European Leaders
Edward the Confessor
(1042-1066) Saxon, King of England, The son of Aethelred the Unready and Emma of Normandy, he is usually regarded as the last king of the House of Wessex. His death launched a fight over the English monarchy between Harald and William the Bastard of Normandy, married Godwin's daughter Edith, revolt against Tostig Earl of Northumbria, founded Westminster Abbey
Henry the Navigator
(1394-1460) Portuguese prince who promoted the study of navigation and directed voyages of exploration down the western coast of Africa.
Mary II
(1689-1694) This daughter of James II came to the throne and ruled jointly with her husband and 1st cousin, William of Orange, when James II was deposed in the Glorious Revolution
Anne
(1702-1707) Stuart, daughter of James II, succeeded William III when he died in 1702, 1707 England and Scotland were united as a single sovereign state, the Kingdom of Great Britain, last of the Stuarts, died without any surviving children, War of Spanish Succession 1701-1714
Louis XVIII
(1814-1824) Restored Bourbon throne after the Revoltion. He accepted Napoleon's Civil Code (principle of equality before the law), honored the property rights of those who had purchased confiscated land and establish a bicameral (two-house) legislature consisting of the Chamber of Peers (chosen by king) and the Chamber of Deputies (chosen by an electorate)., Brother of Louis XVI, lived in exile during Napoleons' reign, influenced by liberal minister Elie Decazes but later influenced by reactionary Ultras
Charles X of France
(1824-1830), Restoration, absolutist, wanted to re-establish the old order in France, conquered Algeria to gain support, repudiated the Constitutional Charter, censored the press, headed reactionary Ultras, favoritism to catholics caused the July 1830 revolution, exiled to Britain
Ferdinand I of Austria
(1835-1848) promised reforms and a liberal constitution in response to widespread protests and revolt, abdicates in favor of Francis Joseph, controlled by von Metternich
Theodosius I The Great
(379-395) In 391, declared Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire; heresy became a crime, pagan sacrifice was outlawed (eventually all forms of pagan worship will follow), last to rule an united Roman Empire, persecuted Arians
Charlemagne
(768-814 CE) Carolingian, born in Aachen, brother Crloman, Crowned king on Christmas, 800 CE by Pope Leo III in Saint Peter's Basilica; can be compared to Harsha; brought back unified rule to Europe only during his life; used the missi dominici to check up on imperial officials, gathered scholars including Alcuin of York, fought off Viking invasions
Aethelflaed
(905~911)-919, Saxon, Queen of Mercia, ruled following the death of her husband Aethelred of the Mercians, worked with brother Edward the Elder to conquer the Danes, won at Derby and Leicester, efforts led to Edward almost fully controlling England
Leopold II
(reigned 1865-1909) King of Belgium who employed Henry Morton Stanley to help develop commercial ventures and establish a colony called the Congo Free State in the basin of the Congo River, put workers in terrible conditions, annexed the Belgian congo in 1908, forced to institute reforms aiding workers
Teutonic Knights
.... of St. John of Jerusalem, founded by Germans,Order of knights devoted to Christianity and to fighting Muslims and pagans, Most active in Baltic region where they fought Slavs and controlled Prussia, tried to convert Eastern Europe to Christianity, defeated by Poland at Tannenberg in 1410
Herny II the Saint
1002-1024, Saxon, HRE, last Saxon king of Germany, crowned by Pope Benedict VIII, fought three campaigns in Italy, fought KIng Boleslaw I of Poland
St. Olaf II
1015-1028, Norway, converted to Christianity by english Aethelred II, killed at Battle of Stiklestad, canonized in 1164
Edmund II Ironsides
1016-1016, Saxon, King of England, resisted Danish king Canute's invasion of England following the death of his father Aethelred II the Unready, defeated by Canute at Ashington
Canute II the Great
1016-1035, Dane, King of England, son of Sweyn I the Forkbeard, stayed in England as king of the Danes, exiled Olaf II of Norway, had conflicts in Scandinavia, harsh treatment of English at the beginning but grew warmer, peaceful reign in England, sons Harold(illegitimate) and Hardecanute(legitimate)
Conrad II
1024-1039, Salian, HRE, king of Lombards, inherited Burgundy from Rudolf III
Henry I of Capet
1031-1060, Capetian, struggled with feudiaries, helped then fought with William the Conqueror, lost at Varaville to him
Duncan I
1034-1040, Scotland, King of Scotland, killed by Macbeth of Moray
Harold I Harefoot
1035-1040, Dane, King of England, witenagemot royal council divided England between him and Hardecanute but Hardecanute stayed in Denmark
Henry III the Black
1039-1056, Salian, HRE, appointed Pope Clement II and three more German popes
Hardecanute
1040-1042, Dan, King of England, last dane king of England, left control of England to mom and Godwin, Earl of Wessex
Macbeth
1040-1057, Scotland, King of Scotland, murdered Duncan I, Killed in battle by Malcolm Canmore in 1057
St. Leo IX
1049-1054, Pope, caused Great Schism by excommunicating patriarch Michael Cerularius of Constantinople with bull in Hagia Sophia
Henry IV
1056-1106, Salian, HRE, won civil war against Rudolf Duke of Swabia, deposed Pope Gregory VII and replaced him with Clement III
Harold II
1066, Saxon, King of England, last Saxon King of England, defeated Tostig and Norwegian Harold III but lost to William Duke of Normandy at Hastings October 14 1066
William I the Conqueror
1066-1087, Norman, King of England, son of Robert I of Normandy, Pope Alexander II sanctioned his invasion of England, landed at Pevensey and won at Hastings 1066, crowned at Westminster Abbey, invaded Malcolm III MacDuncan's Scotland 1072, fell off horse at Mantes in campaign against French Philip I
Olaf III the Quiet
1066-1093, Norway, father Harold III Hard Ruler killed at Battle of Stamford Bridge, ruled for three years with brother Magnus II Barefoot
St. Gregory VII
1073-1085, Pope, opposed simony(sale of clerical office) and lay investiture, leading to Investiture Controversy, HRE Henry IV declared him deposed
Alexius I Comnenus
1081-1118, Byzantine emperor whose request for aid from the west served as the pretext for the Crusades, fought Norman invaders led by Robert Guiscard alongside Venetians, regained Anatolia from Seljuk Turks during the First Crusade, disputed with Bohemia, daughter Anna Comnena wrote his biography, Alexiad
William II Rufus
1087-1100, Norman, King of England, defeated uncle Odo who wanted to replace him with Robert, thrice invaded Normandy against brother Robert II, killed on hunting trip
Urban II
1088-1099, Pope, launched First Crusade, sought to end Great Schism but continued opposition to investiture
Donald Bane
1093-1094, 1095-1097, Scotland, King of Scotland, briefly deposed by nephew Duncan II
Pashal II
1099-1118, Pope, resolved disputes with English Henry I and French Phillip I, first Crusade successful, continued investiture conflict with HRE Henry IV and V, who took him prisoner, after 61 days gave Henry right to appoint bishops but nulified this in 1112
Henry I Beauclerc
1100-1135, Norman, King of England, defeated brother Robert II at Tinchebray
Boleslaw III
1102-1138, Piast, King of Poland, defended Silesia against HRE Henry V, conquered Pomerania, at his death kingdom was divided among sons and deteriorated
Henry V
1106-1125, Salian, HRE, last Salian, fought Pope Paschal II over lay investiture
Louis VI the Fat
1108-1137, Capetian, fought Henry I of England and Henry V of the Holy Roman Empire, aided peasants
David I
1124-1153, Scotland, King of Scotland, failed to have niece Matilda enthroned in England
Sverker
1130-1156, Sweden, King, united Swedes and Goths, capital at Uppsala
Stephen of Blois
1135-1154, Blois, King of England, nephew of Henry I, usurped throne from cousin Matilda
Louis VII the Young
1137-1180, Capetian, married Eleanor of Aquitane before the marriage was annulled and she married Henry II of England, led the Second Crusade with Conrad III of Germany, lost Aquitane
Conrad III
1138-1152, Hohenstaufen, HRE, first Hohenstaufen, king of Italy, leader in Second Crusade
Alfonso I
1139-1185, Portugal, first King of Portugal, captured Lisbon
Frederick I Barbarossa
1152-1190, Hohenstaufen, HRE, defeated by Lombard League at Legnano, led Third Crusade in 1189, drowned in Calycadnus River
Henry II
1154-1189, Plantagenet, king of England, broadened the system of royal justice by expanding accepted customs into law and establishing royal courts. Married to Eleanor of Aquitaine, father of King John Lackland, four of his knights murdered Thomas a Beckett, but forced to do penance, son of Matilda, defeated Stephen of Blois
Alexander III
1159-1181, Pope, studied under Gratian, father of canon law, negotiated Treaty of Constance with HRE Frederick I, forced English Henry II to do penance for murder of Thomas a Beckett, forced into French exile by Frederick I, presided over Third Lateran Council
William the Lion
1165-1214, Scotland, King of Scotland, made alliance with French Louis VII, captured by English Henry II near Alnwick and assented to Treaty of Falaise acknowledging Henry II as overlord, secured independence of Scottish church from pope, Richard surrendered claims for payment
Hadrian
117-138, Rome, Third of the Five Good Emperors, ended Roman expansion, built namesake wall for defense, patron of arts, erected Athenaeum, Temple of Venus, Roma, mausloleum Castel Sant'Angelo and rebuilt Pantheon
Phillip II Augustus
1180-1223, Capetian, fought Richard I and John I of England, defeated European powers at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, fixed the capital at Paris and improved the city
Ivan Asen I
1186-1196, Tsar of the Second Bulgarian empire, founded the Asen dynasty, led an uprising against Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelus, murdered by one of his boyars in 1196
Peter Asen II
1186-1197, Tsar of the Second Bulgarian empite, founded the Asen dynasty, murdered in 1197 in a riot
Richard I the Lionheart
1189-1199, Plantagenet, King of England, given Aquitaine by mom Eleanor, Brother was King John. Launched the 3rd crusade with Phillip II of France to retake Jerusalem after Saladin captured it. He took Aere, but could not take Jerusalem,captured by HRE Henry IV and ransomed, made peace with brother John
Phillip of Swabia
1197-1208, Hohenstaufen, HRE, fought for the German throne following the death of Henry VI, first German king to be assassinated
Otto IV of Brunswick
1198-1215, Hohenstaufen, HRE, grandson of Henry II of England, excommunicated by Pope Innocent III, defeated by France at Bouvines
Innocent III
1198-1216, Pope, established control of the Papal States, declared Crusade against dualist Albigensianism in 1208, launched unsuccessful Fourth Crusade, convoked Fourth Lateran Council, encouraged St. Dominic and St. Francis
John Lackland
1199-1216, Plantagenet, King of England, Though he tried to seize the crown from his brother Richard while the latter was in Germany, Richard forgave John and made him his successor. Excommunicated by the Pope for four years for refusing to accept Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury, John was also weak as a fighter, as French King Philip II routed him at Bouvines in 1214. A year later, England's barons forced John to sign the Magna Carta at Runnymede, an event that marked the beginning of the development of the British constitution.
