ENVS 218 - Exam 1
MacArthur and Wilson
- Both Robert H. MacArthur and E. O. Wilson were instrumental in developing new theories of biogeography throughout the 20th century - 1963, 1967 published their works on Island Biogeography Theory thus radicalizing notions of how and why species are found on various types of islands and was a catalyst for establishing new conservation techniques
Age of Exploration
- Europeans wanted to conquer the world - this knowledge sharing changed how we view naturalism - a great discovery was discovery of unifiers among species which rooted the foundation of major themes in biology: unity and diversity
Quick Facts
- Plant Earth is estimated to be ~4.55 billion years old, based on studying the decay rates of isotopes - The oldest rocks still present on Earth are estimated to be 3.8 billion years old in Greenland, others are a bit younger and found in South Africa and Australia - Studying these rocks has indicated that Earth has supported life for much of its history, albeit rather simplistic life forms
VISTA
- Variation - random mutation or changes in DNA that can be passed down - Inheritance - Selection - differential reproduction thus increasing biological fitness - Time - Adaptation
Wallace's Line
- a biogeographic line making boundaries thus separating Asian and Australian animals
Taxa (taxon)
- a group of populations of an organism which forms a unit
Species
- a group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring - species is lowercased
Genus
- a group of similar species - Genus is always capitalized - italicized
Clinton Hart Merriam
- coined biogeography - confirmed elevational changes in vegetation type and species composition are equivalent to latitudinal changes
Joseph Banks
- collected specimens adding to the global collection - affirmed Buffon's law and expanded it to assemblages in specific regions - cosmopolitan species
Milankovitch cycles
- cycles which account for glacial cycles - changes in interception and reabsorption of solar radiation by Earth's surface due to shifts in orbit - earth's orbit caries in ellipticity (eccentricity) with a period of 100k yrs - tilt of earth (obliquity) varies 22.1 to 24.5 degrees - Earth's orientation (precession) wanders over the north pole from one North Star to another
Nonrandom
- different geographic regions throughout the world - variability across spatial and temporal scales - We can see that these ecosystems (biotic and abiotic entities of a given region) vary tremendously •Can elucidate patterns based on various factors
dunes
- dunes around the shorelines of the great lakes are also a consequence of Pleistocene glaciation - the till that accumulated during this period left formations, wind from lake moves sand on top of moraines (landforms comprised of till)
Ice Age
- experienced cycles of glacial and interglacial periods and is characterized by rapid temperature changes
Charles Lyell
- father of geology and paleobotany - studied fossils and their records; denotes extinctions of species - believed species could not and did not change
Alexander von Humboldt
- father of photogeography - understanding patterns in plants - illumination of biogeographical patterns saying a) plants are distributed in elevation zones, b) floristic belts = elevation zones, c) topical zones were found in lower/equatorial elevations boreal and arctic regions at summits
Carl Linnaeus
- father of taxonomy - believed that God spoke through the natural world - coined "species to classify organisms based on relationships within a hierarchal system of taxonomy - created binomial nomenclature (Genus species)
Seafloor spreading
- first of many indicators from ocean geology - is a process at mid-ocean ridges where tectonic plates split apart - occurs when magma pushes up into the ridges
20th Centry Developments
- formulation of a unifying theory on the origin, movement, and destruction of Earth's tectonic plates - genetic code - establishment of unified theories in biogeography discussing immigration, extinction, and evolution thus giving rise to new understandings of patterns across spatial and temporal scales
Eon
- largest portion of geological time - Archaean, Proterozoic, Phanerozoic
Tectonic Plates
- low oxygen, high sulfur - 2.78 bya, lots of action - mantle was hotter - coasts appear to "fit" together - Alfred Wegner and continental drift
Wisconsin Glaciation
- most recent period of glaciation - occurred 20k yrs ago - shifted all the geography north of the Ohio river
Biogeography Roots
- muddled, nonlinear, and a weird conglomerate of science puzzles assembled together - embedded in several disciplines such as: geography, ecology, biology, and more - is not experimental but is mostly based on observations in nature
Pattern
- nonrandom, repetitive variation of focal elements among units or along relevant gradients - when we see patterns, causation is implied by a process
Joseph Dalton Hooker
- proposed that long distance dispersal across open oceans may give rise to species present on remote islands - vicariance biogeography
Measuring time
- radiometric data - carbon dating - half life
adaptive radiation
- rapid diversification of a lineage over a short time period a) mass extinction of a previous group of species b) invasion of an ecologically simple/underused systems c) development of key innovation in the ancestral species`
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace
- revolutionized evolutionary biology and biogeography - both wanted to describe diversification of life, including origin, spread, and differences
Era
- second largest unit of geologic time, lasting tens to hundreds of millions of years and consisting of two or more periods - 10 eras
non-glaciated regions
- thermal attitudes from the equator to the poles (newer phenomenon) - avg. temp was 4-8 C cooler - snow lines shifted as much as 1000 ft in elevation b/w periods - resulted in geographic shifts in climactic zones
Spatial autocorrelation
-environmental conditions which tend to be more dissimilar distance between sites increases -environmental conditions exhibit specific patterns of variation along geographic gradients
Island formation
1) continental - once connected to a continent 2) tidal - type of continental where land connecting the mainland has not eroded but underwater at high tide 3) oceanic islands - never connected to mainland
