found in more than one location; generalist species

behavioral flexibility

a species' ability to shift its behavior in response to alterations within the environment including modification of diet, range, activity, etc

sexual selection

a type of natural selection where members of one sex specifically choose those of the other sex to mate with because of specific traits

scale

all biological phenomena are scale dependent

Pangaea

all continents making a supercontinent; life moves from ocean to land; speciation occurred after this split

glacial-interglacial periods

alternating cycles of freezing and thawing

natural selection

an evolutionary mechanism by which individuals better adapted for their way of life in their environment preferentially survive to leave more offspring with their traits to future generations

fundamental geographic range

any habitat suitable based on desired traits

core range

areas within a home range where species spend the majority of their time

mark recapture

capturing and marking organisms, then recapturing them and counting how many are marked

population growth

change in population size over time

sexual dimorphism

changes within form or appearance between males and females in secondary sex traits

Period

chunks of an era

megafaunal extinction

climatic or human driven or a combination of both

symbiotic relationship

close interaction between species in which one species lives in or on the other

unity

common ancestry

interspecific competition

competition between members of different species

intraspecific competition

competition between members of the same species

intersexual competition

competition between one sex, typically females, where they choose a mate based on their preferences

Coriolis effect

deflects the direction of the wind to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere

aquatic biomes

driven by depth and the distance from the mainland

macroevolution

evolution on the grand scale that is concerned with the origin of new species and taxa

great lakes

formed by pressure from the glaciers and left lots of water behind in the valleys thus turning them into lakes

Rodinia

formed from 2 sided subduction where both plates slid under the mantle 1.1 bya

microevolution

genetic exchange within a population

genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

adiabatic cooling

heat loss and molecules move more and more apart

source

high quality patch

biological species concept

if two individuals from two different species have offspring and its viable then the two individuals are of the same species

dot maps

individual locations of known individuals or populations

interference competition

individuals use aggressive dominance inhibition to deny others access to resources

exploitative competition

individuals use up resources and make them unavailable for others

Beringia

land beneath the bering strait that became exposed and a flat, grassy treeless plain emerged, connecting Asia to North America

Pannotia

landmass corresponding with Cambrian explosion about 500 mya

density dependent

limiting factor that depends on population size

sink

low quality patch

magnetic reversals

magnetism is divided intro strips on either side of the ridges

intersexual competition

members of the same sex, usually males, who compete with each other for sexual access to members of the other sex

diversity

modifications which evolved as a species that diverged from a common ancestor and one another

currents

movements that carry nutrients and food to organisms that live permanently in one place

Stabilizing selection

natural selection that favors moderate traits within a range of variation

Disruptive variation

natural selection which selects the traits from both of the extreme ends of variation

mantle drag

occurs at subduction zones, lateral flow and friction between mantle and overlying plate creates a dragging force, pulling plates past the asthenosphere

ridge push

occurs at the midoceanic ridges where magma upwells from the asthenosphere to the surface. Basaltic portion of mantle is melted and is then brought to the surface

random distribution

occurs when there is no competition, antagonism, or tendency to aggregate

Biota

plants (flora) and animals (fauna) living in a region

Convergent

plates hit one another which may cause a mountain range or trenches; ring of fire

Divergent

plates move away from each other

Transform

plates passing each other can create linear fault lines, creating earthquakes

exponential growth

populations can grow rapidly over a short amount of time; J shaped

Malthusian Population Theory

populations will grow exponentially while resources grow linearly so there will be levels of conflict

Georges Louis Leclerc , Comte de Buffon

proposed that species originated from the far north portion of Earth and migrated south overtime, changing as they did so

outline maps

regions on a map where populations or species could occupy

uniform distribution

results from intense competition or antagonism between individuals

photo collection

scientists will start photo arcing distinct markings and compare them when they're seen again

morphological species concept

set of distinct physical features of a population which sets it apart from another

Epochs

shortest division of geological time, noted due to driving natural forces, changes in rock deposits,

contour maps

show gradients and additional data to determine likelihood of abundance at different locations

density

size of population in relation to the space it occupies - birth rate increases density - immigration increases density - death rate decreases density - immigration decreases density

Vicariance biogeography

speciation due to the shifting environmental conditions, like a creation of a new barrier

allopatric speciation

speciation that occurs via geographic separation

parapatric speciation

speciation that takes place like allopatric speciation but there is a narrow overlap of land between the populations leading to intermating, lowering fitness and driving stronger isolation between the two species

sympatric speciation

speciation within a larger population often due to behavioral differences

Refugia

species during glaciation that had to be displaced from their normal ranges and often were more isolated and fragmented thus having implications of breeding

cladograms

supply a hypothetical picture of actual history of organisms

realized niche

the actual environmental conditions a species survives and reproduces in

biological evolution

the change in heritable characteristics of a population of organisms over the course of many generations; is NOT goal oriented

slab pull

the force due to the weight of the cold, dense sinking tectonic plate, slab pull may account for much of net tectonic forces

niche

the habitat that a species occupies, but also the role or specific function a species has on the ecosystem as a whole; the interrelationship of a species with all the abiotic and biotic factors impacting it

species distribution

the manner in which a biological taxon is spatially arranged; the geographic limits of a taxon's distributions is its range

clumped distribution

the most common type of population distribution where many members of the population live close together

horizontal gene transfer

the non-sexual movement of genetic info between genomes which can occur between related and unrelated species

birth rate

the number of births in a population in a certain amount of time

Biogeography

the science that determines spatial patters of biological diversity

home range

the specific area which an animal or population moves and spends its time in

population size

the total number of individuals in an area

fundamental niche

the total range of environmental conditions in which a species can survive and reproduce

Biodiversity

the variability of all living organisms on Earth

homologous traits

traits that are shared in populations because the same common ancestor of the populations had that traits so they share that genotype

analogous traits

traits which form when two populations have the same phenotypic trait but it is NOT due to common ancestry

convergent evolution

two different populations had a similar random mutation event that each were selected for in their environment

Directional selection

type of natural selection that favors traits at an extreme end of a range of variation

phylogenetic species concept

uses genetic differentiation to determine species' does not account as heavily for morphology differences or breeding potential

prevailing westerlies

winds that blow west to east between 30 and 60 degrees in the northern and southern hemispheres