Mithridates VI Eupator
120-63 BC, king of Pontus, defeated by Sulla, Lucullus, and Pompey the Great in 66 BC
Alexander II
1214-1249, Scotland, King of Scotland, supported barons against English John, Peace of York established boundary with England
Frederick II
1215-1250, Hohenstaufen, HRE, led Fifth Crusade, fought Lombards
Henry III
1216-1272, Plantagenet, forced to accept Provisions of Oxford to share power with barons in 1258, son Edward defeated barons at Evesham
Hakon IV the Old
1217-1263, Norway, defeated rival Earl Skule, acquired Greenland in 1261 and Iceland in 1262, murdered historian Snorri Sturluson
Louis VIII
1223-1226, House of Capet. Though he reigned for only three years, his contributions to the rise of French power were enormous. He annexed Languedoc and captured Poitou from England. Perhaps more importantly, he established the systems of appanages (land grants) which replaced the older, local nobles with barons who owed their fiefs to the crown. This allowed for the subsequent rise in French royal (and national) power. Offered English Crown to barons who opposed John but was defeated at Lincoln, participated in crusades against Albigenses(Cathars)
Saint Louis IX
1226-1270, Capetian, created a judicial system, led the Seventh Crusade but lost in Egypt in 1250, signed the Treaty of Corbeil with Aragon in 1258, signed Treaty of Paris with English Henry III, died on a crusade in Tunis
Gregory IX
1227-1241, Pope, excommunicated HRE Frederick II for not going on crusade, issued Excommunicamus to prosecute Albigensian heretics, establishing Inquisition, collected decretals to codify canon law
Alexander Nevsky
1246-1263, Rurik(Rus), Prince of Novgorod, beat Swedes at Neva River, beat Teutonic Knights at Lake Peipus Estonia, allied with Mongols to defeat the Germans
Conrad IV
1250-1254, Hohenstaufen, HRE, deposed by Pope Innovent IV, fought Henry Raspe and William of Holland for German crown
Great Interregnum
1254-1273, long period without a Holy Roman Emperor, began after Conrad IV and ended by the coronation of Rudolf I, transitioning from Hohenstaufen to Hapsburg
Michael VIII Palaeologus
1261-1282, restored Greek rule of the Byzantine Empire, retook Constantinople from the Latins, fought King Charles I of the Two Sicilies, formented plot by Sicilian Vipers
Visconti family
1262-1447, Milan, patrons of Petrarch, Ottone defeated Della Torre at Desio, last ruler was Filipepo Maria
Charles I
1266-1285, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, son of Louis VIII, went on Sixth Crusade with Louis IX, pope gave him Two Sicilies for helping fight Ghibellines, killed King Manfred, defeated revolt by Conrad III, went on failed Seventh Crusade, lost to Pedro III of Aragon
Edward I
1272-1307, Plantagenet, invaded Scotland in 1296, failed to crush William Wallace revolt in 1298, executed Wallace in 1305, Robert Bruce became Scottish King
Rudolf I
1273-1291, Hapsburg, HRE, fought Alfonso X of Castile and Ottokar II of Bohemia for German crown, ending Great Interregnum
Phillip IV the Fair
1285-1314, Capetian, Pope Boniface VIII issued Unam Sanctam bull against him in 1302 for making the clergy pay taxes, obtained election of Clement V as pope who moved to Avignon beginning Babylonian Captivity(until 1377), arrested Jacques de Molay of Knights Templar and burned many at stake
John de Baliol
1292-1296, Scotland, King of Scotland, English Edward I selected him over Robert de Bruce VI as king, allied with France and captured by English
Boniface VIII
1294-1303, Pope, issued Clericis Laicos against French Philip IV and English Edward I, forbidding clergy taxes, asserted papal supremacy in Unam Sanctum bull, imprisoned by Philip IV
Albert I
1298-1308, Hapsburg, HRE, lost war to Thuringia, murdered by nepher John of Swabia
Clement V
1305-1314, Pope, first pope to reside at Avignon in Babylonian Captivity, controlled by French Philip IV, suppressed Knights Templar
Robert I Bruce
1306-1329, Scotland, King of Scotland, deposed by English Edward I but reconquered most of Scotland within two years, defeated English at Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, made truce with Edward II but warred again with Edward III
Edward II
1307-1327, Plantagenet, First heir known as Prince of Wales, in 1311 barons led by Thomas Earl of Lancaster established committee of lords called lords ordainers and executed his friend Piers Gaveston, lost to Robert Bruce of Scotland in 1314, defeated Lancaster with the help of Hugh le Depenser, imprisoned by barons with wife Isabella, murdered by captors
Louis IV the Bavarian
1314-1347, Hapsburg, HRE, fought Frederick II the Fair and Leopold I for crown, opposed by Pope John XXII
Phillip V the Tall
1317-1322, Capetian, frequently convoked the Estates General, fined Jews
Wladyslaw I
1320-1333, Piast, King of Poland, defeated Tectonic Knights, reunited kingdom of Poland
Charles IV the Fair
1322-1328, Capetian(last), helped sister Isabelle dethrone husband Edward II of England, increased taxes
Edward III
1327-1377, Plantagenet, arrested mom Isabella and hung her lover Roger de Mortimer, defeated Scots, began Hundred Years' War in 1337, gained Aquitaine in Peace of Calais but lost most of his French possessions in 1375 truce
Phillip VI
1328-1350, Valois, crushed revolt in Flanders, began Hundred Years War, lost at Sluis(Netherlands 1340), Crecy(France 1346), Calais(France 1347), made truce with Edward III, plague began in France in 1347
David II Bruce
1329-1371, Scotland, King of Scotland, deposed by Edward de Baliol, allied with Franch eand lost to English at Neville's Cross in 1346, ransomed
Kazimierz III the Giant
1333-1370, Piast, King of Poland, conquered Galicia, enlightened, founded university
Louis I the Great
1342-1382, Hungary and Poland, fought three wars with Venice
Charles IV of Luxemburg
1347-1378, Hapsburg, HRE, issued Golden Bull, establishing method of imperial election
John II the Good
1350-1354, Valois, captured by Edward the Black Prince at Poitiers in 1356, tried to raise ransom under the Peace of Bretigny but failed and was imprisoned
Charles V the Wise
1364-1380, Valois, reagent when John II was imprisoned, faced Jacquerie peasant revolt, insurrection of Paris under Etienne Marcel, successful in war against England, built the Bastille, founded first French royal Library
Robert II
1371-1390, Stuart, King of Scotland, twice regent for David II
Richard II
1377-1399, Plantagenet, asserted authority over Parliament with help of uncle John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, exiled but later caught by John of Gaunt's son Henry Blingbroke, Duke of Hereford, confined in Pontefract Castle
Wenceslas
1378-1400, Hapsburg, HRE, made Prague capital, supported John Huss but later fought his followers in Hussite Wars
Antonius Pius
138-161, Rome, Fourth of the Five Good Emperors, built wall between Forth and Clyde rivers in Britain, Antonine Column now in Vatican built in his honor by Marcus Aurelius
Charles VI of France
1380-1422, Valois, went insane in 1392, civil wars between Armagnacs of Orleans and Burgundians, Lost to England at Agincourt in 1415, England imposed treaty of Troyes giving Henry V succession to the French throne
Wladyslaw II Jagiello
1386-1434, Jagiellonian, King of Poland, grand duke of Lithuania, converted Lithuania to Roman Catholicism, defeated Teutonic Knights at Tannenberg in 1410
Henry IV Bolingbroke
1399-1413, Lancaster, exiled by cousin Richard II but raised an army to defeat him, suppressed rebellions by nobles, Scots, and Welsh, persecuted Lollards, followers of Wycliffe
Tiberius
14-37, Rome, emperor, stepson of Augustus, married his daughter Julia, studied at Rhodes for seven years, left Praetorian guard prefect Lucius Sejanus in charge when he went to Campania and Capreae
James I
1406-1437, Stuart, King of Scotland, English prisoner 1406-1423, daughter married French Louis XI, assassinated by nobles
Sigismund
1411-1437, Hapsburg, HRE, wife Queen Mary of Hungary, defeated by Ottoman Bayazid I at Nicopolis in Bulgaria, convoked Council of Constance, executed John Huss and fought Hussite wars
Henry V
1413-1422, Lancaster, defeated French at Agincourt in 1415, became heir to French Charles VI and married his daughter Catherine of Valois, brother Thomas duke of Clarence lost Normandy to the French
Martin V
1417-1431, Pope, election by Council of Constance ended Great Schism
Charles VII of France
1422-1461, Valois, established a royal army composed of cavalry and archers. He recieved from the Estates General the right to levy the taille without any further approval of them. It meant less power for the Estates General, ruled only Southern France while England controlled Northern France, regained English territory
Henry VI
1422-1471, Lancaster, nobles attempted to replace him with Richard duke of York in the War of Roses, Richard killed in 1460 but his son Edward imprisoned him in Tower of London
Eugene IV
1431-1447, Pope, struggled against Council of Basel, French Charles VII issued Pragmatic Sanction in 1438 giving French church some freedom, moved Council of Basel to Ferrara then Florence, temporarily rejoined Roman Catholic and Greek orthodox churches
Cosio de'Medici
1434-1464, Florence, established Medici dominance in Florence, his line included Lorenzo and Popes Leo X and Clement VII, family ruled Florence until 1737
James II
1437-1460, Stuart, King of Scotland, Douglas family served as a regent, stabbed William 8th earl of Douglas, entangled in War of Roses, killed in siege of Roxburgh Castle
Alfonso V the African
1438-1481, Portugal, King, sponsored west African exploration by Henry the Navigator
Kazimierz IV
1447-1492, Jagiellonian, King of Poland, won land from the Teutonic Knights in Treaty of Torun
Constantine XI Paleaeologus
1449-1453, the last Byzantine emperor, Byzantine Empire was reduced to Constantinople by the Ottomans, Muhammad II over took the city, only defended by a few hundred Greeks and Genoese
Sforza family
1450-1535, Milan, patrons of Bramante and da Vinci
James III
1460-1488, Stuart, King of Scotland, gained Orkney and Shetland islands by marrying Margaret of Denmark, imprisoned by brother Alexander Stewart duke of Albany, English captured Berwick, lost to nobles at Sauchieburn
Louis XI of France
1461-1483, Valois, rebelled against Charles VII in 1440 but was pardoned, rival of Charles the Bold
Edward IV
1461-1483, York, won Battle of Mortimer's Cross in 1461, Lancastrians and Richard Neville earl of Warwick drove him into exile by 1470 but he returned in 1471
Ivan III the Great
1462-1505, Rurik(Rus), first csar, Grand Duke of Moscow, ended Mongol domination of his dukedom, extended territories, subdued nobles, and attained absolute power; made Moscow the center of a new Russian state with a central government, invaded Lithuania, ruled like a Byzantine, acquired land from Lapland to Urals
Lorenzo de'Medici the Magnificent
1464-1492, Florence, directed Medici bank and was de facto ruler of Florentine republic, patronized artists including Michelangelo and Sandro Botticelli
Zygmunt II Augustus
1469-1472, Jagiellonian, King of Poland, joined Poland and Lithuania in the Commonwealth, dynasty ended at his death and nobles and the Sejm Parliament ruled
Isabella I
1474-1504, Spain, Queen of Spain, began Spanish Inquisition with Husband Ferdinand V
Ferdinand V
1479-1516, Spain, King of Spain, began Spanish Inquisition with wife Isabella I on the empowerment of Pope Sixtus IV, led by Torquemada, funded Christopher Columbus
Edward V
1483, York, power struggle between uncles Richard duke of Gloucester and Anthony Woodville second Earl Rivers when dad Edward IV died, confined to the Tower of London
Richard III
1483-1485, York, murdered nepherws Edward and Richard, slain at Bosworth Field
Charles VIII of France
1483-1498, Valois, French king, invited by Sforza to invade Florence, fought over Italy with Ferdinand of Aragon in the first of many French Italian wars. In 1494, he controlled Florence, the Papal States, and Naples before being defeated by Italy, Gained Brittany by marrying Anne of Brittany
Henry VII
1485-1509, Tudor/Lancaster, defeated Richard III at Bosworth Field in 1485, married Yorkist heiress Elizabeth to unite houses and end War of Roses
James IV
1488-1513, Stuart, King of Scotland, supported Perkin Warbeck's claim to English throne, married Margaret Tudor, leading to eventual English-Scottish Union, allied with France but lost to England at Battle of Flodden Field, patronized arts
Maximillian I
1493-1519, Hapsburg, HRE, defeated Louis XI of France for Burgundy, won thrones of Hungary and Bohemia for Hapsburgs, son Phillip I married Joanna the Mad, establishing Hapsburgs in Spain
Girolamo Savonarola