Common Themes
1- classifying geographic regions based on biotas 2- speciation and construction and reconstruction of lineages and biogas, from their origin to their spread and diversification 3- studying the differences and patterns that emerge in number and the type of species across geographic areas 4- explaining geographic differences based on similar individuals and populations of closely related species
Continental Drift Evidence
1- stratigraphic evidence- island and mountain formation; fossil deposits 2- paleoclimatic evidence - presence of southern hemisphere glacial deposits (tillities) 3- fossil distribution
polyspecific association
2 or more species function as if one social group working together but not benefiting each other
Laurentia
300 mya when the Appalachian Mts formed and Pangaea starts; ice age
commensalism
A relationship between two organisms in which one organism benefits and the other is unaffected
parasitism
A relationship between two organisms of different species where one benefits and the other is harmed
mutualism
A relationship between two species in which both species benefit
phenotype
An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits
Domains
Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
tropical easterlies
Band of easterly winds that exists where northern and southern trade winds converge from 0 to 30 degrees
terrestrial biomes
Biomes on land (forests, taiga, tundra, etc.) which are driven by temperature and precipitaiton
phylogenetic trees
Branching diagrams that depict hypotheses about evolutionary relationships
sexual dichromatism
Color pattern variation between genders of the same species
Tectonic plate theory
Earth's solid outer crust (lithosphere) is separated into plates which move over the asthenosphere
competitive exclusion principle
Ecological rule that states that no two species can occupy the same exact niche in the same habitat at the same time
Buffon's Law
Environmentally similar but isolated regions have distinct assemblages of mammals and birds
phylogeny
Evolutionary history of a species; lines of evolutionary descent from. common ancestor
logistic growth
Growth pattern in which a population's growth rate slows or stops following a period of exponential growth
carrying capacity
Largest number of individuals of a population that a environment can support
polar easterlies
Prevailing winds that blow from east to west between 60 degrees to 90 degrees latitude in both hemispheres
Kindoms
Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
density independent
Referring to any characteristic that is not affected by population density.
Continental Drift
The hypothesis that states that the continents once formed a single landmass, broke up, and drifted to their present locations
death rate
The number of deaths in a population in a certain amount of time
subduction
The process by which oceanic crust sinks beneath a deep-ocean trench and back into the mantle at a convergent plate boundary.
taxonomic inflation
The view that species are too often split into distinct species without sufficient, objective justification
genetic drift
a change in allele frequency due to a chance event
bottleneck effect
a consequence of an event reducing population size where a subset of that population remains, leaving a smaller population with less genetic variation
metapopulation
a group of spatially distinct populations that are connected by occasional movements of individuals between them
clade
a grouping including a common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor
Biome
a large area of land with common ecological conditions that are characterized by the plants and animals found there
biological fitness
a measure of the ability to survive and reproduce relative to other members of the population
Driftless area
a portion of Wisconsin that did not have any glacial drift (tillites or till) from the Laurentide glacier
founder effect
a small subset of a population leaves the general population and start a new population elsewhere and thus generic variability decreases
Cosmopolitan species
a species found in more than one location; generalist species
behavioral flexibility
a species' ability to shift its behavior in response to alterations within the environment including modification of diet, range, activity, etc
sexual selection
a type of natural selection where members of one sex specifically choose those of the other sex to mate with because of specific traits
scale
all biological phenomena are scale dependent
Pangaea
all continents making a supercontinent; life moves from ocean to land; speciation occurred after this split
glacial-interglacial periods
alternating cycles of freezing and thawing
natural selection
an evolutionary mechanism by which individuals better adapted for their way of life in their environment preferentially survive to leave more offspring with their traits to future generations
fundamental geographic range
any habitat suitable based on desired traits
core range
areas within a home range where species spend the majority of their time
mark recapture
capturing and marking organisms, then recapturing them and counting how many are marked
population growth
change in population size over time
sexual dimorphism
changes within form or appearance between males and females in secondary sex traits
Period
chunks of an era
megafaunal extinction
climatic or human driven or a combination of both
symbiotic relationship
close interaction between species in which one species lives in or on the other
unity
common ancestry
interspecific competition
competition between members of different species
intraspecific competition
competition between members of the same species
intersexual competition
competition between one sex, typically females, where they choose a mate based on their preferences
Coriolis effect
deflects the direction of the wind to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere
aquatic biomes
driven by depth and the distance from the mainland
macroevolution
evolution on the grand scale that is concerned with the origin of new species and taxa
great lakes
formed by pressure from the glaciers and left lots of water behind in the valleys thus turning them into lakes
Rodinia
formed from 2 sided subduction where both plates slid under the mantle 1.1 bya
microevolution
