ethics study guide
Describe Kant's four cases in which duty is showcased, explaining whether each indicates moral worth and why
1. Acts that are contrary to duty-these acts may be useful in our lives, but they are completed in opposition in opposition to our duties. Examples of these actions include lying, stealing, and cheating. These may be temporarily useful in the sense that they get us what we want in life, but will always be immoral because under any circumstance they go against our morals. 2. Acts that are according to duty, we desire something that the act will bring about. Kant considers these acts amoral, or morally neutral, because the person if fulfilling the right action, but because of this desire to complete it, the act is considered amoral in the eyes of Kant. One example of this would be somebody giving a homeless person money, but only to get credit because of it. 3. Acts that are according to duty, but the person desires the dutiful act in itself. This scenario is when a person desires to complete a moral act, and they successfully complete it and because they want to be virtuous and Kant sees this scenario as being amoral. One example of this could be telling the truth because you want to. 4. Acts that are not just according to duty, but from duty. These actions are considered moral because the person has to overcome their desires in order to preform the morally correct action.
Provide and explain Kant's three propositions of morality.
1. An act must be done from duty in order to have any moral worth. It is not enough for your act to be dutiful, but it has to be motivated by duty in order to fit in this category. 2. An act from duty has its worth not in the scenario attained by it, but that maxim that determines it. A maxim is a principal in which we act on, and the value comes from why we preform the duty, not just from our duty to preform it. One example of this would be stealing from the rich to give to the poor, which Kant would consider immoral. 3. The necessity of actions done out of respect for the moral law. We can respect the moral law objectively and Kant explains that only rational beings can behave morally because only rational beings can present the moral law to themselves
Discuss a significant similarity or difference between Mill and Aristotle AND Mill and Kant.
1. Mill and Aristotle-The main difference between Mill and Aristotle is the importance of the effect of the moral person's actions. To Aristotle, the moral person will always preform the correct moral actions, and to him it does not matter what the outcome of this action is. On the other hand, Mill only looks at the consequence to the action. To Mill, the things brought about by a person's actions determines whether or not the act was moral. 2. Mill and Kant-One similarity between Mill and Kant is that they both can involve the moral person acting against their desires in order to complete the morally correct action. With Kant, a person of true morality will always act against their desires in order to preform moral duties. With Mill, the virtuous person completes the act that will bring the most amount of people the most amount of happiness, which usually does not align with the desires of the individual.
Explain how Mill overcomes the objections that utilitarianism is (a) vulgar and (b) selfish.
1. One objection to utilitarianism is that it is selfish. Mill believes that this is incorrect because we are promoting the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest amount of people, and there for utilitarianism is selfless because it deals with the population as a whole, not individual needs. 2. Another objection to utilitarianism is that it is vulgar. Mill believes this is incorrect because utilitarianism appeals to different qualities of pleasure. Some pleasures have a higher quality than pleasures of mere sensation. Both quality and quantity are considered in utilitarianism. Mill believes that when we give into lower quality pleasures, this is a weakness in our character.
According to Aristotle, what are the five major intellectual virtues? Provide an account and example of each
1. Pure science/reason-things we know to be true and can be proven, and objects that are eternal and unchanging. One example is mathematical equations, which we can use to prove other concepts. 2. Applied science/art-production under the guidance of true reason. Applying pure science to real life, but open to interpretation unlike pure science. An example could be a sculpture that is used to help people understand beauty. 3. Intuition/intelligence-grasps first principals that ground science, for example the principal of identity. The first order necessary for anything else. You need an intuition before you can prove why something is in any case. An example could be that you have an intuition that the sky is blue because of certain reflections of light. You can use an intuition to generate a provable or improvable theory. 4. Philosophical/theoretical-combines science and intuitive reason. The highest intellectual virtue. Contemplation of a higher being, or just being itself. An example of this could be thinking about God's existence, and answers we find to this contemplation can explain other phenomena. 5. Practical wisdom-thinking about living well. The possession of moral virtue and being aware of how this differs from person to person. An example of this is telling a friend that going out with their friends is the right thing to do tonight because he knows it will make everyone involved feel pleasure and they will want to help because they know it is the right thing to do. This will help us understand how we ought to behave virtuously, relative to ourselves. An example of this person might be someone who is able to know how much money would be appropriate to donate to a charity.
How does Aristotle define moral virtue? Discuss each element of his definition.
Aristotle defines moral virtue as a characteristic that we choose the means by which to exercise, that falls as the median between two extreme vices. Only the person of practical wisdom is able to distinguish this mean, and it is relative to each person. This is because the rational principal determines our means. Aristotle talks about how in order for characteristics to be true virtues, they need to be completed by choice with the right actions being completed with the right desires, and for the right reasons.
Explain why, for Kant, actions that accord with the laws of morality are objectively necessary for God and for us alike, though subjectively necessary for God and only subjectively contingent for us.
Kant describes the moral law as follows, I should never act except in such a way that I can will that my maxim should become a universal law. To Kant, actions in accordance with the laws of morality are necessary for both mortal humans, and God. For God, if reason determines the will, actions are objectively and subjectively necessary. The only thing that influences decision making is reason. For God only, reason completely determines 100% of his actions and what is required of God objectively is what he is already going to do. For humans, if reason does not determine the will, actions are objectively necessary and subjectively contingent. We can fail to fulfill morals because we also have the option to act on the basis of desires and not reason, unlike God. And unlike God, we follow the moral law, not because of nature, but because it is commanded of us.
Explain why Mill maintains that utilitarians want people to desire virtue "disinterestedly, for itself" (35). Be sure to explain the double role of virtue in regard to happiness.
Mill holds that utilitarians want people to desire virtue "disinterestedly, for itself" because virtue is not a means to an end, but an end in itself. It is not a tactic to get at being moral, but is made up of moral actions itself. He describes that virtue is "at the head of things which are good to an ultimate end, or what we consider happiness. Virtue is our best means to our end of happiness. In fact, the mind is not in a state conformable totality unless it does love virtue in this manner. Virtue plays a double role of 1) being the best means to happiness, and 20 while virtue is not naturally and originally part of an end, virtue becomes part of our happiness.
Explain what Kant means when he claims that good will is the only unqualified good. In your answer, contrast good will to goods that are qualified and give two examples of such goods.
To Kant, our duties elucidate what our good wills are, and good will is the only good without qualification because they are good in themselves, regardless of the action it brings about. They are unable to be used in negative ways and are good on their own without needing any specific qualifications to make them good in a certain scenario. Goods that are qualified would include gifts of fortune such as good health, power, and being rich. These things can be good, but they are not good in themselves and can be misused by a person of bad character, unlike good wills. These things can be good if utilized by a person of good character, but can also be misused by a person of bad character.