1494-1497, Florence, Dominican friar, displaced Medicis with Charles VIII(France)'s aid, hanged as heretic
Manuel I
1495-1521, Portugal, King, sponsored Vasco de Gama, Pedro Alvares Cabral, Afonso de Albuquerque
Louis XII of France
1498-1515, Valois, rebelled against Charles VIII, known as Father of the People, mild rule, invaded Italy
Henry VIII
1509-1547, Tudor, joined Holy League against France, faced riots over heavy taxes in 1525, wives Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves, Catherin Howard, Catherine Parr, established Church of England when Pope wouldn't annul marriage to Catherine of Aragon, THomas Cranmer annuled marriage
Leo X
1513-1521, Pope, son of Lorenzo de'Medici, led Fifth Lateran Council, excommunicated Martin LUther in 1521 for 1517 protests against sale of indulgences
Christian II
1513-1523, claimed the Swedish throne under the Union of Kalmar and captured Stockholm in 1523, executed many Swedish nobles, becoming known as the Cruel, Gustav Vasa rebelled against him and took crown, Uncle Frederick I elected Danish King, supported by Holy Roman Empire Charles VI but was still imprisoned for 27 years
James V
1513-1542, Stuart, King of Scotland, John Stewart duke of Albany became his protector, taken prisoner by stepdad Archibald 6th earl of Angus, refused to repudiate Catholicism and was routed by English Henry VIII at Solway Moss
Louis II
1515-1526, Hungary, fought Ottoman Suleiman, invaded Turks
Francis I of France
1515-1547, Valois, Lost election for Holy Roman Emperor to Charles V of Hapsburg, lost and captured in Italy but ransomed, sold judicial and financial offices
Charles I(HRE Charles V)
1516-1556, Spain, King of Spain, 1552 Peace of Passau allowed Lutherans to exercise religion, reaffirmed by 1555 Peace of Augsburg, fought France and Ottomans
Charles V
1519-1556, Hapsburg, HRE, 1552 Peace of Passau allowed Lutherans to exercise religon, reaffirmed by 1555 Peace of Augsburg, fought France and Ottomans, ruled as Charles I of Spain
John III
1521-1557, Portugal, King, title to Brazil confirmed by Congress of Badajoz in 1524, established Inquisition in Portugal, increased influence over the Moluccas(Spice Islands)
Clement VII
1523-1534, Pope, held prisoner by HRE Charles V for seven months in 1527, declared English Henry VIII;s marriage to Catherine of Aragon still valid, patronized Cellini, Raphael and Michelangelo
Gustav I Vasa
1523-1560, Sweden, led a successful uprising agains the Danes and became king of Sweden, encouraged the spread of Protestant ideas and allowed Petri to continue his Swedish translations of the mass and the Lutheran service, founded house of Vasa, freed Sweden from Danish Christian II
Ivan IV the Terrible
1530-1584, Rurik(Rus), first crowned csar, Confirmed power of tsarist autocracy by attacking authority of boyars (aristocrats), continued policy of Russian expansion, established contacts with western European commerce and culture, son of Basil III, convoked first national assembly, expanded to Volga River, became erratic and brutal
Paul III
1534-1549, Pope, revised Inquisition, started Counter Reformation, Michelangelo began work on Sistine Chapel, negotiated Treaty of Nice between HRE Charles V and French Francis I, excommunicated English Henry VIII 1538, called Council of Trent, established Jesuits(society of Jesus)
Mary Queen of Scots
1542-1567, Stuart, Queen of Scotland, married French Francis II, then Henry Stewart Lord Darnley, Catholic relative to Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England, allegedly plotted with Spain's Philip II to overthrow Elizabeth and reassert Catholicism in England, Elizabeth had her beheaded, defeated revolt by brother James Stuart earl of Moray, Darnley murdered adviser David Rizzio, James Hepburn 4th earl of Bothwell had Darnley strangled and married Mary, lost to nobles, executed by Elizabeth I
Edward VI
1547-1553, Tudor, uncle Edward Seymour 1st Earl of Hertford was Lord Protector and Duke of Somerset, John Dudley executed Seymour
Henry II of France
1547-1559, Valois, married Catherine de Medicis, persecuted the Huguenots, fought Charles V, won Calais and Gines from England, lost to Phillip II of Spain at St. Quentin Picardy, gave up Italian possessions in Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis
Mary I Tudor
1553-1558, Tudor, deposed Lady Jane Grey, married Spanish Phillip II, lost Calais, reestablished authority of pope
Phillip II
1556-1598, Spain, King of Spain, Netherlands started to fight for independence, destroyed Ottoman navy at Lepanto, became King of Portugal, Spanish Armada defeated by English 1588
Elizabeth I
1558-1603, Tudor, imprisoned by Mary until she converted to Catholicism, reverted to Protestantism when Mary died, established Church of England in Elizabethan Compromise, execute Catholic cousin Mary Queen of Scots, defeated Spanish Armada in 1588, Robert Devereux 2nd Earl of Essex lost to Irish and then led failed revolt against Elizabeth
Francis II of France
1559-1560, Valois, married Mary, Queen of Scots, dominated by Francois duke of Guise and Cardinal Charles of Lorraine
Pius IV
1559-1565, Pope, reconvened Council of Trent, commissioned Michelangelo
Charles IX of France
1560-1574, Valois, convinced by other Catherine of Medicis to approve St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre in 1572 v. The Huguenots
James VI
1567-1625, Stuart, James I of Great Britain
Henry III of France
1574-1589, Last Valois, initially opposed but then accepted Huguenot Henry of Navarre as successor
Rudolph II
1576-1612, Hapsburg, HRE, patron of Brahe and Kepler, gave religious liberties to Bohemians
Henry IV of France
1589-1610, Bourbon, raised by Calvinist mom Jeanne d'Albret, married Charles IX's sister Margaert of Valois converted to Catholicism but then back, issued Edict of Nantes in 1610
Boris Godunov
1598-1605, Russian, regent for young czar Fyodor, became Czar, first to banish people to Siberia, civil war against pretender to throne in Poland
Phillip III
1598-1621, Spain, King of Spain, agreed to a truce with England after the defeat of the Armada and officially recognized the United provinces as a country, backed Austria in Thirty Year's War, drove out last of the Moriscos
James I
1603-1625, Stuart, only son of Mary Queen of Scots, believed in the divine right of kings, authorized the King James Bible, gunpowder plot led by Guy Fawkes and Robert Catesby foiled November Fifth 1605
Charles IX
1604-1611, Vasa, King of Sweden, defeated Catholic nephew Polish Zygmunt III at Stangebro, war with Poland and Denmark, youngest son of Gustav I Vasa, defeated by poles at Kirklholm
False Dmitri
1605-1606, Russian, this man leads a peasant revolt to seize the crown. he is killed by the boyars
Marcus Aurelius
161-180, Rome, Last of the Five Good Emperors, wrote Meditations detailing his personal philosophy, Stoic, champion of the poor, end of Pax Romana
Louis XIII of France
1610-1643, Bourbon, mom Marie de Medicis served as regent until 1617, married Anne of Austria(daughter of King Phillip III of Spain), dominated by Cardinal Richelieu, entered the Thirty Year's War on the side of the Protestants and Sweden
Gustavus II Adolphus the Lion of the North
1611-1632, Vasa, King of Sweden, entered Thirty Year;s War to acquire Baltic States, killed at Battle of Lutzen
Michael Romanov
1613-1645, Romanov, Tsar of Russia, elected by national assembly, established dynasty
Ferdinand II
1619-1637, Hapsburg, HRE, Bohemian rebels threw two of his ministers out a window in the Defenestration of Prague, causing the Thirty Year's War
Phillip IV
1621-1665, Spain, King of Spain, lost Netherlands in Treaty of Westphalia, cede Roussillon to France in treaty of the Pyrenees
Charles I
1625-1649, Stuart, born in Dunfermline, accepted Petition of Right demanding reforms in exchange for funds for Thirty Years' War but dismissed Parliament, called Short Parliament to quell Presbyterian Scots riots, called Long Parliament whihc refused funding to down Irish revlot, tried to arrest members of Parliament, civil war between Roundheads and Cavaliers, Oliver Cromwell led Independents in Parliament, Rump Parliament executed him
Christina
1632-1654, Vasa, Queen of Sweden, Axel Oxenstierna served as regent, supported lower estates against nobles and Council of the Realm, Thirty Years' War caused economic problems, influenced by Descartes, never married, converted to Catholicism
Ferdinand III
1637-1657. Hapsburg, HRE, centralized government, strengthened Habsburg holdings, established a standing army, wanted to conquer the plains of Hungary, absolutist, signed Peace of Westphalia, letting rulers of each region to choose their religon
John IV
1640-1656, Braganza, King of Portugal, drove out Spanish Usurpers at Battle of Montijo, first Braganza king
Frederick William the Great Elector
1640-1688, Prussia, acquired land for Brandenburg, admitted Hugeunots, neutral during Thirty Years' War
Louis XIV of France
1643-1715, Bourbon, The Sun King, longest reign in European history, mom Anne of Austria and Cardinal Jules Mazarin ruled as regent, Fronde(slingshot) rebellions from 1648-1653, married Spanish cousin Marie Therese, built palace at Versailles, revoked Edict of Nantes in 1685, leading to Camisard's revolt, Invaded Spanish Netherlands, claimed Palatinate in the Rhineland, grandson Phillip became Spanish King leading to War of Spanish Succession
Alexis I
1645-1676, Romanov, Tsar of Russia, son of Michael I, lost war to Sweden, schism in Russian Orthodox Church
Oliver Cromwell
1653-1658, Commonwealth, won battle of Naseby against Cavaliers in English Revolution, became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth, tolerated Puritans
Charles X Gustav
1654-1660, Palatinate, King of Sweden, first of Palatinate dynasty, invaded Poland against cousin Jan II Kazimierz, allied with Brandenburg Frederick William and won at Warsaw, won lands from Danish Frederick II in Treaty of Roskilde, lost at Copenhagen
Richard Cromwell
1658-1659, son of Oliver Cromwell who briefly succeeded him as dictator until he was deposed in favor of restoring the monarchy
Charles II
1660-1685, Stuart, routed by Cromwell in 1651 but returned to power in 1660, granted amnesty to opponents, gained New Netherlands in unpopular Dutch War of 1672
Charles XI
1660-1697, Palatinate, King of Sweden, allied with French Louis XIV in Dutch Wars, lost land but regained most in Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, wiped out public debt and strengthened military
Peter I the Great
1682-1725, Romanov, Tsar of Russia, 6'8", first shared throne with older half-brother Ivan V, traveled in Europe to set a model for Russia, reformed the army by offering better pay and drafting peasants as professional soldiers, first Russian navy, ordered aristocrats to study mathematics, increased bureaucracy to improve efficiency, ordered his subjects to wear European styles and cut off their beards, taxing people with beards, constructed his capital, St. Petersburg, which had a large seaport, captured Azoz from Turks on Black Sea, defeated Sweden in Battle of Poltava 1709
James II
1685-1689, Stuart, Brother of Charles II, converted to Catholicism, deposed by Glorious Revolution, lost at Battle of the Boyne in Ireland in 1690, fled to France
William III
1689-1702, Stuart, hesitant to come into England from the Netherlands and immediately take over the thrown but most of the British army took his side so it was easy to make James II flee, passed the Act of Toleration in 1689 which guaranteed religious tolerance to Protestants, stopped catholic rule, placed more power towards the Parliament and stopped many of the illegal activities that James II was doing, joined Grand Alliance, opposed Parliament;s domestic reforms
Charles XII
1697-1718, Palatinate, King of Sweden, fought Great Northern War 1700-1721, invaded Denmark, routed Russia at Narva Estonia, overran Poland, crushed by Russia, besieged at Stralsund, killed in Norway
Phillip V (of Anjou)
1700-1746, Bourbon, King of Spain, first Spanish Bourbon, grandson of Louis XIV of France, ascension led to War of Spanish Succession
Frederick I
1701-1713, Prussia, First King, patronized scholars such as Leibniz, established Academy of Sciences
John V
1706-1750, Braganza, King of Portugal, allied with British in War of Spanish Succession, named "Most Faithful King" by Pope Benedict XIV
Charles VI
1711-1740, Hapsburg, HRE, Archduke of Austria and emergent Austrian empire. To keep it all together - i.e. Austria, Bohemia and Hungary, proposed Pragmatic Sanction, 1713, lost War of the Polish Succession
Frederick William I
1713-1740, Prussia, King, centralized Prussian finances, proud of Potsdam Guard, developed strong army
George I