genetic exchange within a population
genotype
genetic makeup of an organism
adiabatic cooling
heat loss and molecules move more and more apart
source
high quality patch
biological species concept
if two individuals from two different species have offspring and its viable then the two individuals are of the same species
dot maps
individual locations of known individuals or populations
interference competition
individuals use aggressive dominance inhibition to deny others access to resources
exploitative competition
individuals use up resources and make them unavailable for others
Beringia
land beneath the bering strait that became exposed and a flat, grassy treeless plain emerged, connecting Asia to North America
Pannotia
landmass corresponding with Cambrian explosion about 500 mya
density dependent
limiting factor that depends on population size
sink
low quality patch
magnetic reversals
magnetism is divided intro strips on either side of the ridges
intersexual competition
members of the same sex, usually males, who compete with each other for sexual access to members of the other sex
diversity
modifications which evolved as a species that diverged from a common ancestor and one another
currents
movements that carry nutrients and food to organisms that live permanently in one place
Stabilizing selection
natural selection that favors moderate traits within a range of variation
Disruptive variation
natural selection which selects the traits from both of the extreme ends of variation
mantle drag
occurs at subduction zones, lateral flow and friction between mantle and overlying plate creates a dragging force, pulling plates past the asthenosphere
ridge push
occurs at the midoceanic ridges where magma upwells from the asthenosphere to the surface. Basaltic portion of mantle is melted and is then brought to the surface
random distribution
occurs when there is no competition, antagonism, or tendency to aggregate
Biota
plants (flora) and animals (fauna) living in a region
Convergent
plates hit one another which may cause a mountain range or trenches; ring of fire
Divergent
plates move away from each other
Transform
plates passing each other can create linear fault lines, creating earthquakes
exponential growth
populations can grow rapidly over a short amount of time; J shaped
Malthusian Population Theory
populations will grow exponentially while resources grow linearly so there will be levels of conflict
Georges Louis Leclerc , Comte de Buffon
proposed that species originated from the far north portion of Earth and migrated south overtime, changing as they did so
outline maps
regions on a map where populations or species could occupy
uniform distribution
results from intense competition or antagonism between individuals
photo collection
scientists will start photo arcing distinct markings and compare them when they're seen again
morphological species concept
set of distinct physical features of a population which sets it apart from another
Epochs
shortest division of geological time, noted due to driving natural forces, changes in rock deposits,
contour maps
show gradients and additional data to determine likelihood of abundance at different locations
density
size of population in relation to the space it occupies - birth rate increases density - immigration increases density - death rate decreases density - immigration decreases density
Vicariance biogeography
speciation due to the shifting environmental conditions, like a creation of a new barrier
allopatric speciation
speciation that occurs via geographic separation
parapatric speciation
speciation that takes place like allopatric speciation but there is a narrow overlap of land between the populations leading to intermating, lowering fitness and driving stronger isolation between the two species
sympatric speciation
speciation within a larger population often due to behavioral differences
Refugia
species during glaciation that had to be displaced from their normal ranges and often were more isolated and fragmented thus having implications of breeding
cladograms
supply a hypothetical picture of actual history of organisms
realized niche
the actual environmental conditions a species survives and reproduces in
biological evolution
the change in heritable characteristics of a population of organisms over the course of many generations; is NOT goal oriented
slab pull
the force due to the weight of the cold, dense sinking tectonic plate, slab pull may account for much of net tectonic forces
niche
the habitat that a species occupies, but also the role or specific function a species has on the ecosystem as a whole; the interrelationship of a species with all the abiotic and biotic factors impacting it
species distribution
the manner in which a biological taxon is spatially arranged; the geographic limits of a taxon's distributions is its range
clumped distribution
the most common type of population distribution where many members of the population live close together
horizontal gene transfer
the non-sexual movement of genetic info between genomes which can occur between related and unrelated species
birth rate
the number of births in a population in a certain amount of time
Biogeography
the science that determines spatial patters of biological diversity
home range
the specific area which an animal or population moves and spends its time in
population size
the total number of individuals in an area
fundamental niche
the total range of environmental conditions in which a species can survive and reproduce
Biodiversity
the variability of all living organisms on Earth
homologous traits
traits that are shared in populations because the same common ancestor of the populations had that traits so they share that genotype
analogous traits
traits which form when two populations have the same phenotypic trait but it is NOT due to common ancestry
convergent evolution
two different populations had a similar random mutation event that each were selected for in their environment
Directional selection
type of natural selection that favors traits at an extreme end of a range of variation
phylogenetic species concept
uses genetic differentiation to determine species' does not account as heavily for morphology differences or breeding potential
prevailing westerlies
winds that blow west to east between 30 and 60 degrees in the northern and southern hemispheres