1714-1727, Hanover, succeeded Queen Anne under Act of Settlement, never learned English, attempt to be replaced by James II's son failed
Louis XV
1715-1774, Bourbon, great-grandson of Louis XIV, Phillipe II duc d'Orleans ruled as regent, Prime Minister ANdre Hercule, gained Lorraine in War of Polish Succesion(1733-1735), indecisive War of Austrian Succesion(1740-1748), lost overseas possessions to Britain in the Seven Year's War(1756-1763)
Frederick I
1720-1751, Palatinate, King of Sweden, wife Ulrika Eleonora abdicated for him, Hats wanted to regain land from Russia but Caps wanted Peace, warred with Russia 1741-1743
Robert Walpole
1721-1742, Whig Prime Minister of Great Britain, first PM but title not that until later, supported peace and low taxes
Catherine I
1725-1727, Romanov, wife of Peter I the Great
George II
1727-1760, Hanover, subordinated English interests to Hannover in War of Austrian Succession 1740-1748, last monarch to fight in battle, at Battle of Dettingen in Bavaria
Maria Theresa
1740-1780, Hapsburg, HRE, ruled with Francis I, lost Silesia in War of the Austrian Succession, joined France and Russia against Prussia in Seven Year's War, acquired Galicia from Poland
Frederick II the Great
1740-1786, Prussia, King, learned war from dad Frederick William I and music from mom Sophia Dorothea, won Silesia from Maria Theresa, supported US in revolution
Charles III
1759-1788, Spain, King of Naples and Sicily and finally Spain, conquered Two Sicilies, enlightened despot
George III
1760-1820, Hanover, appointed Frederick North 2nd Earl of Gilford as Prime Minister 1770-1782, lost American colonies, appointed William Pitt as Prime Minister, contracted dementia and son served as regent from 1811 onwards
Catherine II the Great
1762-1796, Romanov, Tsaress of Russia, wife of Grand Duke Peter of Holstein who was overthrown by Imperial guards, expanded serfdom, enlightened despot, disbanded Cossack army after revolt, won two wars against Ottomans, annexed Crimea
Stanislaw II Augustus
1764-1795, King of Poland, paramour of Catherine the Great(russia), last king, Kosciusko, who had aided US in American Revolution, rebelled against Russians but was defeated by Suvorov, Poland was partitioned three times among Austria, Prussia and Russia
William Pitt
1766-1768, Prime Minister of Great Britain, defeated France in Seven Year's War 1756-1763, allied with Thomas Pelham-HOlles duke of Newcastle, distrusted by George III
Frederick North
1770-1782, Prime MInister of Britain, carried out George III's taxes of America despite thinking it unwise, resigned after surrender to America, opposed William Pitt the Younger with Charles James Fox
Louis XVI
1774-1792, Bourbon, called the Estates General in 1788 for the first time in 175 years, imprisoned in Tuileries, Bastille stormed July 14th 1789, legislative assembly replace Constituent Assembly, dominated by Girondists who declared war on Austria, Maganards under George Jacques Danton took control of Paris, guillotined January 21st 1793
Joseph II
1780-1790, Hapsburg, HRE, controlled the Catholic Church closely, granted religious toleration and civic rights to Protestants and Jews, and abolished serfdom, enlightened despot
William Pitt the Younger
1783-1801, 1804-1806, Prime Minister of Britain, negotiated trade deal with France, established colony in Australia, 1791 Canada act established representative institutions for English and French, wanted to incorporate Ireland into UK, opposed French expansion, resigned over opposition to equal rights for Catholics
Frederick William II
1786-1797, Prussia, King, supported Louis XVI, forced to cede land to France in Treaty of Basel, won land in Polish partitions, influenced by Rosicrucian order not Enlightenment
Charles IV
1788-1808, Spain, King of Spain, ceded Louisiana to France, navy destroyed at Trafalgar, influenced by wife Maria Louisa of Parma and paramour Manuel de Godoy, deposed by Napoleon
Leopold II
1790-1792, Hapsburg, HRE, opposed capital punishment, brother of Joseph II, pacified the Netherlands and Hungary, made agreements with Prussia and Turkey
Gustav IV Adolphus
1792-1809, Palatinate, King of Sweden, lost land to Napoleon
Francis II
1792-1835, Hapsburg, last HRE, dissolved empire in 1806, gave Klemens von Metternich control of foreign affairs, daughter Marie Louise married Napoleon, fought Napoleonic Wars, regained most lost land at Congress of Vienna
Louis XVII
1793-1795, Bourbon, ruler only in name, others claimed to be him later
Frederick William III
1797-1840, Prussia, King, in 1815 he promised to institute some form of constitutional government, formally reneged on his pledge in 1817, created a Council of State which improved administrative efficiency, was responsible to him alone, In 1823 he established eight provincial states or diets, dominated by the Junkers, exercised only an advisory function, fought Napoleon I, joined Holy Alliance
Commodus
180-192, Rome, son of Marcus Aurelius, cruel tyrant, murdered, Galen of Pergamum was his physician
Alexander I
1801-1825, Romanov, Tsar of Russia raised on enlightenment ideas, relaxed censorship, freed political prisoners, reformed the educational system, refused to grant a constitution free of serfs in the face of opposition from the nobility, later became reactionary and promoted censorship, allied with Prussia but then France briefly, turned back Napoleon near Moscow, formed Holy Alliance with Austria and Prussia 1815
Napoleon I Bonaparte
1804-1815, First Republic of France, conquered Italy and Egypt as a French general, married Josephine de Beauharnais in 1796, gained dictatorial powers in 1799, defeated Austria at Marengo in 1800, settled quarrel with Pope in 1801, Charles Talleyrand was his foreign minister, defeated Austria and Russia at Austerlitz in 1805, defeated Prussia at Jena Auerstadt in 1806, defeated Russia at Friedland, allied with Czar Alexander I, seized Portugal, made brother Joseph king of Spain in 1808, caused Peninsular War, defeated Austria at Wagram in 1809, married Hapsburg Marie Louise in 1810, abolished feudalism and serfdo and granted bill of rights, invaded Russia in winter of 1812 but retreated, exiled to Elba in 1814, escaped but lost at Waterloo in 1815, exiled to St. Helena, French law is still the Napoleonic Code
Joseph
1808-1813, Spain, King of Spain, Napoleon's brother
Frederick VI
1808-1839, allied with Napoleon during the Napoleonic wars, Lost Norway to Sweden in the Treaty of Kiel
Charles XIII
1809-1818, Palatinate, King of Sweden, lost Finland to Russia in 1809 but united with Norway in 1814
Ferdinand VII
1814-1833, Spain, King of Spain, arrested by father Charles IV, imprisoned by Napoelon, imprisoned during 1820 rebellion
William I
1815-1840, Orange-Nassau, King of the Netherlands, son of William V of Orange, last stadtholder of United Netherlands, as general lost to France in War of the First Coalition 1793-1795, first king of Belgium-Netherlands created by Treaty of Paris before Belgium seceded in 1830
Ferdinand I
1816-1825, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, aka Ferdinand IV of Naples, led Naples against Napoelon
John VI
1816-1826, Braganza, King of Portugal, fled to Brazil, mother Maria I became insane, son Pedro became emperor of Brazil, suppressed revolt led by wife and son Dom Miguel
Charles XIV John
1818-1844, Bernadotte, King of Sweden, fought in French Revolution and at Austerlitz, fought against France at Leipzig, obtained Norway from Denmark by Treaty of Kiel
George IV
1820-1830, Hanover, extravagant, married cousin Caroline of Brunswick, lost public support when he attempted to divorce her
Nicholas I
1825-1855, Romanov, Tsar of Russia, suppressed Decembrist revolt of reformist army officers who favored his brother Constantine, wars against Iran, Poland and Turkey, entered Crimean War
King Ioannis Kapodistrias
1827-1831, Greece, came to power following Greece winning independence from the Ottomans at Navarino, assassinated
William IV
1830-1837, Hanover, liason with Irish actress Dorothea Jordan and had 10 kids, married German princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, Reform Bill of 1832 passed, abolished colonial slavery, reformed poor laws, Municipal Reform Act
Louis Phillipe
1830-1848, Restoration, "Citizen King", favored the wealthy, Supported the upper-middle class and outlawed labor unions, lowered voting restrictions; eventually overthrown by Revolution of 1848 and fled to Britain, joined the Jacobins in 1790 before fleeing to Switzerland, proclaimed king by the Chamber of Deputies in 1830,
Ferdinand II Bomba
1830-1859, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, fought insurrection in 1848, bombarded rebellious cities
Leopold I
1831-1865, married Charlotte Augusta, daughter of George IV, first monarch of Belgium post seperation from the Netherlands in 1831, signed treaty assuring Belgian neutrality
King Otto I
1832-1861, Greece, Bavarian Catholic, made capital at Athens, powers recuced by 1843 coup
Isabella II
1833-1868, Spain, Queen of Spain, Salic Law set aside, Carlists supporting her uncle Don Carlos defeated in 1839, mom Maria Christina, deposed in 1868 Revolution
Robert Peel
1834-1835, 1841-1846, Prime Minister of Great Britain, founded Conservative party with 1834 Tamworth Manifesto, repealed Corn Laws which limited Grain imports, London police known as Bobbies because of the Metropolitan Police Act, faced Irish potato famine, known as Orange Peel for opposition to Catholics but later passed Catholic Emancipation
Victoria
1837-1901, Hanover, second longest English reign, appointed William Lamb as prime minister, married cousin Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, supported Conservative Party leader Benjamin Disraeli, became empress of India in 1876, opposed William Gladstone, won Boer War 1899-1902
Christian VIII
1839-1848, King of Norway in 1814 before defeat by Charles XIII of Sweden, became king of Denmark in 1839, proclaimed Schleswig and Holstein united to Denmark
William II
1840-1849, Orange-Nassau, King of the Netherlands, served under General Wellesley duke of Wellington in Napoleonic Wars, commanded Dutch and Belgians at Waterloo, liberalized constitution in 1848
Frederick William IV
1840-1861, Prussia, King, unable to unify Germany "from above," he was replaced by William I, new constitution, became insane
Oscar I
1844-1859, Bernadotte, King of Sweden, married granddaughter Josephine de Beauhranais, wife of Napoleon
Pius IX
1846-1878, Pope, longest Pontificate, fled to Naples during 1848 revolution, supported Ultramontanism, called First Vatican Council, proclaimed Immaculate Conception, lost Papal States to reunified Italy
Frederick VII
1848-1863, New nationalistic king of Denmark who tried to integrate both Schleswig and Holstein into the rest of the state. Germans in these provinces revolt. Adopted a representative government. Last of the Oldenburg Dynasty.
Napoleon III
1848-1870, Second Republic/Empire, president 1848-1852, emperor 1852-1870, tried to overthrow Louis Phillipe twice, elected President in 1848, became Emperor in 1852 coup following the success of Royalists in elections in 1849, began liberal reforms in 1860, rebuilt Paris under the direction of Baron Haussman, lost the Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871, appointed Maximillian as king of Mexico
Francis Joseph
1848-1916, Austrian king, established the Austria-Hungary dual monarchy in 1867, took the throne following Ferdinand I, uncle of Franz Ferdinand
Lajos Kossuth
1849, Hungary, briefly established independent Hungarian Republic, defeated by Austrians, gave speeches in US and Britain
William III
1849-1890, Orange-Nassau, King of the Netherlands, wanted to sell Luxembourg to France but Prussia made it independent at London Conference, reign of peace
Alexander II
1855-1894, Romanov, Tsar of Russia, ended Crimean War with Treaty of Paris, abolished serfdom in 1861, reforms, sold Alaska to the US in 1867, assassinated by bomb thrown in carriage by People's Will revolutionaries
Alexandru Ion Cuza
1857-1866, Romania, Prince of Moldova and Walachia and later ruler of Romania, united Moldova and Walachia as Romania subject to the Ottoman Empire
Francis II
1859-1861, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, last Bourbon ruler of Naples and Sicily, invaded by Giuseppe Garibaldi
Charles XV
1859-1872, Bernadotte, King of Sweden, made Riksdag bicameral, instituted reforms, wrote poems
Victor Emmanuel II
1861-1878, Savoy, King of Piedmont, Savoy, and Sardinia, eventually became first king of a united Italy, Led the north in Italian unification and united with Garibaldi's south in 1861, drove the pope into the Vatican city, made Rome the capital of Italy.
William I
1861-1888, Second Reich, chief minister was Otto von Bismarck, unified Germany under Prussia, fought Franco-Prussian War
Christian IX
1863-1906, King of Denmark who tried to take over some Confederation states. Austria and Prussia fought them together which allowed Bismarck to spy on Austria's army. lost Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia and Austria under Treaty of Vienna: liberals gained control of Rigsdag; called Grandfather of Europe because daughters married English Edward VII and Russian Alexander III and son became King George I of Greece
King George I
1863-1913, Greece, Danish, established House of Gluksburg in Greece, worked with Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos to defeat Turkey in the First Balkan War, assassinated
Carol I
1866-1914, Romania, King, aided Russia in Russo-Turkish War and gained independence from Ottoman Empire at the Congress of Berlin, fought Balkan Wars, member of Hohenzollern family
Benjamin Disraeli
1868 and 1874-1880, Prime Minister of Great Britain, joined Conservative Party, Sephardic Jew converted to Christianity, opposed Peel's repeal of Corn Laws, purchased Suez Canal, claimed "peace with honor" after Berlin Conference on Eastern Question of Ottoman Empire, Proclaimed Victoria Empress of England
William Gladstone
1868-1874, 1880-1885, 1886, 1892-1894, Prime Minister of Britain, first joined Tory party, then changed to Liberal Party in 1859, established national elementary education, judicial, civil and military reforms, disestablished Anglican church in England, opposed annexation of South Africa, Reform Act of 1884 allowed rural people to vote, crusaded for Irish Home Rule
Louis Jules Trochu
1870-1871, Third Republic of France, President of the Government of National Defense before resigning in 1871
Adolphe Thiers
1871-1873, Third Republic of France, a French politician and historian. He was a prime minister under King Louis-Philippe of France. Following the overthrow of the Second Empire he again came to prominence as the French leader who suppressed the revolutionary Paris Commune of 1871. From 1871 to 1873 he served initially as Head of State (effectively a provisional President of France), then provisional President, wrote the National Newspaper which led to the 1830 revolution
Oscar II
1872-1973, Bernadotte, King of Sweden, allowed Norwegian independence, arbitrated international disputes
Humbert I
1878-1900, Savoy, King of Italy, signed Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany in 1882, colonial expansion in Africa but lost to Ethiopia at Adwa v. Emperor Menelik II, assassinated by anarchist at Monza
Leo XIII
1878-1903, Pope, Rerum Novarum encyclical supported just wages and trade unions, known as the worker's pope, opened Vatican library and established universities
Jules Grevy
1879-1887, third Republic of France, first republican President of France, president of the National Assembly(1871-1873) following the fall of the Second Empire
Alexander III
1881-1894, Romanov, Tsar of Russia, son of Alex II, increased use of secret police, censorship, exiles to Siberia, Russian unification to suppress non-Russians, pogroms, persecuted Jews, joined France against Triple Alliance
Alphonso XIII
1885-1923, Spain, King of Spain, lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, Philippines, Sulu Islands and Marianas in Spanish-American War
(Marie Francois) Sadi Carnot
1887-1894, Third Republic of France, fourth president until his assasination by an Italian anarchist, dominated by Georges Boulanger
Frederick III
1888-1888, Second Reich, led Prussians against Austria at Sadowa in the Seven Weeks War in 1866
William II
1888-1918, Second Reich, dismissed Otto von Bismarck, formed Triple Alliance with Italy and Austria, fought WWI, abdicated to the Netherlands
St. Victor I
189-199, first Latin pope, born in Africa, threatened exommunication for Quatrodecimans, who celebrated Easter on Nisan 14, condemned Theodotus and Dynamic Monarchism, which said Jesus was human until Baptism, replaced Greek with Latin as official language
Wilhelmina
1890-1948, Orange-Nassau, Queen of the Netherlands, mom Emma was a regent, Luxembourg terminated union with Netherlands because it refused a woman ruler, married Henry duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, neutral in WWI, set up government-in-exile in England during WWII
Nicholas II
1894-1917, Romanov, Tsar of Russia, married German princess Alexandra, opposed democracy, lost Russo-Japanese War 1904, formed Duma, relied on mystic Rasputin, abdicated March 1917, executed by Bolsheviks July 16th 1918 with family
Victor Emmanuel III
1900-1946, Savoy, King of Italy who asked Mussolini to form a cabinet in 1922, allowing Mussolini to take power legally, served in WWI, recognized sovreignty of Vatican in Lateran Treaty 1929, abdicated after WWII
Edward VII
1901-1910, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, son of Victoria and Prince Albert; famous for his elegant sporting ways, signed Entente Cordiale in 1904 with France and a pact with Russia in 1907, promoted international amity and known as Edward the Peacemaker
St. Pius X
1903-1914, Pope, opposed Modernist movement, which reinterpreted religon in light of science, opposed anticlerical legislation in France and Portugal, started Roman Catholic Action movement
Hakon VII
1905-1957, Norway, chosen king by Storting parliament, headed WWII government-in-exile
Gustavus V
1907-1950, Bernadotte, King of Sweden, maintained neutrality in WWI and WWII
Manuel II
1908-1910, Braganza, King of Portugal, last king, father King Carlos assassinated, fled naval revolt
Ferdinand I of Bulgaria
1908-1918, proclaimed Bulgarian independence on October 5th 1908, became the first tsar of modern Bulgaria, led the Balkan League in the first Balkan War, but lost the Second Balkan War, was on the side of the Axis in WWI, abdicated the throne for his son Boris III
Albert I of Belgium
1909 - 1934, warned France of German war plans and announced Belgian neutrality; when Germans invaded Belgium he undertook delaying actions
Eleftherios Venizelos
1910-1915, 1915, 1917-1920, 1924, 1928-1932, 1932, 1933, Greece, PM, autonomized the Cretan State, leader of the Liberal Party, credited as maker of modern Greece
George V
1910-1936, Windsor, led Britain during WWI
Christian X
1912-1947, broadened suffrage; sold Danish West Indies to US; allowed Iceland independence; joined League of Nations; obtained North Schleswig from Germany; symbol of resistance during German occupation (possibly wore Star of David)
King Constantine I
1913-1917, 1920-1922, Greece, favored Germany in WWI but Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos favored allies, forced to abdicate in favor of son Alexander, regained throne when son died
Benedict XV
1914-1922, Pope, neutral during WWI, restored relations with France and Britain, promulgated Code of Canon Law
Ferdinand I
1914-1927, Romania, King, joined Allies in WWI
Charles I of Austria-Hungary
1916-1918, emperor of Austria-Hungary during WWI, supported France in secret letter about Alsace-Lorraine; twice tried to regain Hungarian throne in 1921; exiled to Madeira
David Lloyd George
1916-1922, Prime Minister of Great Britain, instituted social reforms for workers, participated in Treaty of Versailles, introduce Irish Home Rule for Ireland, alienating conservatives from his coalition
Prince Georgi Lvov
1917, Russia, Prime Minister of the new provisional government in Russia; Minister of the interior; Leader of progressive liberals
Aleksandr Kerensky
1917, Russia, head of the provisional government of Russia after Czar Nicholas II stepped down from power, suppressed Lenin's Bolshevik Party, troops refused to fight at Petrograd, lectured in the US
Vladimir Ilich Lenin
1917-1922, Soviet Union, first leader of the Soviet Union, in exile wrote "What Is to Be Done", his Bolsheviks were opposed by Mensheviks, took power in second revolution in October 1918, he and Trotsky won civil war, made peace with Germans with Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, issued New Economic Policy with mixed market, strokes in 1922 and 1923
Petar I
1918-1921, Yugoslavia, Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes established after WWI
Jozef Pilsudski
1918-1922, 1926-1935, Poland, first chief of state, led a coup and gained office as minister of defense, won Polish independence after Germany lost WWI, defeated Soviet invasion in Russo-Polish War
Boris III
1918-1943, gained control of the throne following abdication of his father Ferdinand I, worked with Hitler in WWII, died in 1943, refused to attack the Soviet Union, ran a thinly-veiled dictatorship
Freidrich Ebert
1919-1925, Weimer Republic, last German chancellor, suppressed leftist Spartacists, elected president under Weimar constitution, France occupied Ruhr
Alexandar I
1921-1934, Yugoslavia, ruled as dictator, assassinated by Croatian separatist in Marseilles
King George II
1922-1923, 1935-1941, 1946-1947, Greece, lost land to Turkey in Treaty of Lausanne, monarchy abolished in 1922 but twice restored
Pius XI
1922-1939, Pope, Quadragesimo Anno encyclical supported reconstruction of social order, signed Lateran Treaty with Mussolini, gaining control of Vatican
Benito Mussolini
1922-1943, Italy, Fascist dictator who formed a government with Victor Emmanuel III in 1922, conquered Ethiopia and Albania, aided Francisco Franco in Spanish Civil War, dismissed by Victor Emmanuel III in 1943 but rescued by Nazis, set up puppet state in Northern Italy, shot and hanged upside down by Italians
Joseph Stalin
1922-1953, Sovet Union, joined troka with Zinovyev and Kamenev after Lenin's death, sole leader by 1929, forced massive collectivization programs, political purges, won in WWII
Stanley Baldwin
1923-1924, 1924-1929, 1935-1937, Prime Minister of Great Britain, joined conservative party, proposed protective tariff, curbed trade unions, first premier to visit overseas dominion(Canada)
Primo de Rivera y Orbaneja
1923-1930, Spain, Dictator then Prime Minister, established military dictatorship but shifted to prime minister, suppressed Moroccan revolt, son founded Falange Party
Paul von Hindenberg
1925-1934, Weimer Republic, won at Tannenberg with Ludendorff, established system of trenches, elected president in 1925 and 1932 over Hitler, who was elected chancellor
Zog I
1925-1939, Albanan leader who came in power by ousting Noli, ruled as a protectorate of Italy until invasion in 1939
Lucius Septimus Severus
193-211, Rome, purchased throne from the Praetorian Guard, military and legal reform, reduced power of aristocracy, defeated Parthians and British revolt
Carol II
1930-1940, Romania, King, formed but later ended Fascist Iron Guard, abdicated when Germany invaded, appointed Ion Antonescu as premier
Niceto Alcala Zamora
1931-1936, Spain, President during Second Republic, socialist
Albert Lebrun
1932-1940, Third Republic, Last president of Third Republic, attempted to preserve French unity against Germany military threat, re-elected in 1939
Antonio de Oliveira Salzar
1932-1968, Portugal, Prime Minister and dictator of Portugal, founded and led the Estado Novo ("New State"), the authoritarian, right-wing government that presided over and controlled Portugal from 1932 to 1974, former economics progessor at Coimbra, balanced budget
Adolf Hitler
1934-1945, dictator, fought World War II; wrote Menin Kampf; initiated Holocost; Gestapo secret police; 1936 sent troops to Rhineland; supported Nationalist Franco; took Austria 1938; Czechoslovakia 1939; committed suicide 1945
Leopold III
1934-1951, quickly surrendered to Germany; suspected of treason; exonerated in 1946 and won referendum permitting return; abdicated 1951
Edward VIII
1936, Windsor, abdicated the throne to marry American Mrs. Wallis Warfield Simpson, given title Duke of Windsor
Manuel Azana
1936-1939, Spain, President, fled to France after Nationalist victory in Spanish Civil war, had little control over Republican generals such as Negrin(ousted in coup by Casado, who surrendered to Nationalists under Franco)
Ionnais Metaxas
1936-1941, Greece, restored George II, dictator, joined Allies in WWII
George VI
1936-1952, Windsor, married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, visiter many fronts during WWII, visited Canada, US and South Africa, India and Pakistan gained independence
Neville Chamberlain
1937-1940, Prime Minister of Great Britain, appeasement policy towards Germany, signed Munich Pact September 1938
Pius XII
1939-1958, Pope, Mystici Corporis Christi condemned false mysticism, named 32 new cardinals to the Sacred College, anti-communist, tried to bring peace to WWII
Francisco Franco
1939-1975, Spain, El caudillo, Spanish General, organized the revolt in Morocco, which led to the Spanish Civil War, Leader of the Nationalists, right wing, supported by Hitler and Mussolini, won the Civil War after three years of fighting, led until death
Ion Antonescu
1940-1944, Romania, soldier and authoritarian politician, appointed Premier by Carol II, joined Germany in invasion of USSR, Prime Minister and Conducător during most of World War II, presided over two successive wartime dictatorships, convicted of war crimes and executed
Henri Petain
1940-1944, Vichy France, WWI Hero, headed Pro-German French government at the age of 84
Winston Churchill
1940-1945, 1951-1955, Prime Minister of Great Britain, as admiral lost Gallipoli campaign in WWI, led Britain in WW2, won a Nobel Prize for "A History of the English-Speaking Peoples"
Josep Broz Tito
1943-1980, Yugoslavia, Communist leader, led partisans, rival of Cetniks, during WWII, leader of Nonaligned Nations
Enver Hoxha
1943-1985, Founder of the Albanian Communist Party, renounced Stalinism and broke from the USSR in 1961.
Clement Atlee
1945-1951, Prime Minister of Great Britan, first labour PM, nationalized Iron, Steel, railroads, coal and healthcare
Alcide de Gasperi
1945-1953, Italy, PM, The leader of the Christian Democrats in Italy, he was committed to democracy and moderate social reform
Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej
1945-1965, Romania, communist leader of Romania, promoted development of industry in Romania, important in Yugoslav break, became prime minister in 1952, resigned 1955 and took position as president of state council 1961, Took independent course, forming relations with West and China, cult of personality
Georges Bidault
1946, Fourth Republic, led the French Resistance during WWII, began negotiations for Atlantic defense alliance, leading to NATO
Humbert II
1946, Savoy, King of Italy for around a month before the monarchy was abolished
Walter Ulbricht
1946-1971, East Germany, He was selected by the Soviet Union to be the leader of the German Communist Party who believed that the Germans in his region would not want to go back to the Weimar-style republic- thus he reasoned that they would support the German Communist Party, Social Unity Party
Vincent Auriol
1947-1953, Fourth Republic, first president of the Fourth French Republic, French Indochina War, overwhlemed by factionalism and economic depression
King Paul I
1947-1964, Greece, US, following Truman Doctrine, aided anti communist forces in civil war
Frederick IX
1947-1972, house of Glucksburg, King of Denmark as it modernized
Juliana
1948-1980, Orange-Nassau, Queen of the Netherlands, oversaw the decolonization of the Dutch East Indies(Indonesia) and Suriname, abdicated in 1980 in favour of Beatrix
Konrad Adenauer
1949-1963, West Germany, first chancellor of West Germany, mayor of Cologne, founded Christian Democratic Union, joined NATO and EU
Gustav VI Adolph
1950-1973, Bernadotte, King of Sweden, expert on Chinese archaeology
Baudouin
1951-1993, he worked to create Congolese independence, son of Leopold III, King of Belgium
Elizabeth II
1952-present, Windsor, married Prince Phillip duke of Edinburgh, children Charles, Anne, Andrew and Edward, about 40 colonies gained independence, joined EU, nationalized many industries
Imre Nagy
1953-1955, 1956, Hungary, allowed peasants to leave collective farms, promised free elections, suppressed by Soviets, returned to power briefly in 1956 Hungarian Revolution, executed
Rene Coty
1953-1958, Fourth Republic, last president of the Fourth Republic, did little to influence presidency, threat to resign led to national assembly to elect de Gaulle as prime minister
Nikita Khrushchev
1953-1964, Soviet Union, battled for power with Malenkov and KGB head Beria, executed Beria, denounced Stalin, 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
Todor Zhikov
1954-1989, First secretary of the ruling Bulgarian Communist Party's Central committee from 1954-1989, Communist President of Bulgaria from 1971-1989, longest reign of any eastern bloc leader, protege of Khrushchev, close ties with the USSR, resigned in 1989, jailed for many years
Anthony Eden
1955-1957, Prime Minister of Great Britain, resigned after attacking Egypt after they seized the Suez Canal
Konstantinos Karamanlis
1955-1964, Greece, leader of National Radical Union, conflict in Cyprus
Wladyslay Gomulka
1956-1970, Poland, de facto leader of Poland until 1948, then ousted from Communist party in 1949, but reinstated after the death of Stalin, regained power in 1956
Janos Kadar
1956-1988, Hungary, first secretary of Hungary's Communist Party, convinced the Soviet Union to withdraw troops, allowing Hungary some autonomy
Harold Macmillan
1957-1963, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Conservative leader, visited Khrushchev in Moscow in 1959, failedto admit Britain to the EEC, resigned after personal scandal of War Secretary John Profumo
Olaf V
1957-1991, Norway, commander of Norwegian armed forces 1944-1945
John XXIII
1958-1963, Pope, called Second Vatican Council, established Secretariat for promoting Christian unity, Ecumenical Movement promoted Christian-Jewish dialogue
Charles de Gaulle
1958-1969, Fifth Republic, headed French national committee in exile in 1940, provisional premier 1945-1946, appointed by National Assembly to draft new constitution in 1958, negotiated Algerian independence, joine EU, resolved widespread strike in 1968
Eamon De Valera
1959-1973, Ireland, President, math teacher, led Sinn Fein rebels in 1916 Easter Rebellion, fled to US, nationalist and isolationalist
Ludwig Erhard
1963-1966, West Germany, chancellor from 1963-1966, Minister of the economy, bet on the free economy while maintaining the extensive social welfare network inherited from the Hitler era, leading to German economic miracle
Paul VI
1963-1968, Pope, presided over most of Second Vatican Council, nullified excommunications with Greek Orthodox patriarch Athenagoras I, met with Coptic Orthodox patriarch Shenouda III, traveled extensively
Georgies Papandreou
1964-1965, Greece, PM, leader of Central Union Party, had led Greek government in exile during WWII
Harold Wilson
1964-1970, 1974-1976, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Labour Party leader
King Constantine II
1964-1973, Greece, deposed by military, abolishing monarchy and establishing republic
Leonid Brezhnev
1964-1982, Soviet Union, shared power with Malenkov and KGB head Beria, developed Brezhnev Doctrine stating communist states can intervene in each other's affairs, ordered forces in to Afghanistan and Czechoslovakia, detente with US, signed first SALT Treaty
Nicolae Ceausescu
1965-1989, Romania, militant leader and dictator, fought rebellion beginning in Timisoara, defeated and sent to the Hague to be executed by demand of a military court, executed with wife Elena on Christmas 1989
Kurt Georg Kiesinger
1966-1969, West Germany, formed grand coalition of CDU with Social Democrats
Alexander Dubcek
1968-1969, Communist Party Secretary of Czechoslovakia; loosens strict rules; permits criticism of government; begins Prague Spring; assures loyalty to USSR; gets kicked out when the Warsaw Pact invades
Georges Pompidou
1969-1974, Fifth Republic, President of France who strengthened ties with French allies, such as the United States, and ended French opposition to British membership in the European Economic Community, supported British entry into the EU
Willy Brandt
1969-1974, West Germany, chancellor of West Germany worked to reduce tensions with eastern Europe (1913-1992), mayor of West Berlin 1957-1966, Social Democrat, won Nobel Prive in 1971
Gustav Husak
1969-1987, Stalinist leader put into power in Czechoslovakia by Brezhnev after the Prague Spring movement was put down, instituted normalization, reversed Dubcek's reforms
Edward Heath
1970-1974, Prime Minister of Great Britain, joined EEC, Conservative Party Leader
Edward Gierek
1970-1980, Poland, secretary of the ruling Polish United Worker's Party, expelled from party in 1981, ousted after Solidarity strikes, opened markets to Western products, greater freedom to travel
Erich Honecker
1971-1989, East Germany, Little Stalin who led a totalitarian rule of East Germany along with Walter Ulbricht, as head of security forces built Berlin Wall in 1961, resisted politicial reforms
Margrethe II
1972-present, first queen in over 550 years, allowed by 1953 succession law
Carl XVI Gustavus
1973-Present, Bernadotte, King of Sweden, became figurehead only
Valery Giscard d'Estaing
1974-1981, Fifth Republic, member of UN General Assembly from 1956-1958, finance minister under de Gaulle and Pompidou, financial conservativism caused recession, strengthened France's role in the EEC
Helmut Schmidt
1974-1982, West Germany, chancellor who believed that if a war arose between East and West Europe, Germany would suffer and lose no matter what; tried to ease tension, he and D'Estaing led European Community
Juan Carlos
1975-2014, Spain, King, grandson of Alphonso XIII, wife of Sofia of Greece, 1978 constitution
James Callaghan
1976-1979, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Labour Leader, allied with Liberals and Scottish National Party
John Paul I
1978, Pope, first with double name, died after 34 days
John Paul II
1978-2005, Pope, Polish(Karol Wojtyla), first non-Italian since 1523, assassination attempt May 13, 1981 by Mehmet Ali Agca, conservative and well-traveled
Margaret Thatcher
1979-1990, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Conservative Leader, first female PM, defeated Argentina in the Falkland's War in 1982, opposed full economic integration of Britain in Europe
Beatrix
1980-2013, Orange-Nassau, Queen of the Netherlands, saw the secession of Aruba, Curacao, Sint Maarten, formation of municipalities of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba, earned doctorate in law from University of Leiden, marriage to West German Claus von Amsberg caused controversy, son Willem Alexander first male heir in generations
Andreas Papandreou
1981-1989, 1993-1996, Greece, first socialist PM, established national healthcare system, founded PASOK political party
Wojciech Jaruzelski
1981-1990, Poland, premier then chairman of the Council of State then President, outlawed Solidarity but legalized it again in 1988 after Gorbachev instituted Glasnost
Francois Mitterrand
1981-1995, Fifth Republic, The Socialist leader who was the longest serving president of France. Rather than focusing on radical economic policies, he focused on social reform programs and reducing unemployment, reversed many economic policies of preceding conservatives, died of prostate cancer
Yuri Andropov
1982-1984, Soviet Union, Brezhnev's successor and longtime chief of secret police, tried to invigorate the communist system but little came of his efforts, worsening economy led to emergence of Gorbachev, died of illness
Helmut Kohl
1982-1990, West Germany, reunified Germany 1990, elected to four terms as Chancellor
Konstantin Chernenko
1984-1985, Soviet Union, office was interim, died six months after election, previously headed agitprop
Mikhail Gorbachev
1985-1991, Soviet Union, introduced perestoika and glasnost, withdrew troops from Afghanistan, won 1990 Nobel Prize, survived 3-day 1991 coup then resigned, allowed Baltic independence
Kurt Waldheim
1986-1992, President of Austria despite possible Nazi war crimes, UN Secretary General from 1972-1981, previously ambassador to Canada
Egon Krenz
1989-1990, East Germany, took down the Berlin Wall, removed the power monopoly of the Communists and resigned the East German Communist Party altogether, and called for free elections
Slobodan Milosevic
1989-1997, 1997-2001, Serbia/Yugoslavia, President of Serbia 1989-1997, President of Yugoslavia 1997-2001, supported ethnic cleansing of Bosnian Serbs, signed Dayton Accords, tried in the Hague for war crimes, ended war in Bosnia
Vaclav Havel
1989-2003, Czech playwright of plays such as The Garden Party and The Memorandum, led protests which toppled communism, founded Charter 77 Movement, called for the independence of Czechoslovakia by 1989; became the first President of Czechoslavakia n 1989 and the first President of the Czech Republic in 1993
Lech Walesa
1990-1995, Poland, president, led strike in 1980 at Lenin shipyard in Gdansk, formed Solidarity trade federation, won 1983 Nobel Peace Prize, elected President 1990
Ion Iliescu
1990-1996, 2000-2004, Romania, President, led National Salvation Front, restored Democraacy
Mary Robinson
1990-1997, Ireland, nominated by Irish Labour Party, first woman president, won when Brian Lenihan was involved in scandal, first president not in Fianna Fail of Fine Gael parties, resigned to become UN High Commissioner for Human Rights
John Major
1990-1997, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Conservative Leader, established dialogue with Irish Republican Army
Franjo Tudjman
1990-1999, Croatia, leader of Croatian Democratic Union, won independence for Croatia from Yugoslavia, fought Serb-controlled Krajina, signed Dayton Accords
Alija Izetbegovic
1990-2001, Bosnia, President, Muslim leader in Bosnian Civil War, won independence for Bosnia from Yugoslavia, signed Dayton accords
Boris Yeltsin
1991-2000, Russia, resisted August 1991 hardline coup, first elected Russian president, formed Commonwealth of Independent States, introduced free market reforms, Chechnya rebellion, defeated Zyuganov in 1996, Premier Chernomydrian, cooperated with NATO, widespread corruption, economic collapse, enormous political and social problems, elected with 57% of the popular vote, radical economic reforms in early 1992 which were widely blamed for devastating the living standards of most of the Russian population, deeply unpopular figure in Russia, approval rating as low as two percent
Harald V
1991-present, Norway, sailed at the 1964, 1968 and 1972 olympic games
Lennart Meri
1992-2001, the second president of Estonia, led the movement to restore Estonian independence from the Soviet Union, writer and filmmaker
Eduard Shevardnadze
1992-2003, Georgian, second president of Georgia, survived coup annd two assassination attempts, appointed by Gorbachev to replace Gromyko as Minister of Foreign Affairs, consolidating Gorbachev's circle of relatively young reformers.
Albert II
1993-2013, Brother of Baudouin, longtime member of the International Olympic Committee, abdicated the throne in 2013, King of Belgium
Silvio Berlusconi
1994-1995, 2001-2006, 2008-2011, Italy, PM, owner of Mediaset and AC MIlan football club, Leader of Forza Italia and the People of Freedom parties, convicted of tax fraud
Leonid Danylovych Kuchma
1994-2005, Ukraine, President, increased privatization, free trade, close ties with Russia
Aleksandr Lukashenko
1994-present, President of Belarus, authoritarian
Aleksander Kwasniewski
1995-2005, Poland, President, founding member of Democratic Left Alliance, formed ruling coalition with Polish Peasant Party, relected in 2000, supported war against terror, gained entry to NATO and EU
Jacques Chirac
1995-2007, Fifth Republic, French conservative president elected in 1995; pursued a plan of sending illegal immigrants back to their home countries; an outspoken opponent of the US invasion of Iraq, privatized business, Gaullist, prime minister for domestic affairs in 1986 under cohabilitation arrangement, his RPR and Giscard's Union for French democracy gained majority in the National Assembly in 1986
Costas Simitis
1996-2004, Greece, PM, leader of PASOK(Panhellenic Socialist Movement), Eksynchronismos policy
Peter Stoyanov
1997-2002, President of Bulgaria, succeeded by former king Simeon II in 2001
Tony Blair
1997-2007, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Labour leader, youngest PM in 200 years, met with Sinn Fein leader Gerry Adams, allowed Scottish parliament and Welsh assembly
Mary Mcaleese
1997-2011, Ireland, first president to come from Northern Ireland or Ulster
Gerhard Schroeder
1998-2005, United Germany, elected chancellor of Germany. took and active role in foreign affairs, opposed war in Iraq, highest unemployment rate in Europe, Social Democrat Party, coalition with Green Parties, closed nuclear power plants
Robert Kocharyan
1998-2008, Second Armenian President, served as President of Nagorno-Karabakh from 1994-1997 and Prime Minister of Armenia from 1997-1998, presidency contained the 1999 shooting of Prime Minister Vazgen Sargsan in Parliament
Rudolf Schuster
1999-2004, President of Slovakia
Ferenc Madl
2000-2005, Hungary, president, oversaw entry into the EU
Vladimir Putin
2000-2008, 2012-present, Russia, appointed Prime Minister in August 1999, led Russia against Chechnya, invaded Crimea, Unity Bloc supported him
Stipe Mesic
2000-2010, Croatia, President, supported Croatian Spring, Croatian National Party
Kostas Karamanlis
2004-2009, Greece, PM, leader of New Democracy party, first PM to be born after WWII
Viktor Yushchenko
2005-2010, Ukraine, President, Dioxin poisoning during 2004 elections, Mass protests (Orange Revolution) after Yanukovych was declared the winner, became president Jan 2005
Benedict XVI
2005-2013, Pope, German, first to resign before death since Gregory XII in 1415
Angela Merkel
2005-present, Reunited Germany, first female Chancellor, Christian Democratic Union, doctorate in Physical Chemistry, led EU management of financial crisis
Gordon Brown
2007-2010, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Labour Leader, chancellor of the Exchequer from 1997-2007, Scottish, lost power following the 2008 recession
Nicolas Sarkozy
2007-2012, Fifth Republic, Elected French President in 2007 promised to address the Muslim tensions but failed to do so, Union for a Popular Movement Party, married Carla Bruni
Dmitry Medvedev
2008-2012, Russia, President, invaded Georgia during the South Ossetia War, Putin as prime minister, modernization movement for Russia, police reforms, anti-corruption campaign, foreign policy reforms, Recognized Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent states
George Papandreou
2009-2011, Greece, PM, son of Andreas Papandreou, leader of PASOK, resigned due to Greek debt crisis
Viktor Yanukovych
2010-2014, Ukraine, President, ran for president in 2004 and won, but election was fraud, caused the Orange Revolution, Supreme Court ordered a second runoff election, where he lost to Yushchenko, favored ties with Russia to ties with the EU, ousted by Euromaidan protests, Russia annexed Crimea
David Cameron
2010-2016, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Conservative leader, resigned following the referendum leaving EU passed
Lucas Papademos
2011-2012, Greece, PM, worked at European Central Bank, Bank of Greece, resigned due to debt crisis
Michael D. Higgins
2011-present, Ireland, re-elected in 2018, former mayor of Galway, worked to address justice, anti-sectarianism, anti-racism, and inclusion, first state visit to the UK by an Irish President, President of Labour Party
Antonis Samaras
2012-2015, Greece, PM, New Democracy party, known for controversy in which he caused the New Democracy government to fall out of power
Francois Hollande
2012-2017, Fifth Republic, socialist, legalized same-sex marriage, withdrew from Afghanistan, terror attacks in Nice and Paris in 2016 and 2015, support Saudi intervention in Yemen, high unemployment, unpopular
Janos Ader
2012-present, Hungary, worked to crezte new constitution guaranteeing human rights
Francis I
2013-?, Pope, Argentine(Jorge Bergoglio), first from Americas, first Jesuit pope, first non-European since Syrian Gregory III in the 700s, supported same-sex marriage, acknowledged climate change
Xavier Bettel
2013-present, Luxembourg, first openly gay PM to be re-elected to a second term
Willem Alexander
2013-present, Orange-Nassau, King of the Netherlands, first King since 1890, focus on water management, International Olympic Committee
Phillipe
2013-present, Son of Albert II of Belgium, former senator
Oleksandr Turchynov
2014-2014, Ukraine, interim President following removal of Viktor Yanukovych
Petro Poroshenko
2014-2019, Ukraine, President, chocolate king, owns mass-media outlet, prominent oligarch
Klaus Iohannis
2014-present, Romania, president, former physics teacher and school inspector, first Romanian president to come from an ethnic minority
Felipe VI
2014-present, Spain, king
Alexis Tsipras
2015-2019, Greece, PM, led left-wing party Syriza, initiated Greek bailout referendum, country loses 25% of GDP
Kolinda Grabar-Kitarovic
2015-2020, Croatia, first female president of Croatia, youngest president of Croatia
Andrzej Duda
2015-present, Poland, President, beat Bronislaw Komorowski, independent, met with Trump on second trip abroad, repeatedly met with Xi Jinping
Marinko Cavara
2015-present, President of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatian Democratic Union
Theresa May
2016-2019, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Home Secretary from 2010-2016, survived a vote of no confidence from Conservative MPs and Parliament
Emmanuel Macron
2017-present, Fifth Republic, En Marche movement, beat Le Pen, Edouard Phillipe as prime minister, youngest president in French history, based union policy off of Scandinavia and Germany, resticted immigration in 2018, stricter anti-terror laws, unpopularity caused the yellow vest movement
Giuseppe Conte
2018-present, Italy, PM, head of coalition formed by Five Star Movement and the League
Pedro Sanchez
2018-present, Spain, Prime Minister, Spanish Socialist Workers' Party
Kyriakos Mitsotakis
2019-present, Greece, PM, leader of New Democracy
Boris Johnson
2019-present, Prime Minister of Great Britain, former journalist, mayor of london from 2008-2016, withdrew from the European Union, lost working majority
Volodymyr Zelensky
2019-president, Ukraine, President, comedian, won with 73% of the vote
Zoran Milanovic
2020-present, Croatia, current president
Caracalla
211-217, Rome, real name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, nickname from Gaul cloak, cruel, built Baths of Carcalla and Arch of Septimus
Marcus Macrinus
217, Rome, murdered Caracalla
Heliogabalus
218-222, Rome, priest of Baal, invented first cushion, ate 365 oysters
Alexander Severus
222-235, Rome, assassinated marked the epoch for the Crisis of the Third Century
Claudius II
268-270, Rome, Illyrian Emperor, defeated Goths
Lucius Aurelian
270-275, Rome, Illyrian Emperor, defeated Germanic Alamanni, made Danube the western boundary, defeated Queen Zenobia of Palmyra, given title Restitutor Orbis(restorer of the empire) by Senate, built namesake wall among Rome
Augustus Caesar
27BC-14AD, Rome, first emperor of Rome, originally Octavian, member of Second Triumvirate with Lepidus and Antony, forced Lepidus from power, defeated Antony at Actium, wife Livia, period of cultural development called Augustan Age
Diocletian
284-305, Rome, last Illyrian Emperor, empire divided into four patys ruled by caesars and augusteses, Maximian second in command
Ermanaric
300s, Goth, established kingdom from Baltic to Black Sea
Antigonus I Cyclops
306-301 BC, Macedonia, controlled much of Asia Minor, almost reunified Alexander's empire but was killed by Lysimachus of Thrace and Seleucus I at Ipsus
Constantine the Great
306-337, Rome, first Roman ruler to convert to Christianity, believed in sun god Sol bu then saw cross on sun before winning a battle, co-emperor Lucinius, issued Edict of Milan mandating tolerance of Christians, presided over Council of Nicaea in 325, began builiding Constantinople
Agathocles
317-? BC, Syracuse, restored despotic government, praised in The Prince
Alexander III the Great
336-323 BC, Macedonia, born in Pella, tutored by Aristotle, defeated Thebes rebellion, defeated Darius III of Persia at Issus and Gaugamela, built Alexandria in Egypt, cut Gordian knot, at his death empire was divided between "successor kings" Antigonus I(Greece), Seleucus(Babylonia), and Ptolemy I(Egypt)
Constantinius II
351-361, Rome, Emperor, defeated Magnentius at Battle of Mursa, Arian Christian, opponent of St. Athanasius(orthodox bishop of Alexandria)
Phillip II
359-336 BC, Macedonia, learned military skills as a captive in Thebes, renmaed Crenides Philippi, Demosthenes warned Athens about him, became head of the Amphictyonic League, defeated Athens and Thebes at Chaeronea, assasinated, father of Alexander III
Julian the Apostate
361-363, Rome, Emperor who rejected the faith completely, Implemented paganism with a Christian "look"
Jovian
363-364, Rome, Last emperor before division of the empire
Valentinian I
364-375, Western Rome, Last great emperor, split empire between him and brother Valens, defeated Alamanni and the Saxons, orthodox Christian, last Roman Golden Age
Valens
364-378, Roman emperor who fought the Visigoths, lost at the Battle of Adrianople near Edirne.
Caligula
37-41, Rome, emperor, name means little boot, joint heir with Tiberius Gemellus but chosen sole emperor by Senate, became tyrant after illness, made horse a consul, assassinated by guards
Valentinian II
375-392, Western Rome, Emperor, driven from Italy by Magnus Maximus, restored to power by Theodosius I, murdered by Arbogast who installed Eugenius as emperor
Honorius
384-423, Western Rome, Emperor, Rome was sacked by King Alaric I of the Visigoths in 410, Ataulf withdrew Visigoths to Gaul and Walla founded dynasty at Toulouse
Brennus
390, Gaul general who overtook Rome and was bribed out of it with more than1000 lbs of gold
Theodosius I the Great
394-395, Western Rome, Emperor, last to rule a united Roman Empire, orthodox Christian, persecuted Arians
Alaric I
395-410, Visigoth, invaded Greece and Italy, pillaged rome in 410
Thirty Tyrants
404-403 BC, Athens, puppet government set up by Sparta following the Peloponnesian War, soon deposed and democracy restored
Claudius I
41-54 BC, Rome, emperor, semiretired after conspiracy against him, cruel wife Messalina assumed powers, began conquest of Britain, executed Messalina, married niece Agrippina the Younger, who poisoned him
Ataulf
410-415, Visigoth, brother of Alaric I, invaded Spain
Wallia
415-418, Visigoths, conquered Spain and Southern Gaul, made capital at Toulouse
Theodoric I
418-451, Visigoth, died fighting the Huns with Rome at Chalons
Euric
420-484, Visigoth, king of the Spanish Visigoths
Valentinian III
425-455, Western Rome, emperor, General Flavius Aetius held most power, Africa taken by King Gaiseric of the Vandals, fought Attila the Hun at Chalons-sur-Marne in 451
Gaiseric
428-477, Vandal, defeated Roman general Bonifacus in Africa, captured Carthage and made it his capital, pillaged Rome after Valentinian III's death in 455
St. Leo I the Great
440-461, Pope, born in Tuscany, persuaded Attila the Hun not to sack Rome, Council of Chalcedon in 451 endorsed Leo's views, said "Peter has spoken through Leo"
General Riimer the Suebe
455-475, Western Rome, known as the Kingmaker, held power throughout 9 emperors in 20 years
Cincinnatus
458 BC, Rome, model dictator who defeated Aequi and returned to his farm all in the course of 16 days
Pericles
461-431 BC, Athens, made Athens supreme in the Delian League, built Parthenon, deposed as the Peloponnesian War began, generated most of the surviving structures on the Acropolis, succumbed to the Plague of Athens, friends with Zeno, populist, companion of Aspasia
Theodoric
474-526, Ostrogoth, fought Byzantine ruler Zeno, invaded Italy and killed Odoacer, controlled the Western Roman Empire
Romulus Augustulus
475-476, Western Rome, known for his youth, exiled by Odoacer when he sacked Rome, last Roman Emperor
Odoacer
475-493, Goth, led uprising of Germanic troops in the Roman army against Romulus, Germanic barbarian leader who ended the western Roman Empire in 476 and became the first barbarian ruler of Italy (434-493), established capital at Ravenna, defeated and killed by Ostrogoth Theodoric
Clovis I
481-511, Merovingian, united northern Salian and Southern Ripuarian franks; capital at Soissons then Paris; converted to Christianity; defeated Alamanni Germans and Visigoths
Alaric II
484-507, Visigoths, issued law code Breviary of Alaric, killed by Clovis I at Vouille
Gelon
485-? BC, Syracuse, tyrant of Gela, defeated Carthage at Himera
Leonidas I
490-480 BC, Sparta, lead a army of Spartans and held against 100,000 Perisans for a week, sent away 600 troops and guarded rear with 300 Spartans and 1000 other Greeks in the 2nd Persian war in 480Bc, was killed in the Battle of Thermopylae fighting against Xerxes I
St. Gelasius I
492-496, Pope, cultivated relations with Arian Ostrogothic King Theodoric, predecessor Felix III had excommunicated patriarch of Constantinople for monophysitism, alienated Byzantine emperor Anastasius I, "two swords" of pope and emperor, opposed Pelagianism, Manichaeism, and Lupercalia, called vicar of Christ, wrote part of Leonine Sacramentary
Justinian I the Great
527-565, Byzantine Emperor, ruled with Theodora, oversaw a revitalization of Constinople. Revival of the legal traditions of Rome. His collection of laws was called the Corpus Juris Civilis, General Belsarius crushed unrest, defeated Vandals and Ostrogoths, he built the Hagia Sophia
Lucius Tarquinius Superbas/Tarquin the Proud
534-510 BC, Rome, King, tyrant, son Sextus raped Lucretia, leading to revolt in 509 BC creating the Roman Republic, banished
Nero
54-68, Rome, emperor, moderate rule for five years, then executed mom and wife Octavia, Rome burned in 64, revolts in Britain and Judea, Praetorian Guard revolt in 68, suicide
Pisistratus
561-527 BC, Athens, son of Hippocrates, instituted the Panathenaic Games, early example of populism with championing the Hyperakrioi, opposed the aristocracy, distant relative of Solon, dictator
Servius Tullius
578-534 BC, Rome, King, created new Constitution, enlarged boundaries of Rome
St. Gregory I
590-604, Pope, During difficult times, this man organized Rome, negotiated peace, wrote instructional letters to Catholics, sent monks to evangelize to the Barbarians, and reformed the liturgy and music. (*Gregorian Chant*), last of four original Doctors of the Church, consolidated Papal states, sent St. Augustine to England
Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
616-578 BC, Rome, King, constructed many public buildings in Rome
Honroius I
625-638, Pope, bestowed pallium on archbishops of Canterbury and York, wrote letter seeming supporting Monothelitism, saying Christ had one will but two natures, called a heretic by Third Council of Constantinople in 680
St. Linus
64-76, second pope, possibly martyred
Ancus Macius
641-613 BC, Rome, King, captured many Latin towns, built port of Ostia
Tulius Hostilius
673-641 BC, Rome, King, destroyed Alba Longa and fought Sabines
Galba
68-69, Rome, Emperor, Julius Vindex, governor of Gallia backed Galba vs. Nero
Otho
69, Rome, second emperor of year of four emperors
Vitelius
69, Rome, third emperor of year of four emperors
Vespasian
69-79, Favian Emperor, Rome, campaigned in Britain and Judea, 9-year world peace, suppressed Germanic Batavian revolt under Julius Civilis, General Agricola led conquests in Britain, Colosseum constructed
Numa Pompilius
715-676 BC, Rome, King, introduced many religious customs
Charles Martel
715-741, Merovingian, ruler of Austrasia, the Hammer, son of Pepin of Herstal, defeated Muslims in 732 at Poitiers, killed Abd-ar-Rahman, grandfather of Charlemagne
Childeric III
743-751, last Merovingian
Pepin the Short
751-768, Carolingian, crowned by Pope Stephen II, ceded Donation of Pepin, foundation of the Papal States, acquired Aquitane, father of Charlemagne
Romulus
753-715 BC, Rome, King, founded Rome with twin brother Remus(sons of Rhea Silvia, daughter of king of Alba Longa
Titus
79-81, Favian Emperor, Rome, destroyed Jerusalem in 70, beneficient after Vesuvius eruption in 79 and fire and plague in Rome in 80
St. Leo III
795-816, Pope, gang tried to gouge out his eyes and cut out his tongue, imprisoned for perjury and adultey, exonerated by Charlemagne, leading to him crowning Charlemagne HRE
Egbert
802-839, Saxon, king of Wessex, given title of Bretwalda(ruler of the British), defeated danes and Welsh at Hingston Down(cornwall) in 838, won the Battle of Ellendune against Beornwulf, king of Mercia in 825
Domitian
81-96, Favian Emperor, Rome, clashed with Senate, defeated revolt led by Antonius Saturnius of Upper Germany, executed many aristocrats, murdered by officials and wife Domitia
Louis I the Pious
814-840, Carolingian, following the death of his son Pepin, he divided his succession between surviving sons Charles I the Bald, Lothair I, and Louis II the German in the Treaty of Verdun in 843
Aethelwulf
839-858, Saxon, king of Wessex, son of Egbert, withstood Viking invaders, allied Wessex with Merica, married daughter of Charles II the Bald, won Battle of Surrey
Charles I the Bald
840-877, Carolingian, son of Louis I the Pious and Judith of Bavaria, received the West Frankish Kingdom in Treaty of Verdun, fought off viking raids, crowned by Pope John VIII
Kenneth I MacAlpin
846-860, Scotland, King of Picts and later first Scottish King, conquered Pictish Kingdom, made capital at Scone, invaded Lothain
Boris I
852-889, King of Bulgaria,forced by Byzantine Michael III to adopt Christianity, retired to monastery but later deposed his corrupt son Vladimir, replacing him with Simeon, Krum dynasty
Rurik
862-879, Rurik(Rus), consolidated Slavic tribes at Novgorod, founded Kievan Rus, dynasty moved to Kiev in 972
Aethelred I
866-871, Saxon, king of Wessex and of Kent, son of Aethelwulf, struggled against the Danes, lost to Danes at Reading, won at Aescesdun, defeated at Basing, won at Maeretun, imposed Danegeld tax
Basil I
867-886, Macedonian who was co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire with Michael III, had Michael killed, and established the Macedonian Dynasty, restored scholar Photius
Alfred the Great
871-899, Saxon, king of Wessex, son of Aethelwulf, captured London in 886, began court school and invited scholars such as Welsh Asser and Irish John Scotus Erigena, promulgated laws which didn't distinguish Welsh and English
Charles II the Fat
884-887, Carolingian, Charles III of the Holy Roman Empire, deposed by nephew Arnulf, dissolution of the Frankish Empire
Harold I the Fairheaded
885-933, Norway, first ruler of All Norway, won Battle of Hafrsfjord, amny fled and launched Viking raids, allied with english Athelstan
Simeon I
893-927, Tsar of Bulgaria, created Bulgarian Orthodox Church, his reign was the Golden Age of Bulgaria, successful campaigns against th Byzantines, Magyars and Serbs, created the most powerful state in contemporary Southeast and Eastern Europe.
Charles III the Simple
898-922, Carolingian, ceded much of Normandy to Vikings, imprisoned in Peronne
Edward the Elder
899-924, Saxon, King of Wessex, defeated the Danes in 918 following the help and later death of his sister Aethelflaed, ruler of Mercia, constructed enclosures around Wessex, almost fully conquered England
Henry I the Fowler
919-936, Saxon, HRE, first Saxon German King, defeated Magyars, Wends and Danes
Athelstan the Glorious
924-940, Saxon, King of Wessex, first king of Wessex to have effective rule over the entirety of England, annexed York, brought up by Aethelflaed, extensive law codes punishing theft and corruption yet letting minors off easier, titled himself Rex totius Britanniae
Hakon I the Good
935-961, Norway, dethroned half brother Eric Bloodaxe, attempted to introduce Christianity
Otto I the Great
936-973, Saxon, HRE, good at putting down revolts, pacifies the Eastern frontier, intervenes in the West, made king of Italy, marries Adelaide, his son (Liudulf) and Conrad the Red rebel against him, in the midst of that the Magyars invade, he forgives the boys rebellion, they end up dying for him, he has to deal with papal drama, deposed Pope John XII, replaced him with Leo VIII
Edmund I
939-936, Saxon, king of the English, recaptured northern England from viking occupation, son of Edward the Elder, began the monastic revival in England, killed by a robber
Edgar the Peaceful
959-976, Saxon, king of the English, youngest son of Edmund I, succeeded brother Eadwig, made St. Dunstan Archbishop of Canterbury, patron of the monastic revival, laws penalized the nonpayment of contribution to the Roman Catholic church, tolerant of local customs, legislated for the Danelaw
Nerva
96-98, Rome, first of the Five Good Emperors
Mieszko
962-992, Piast, King of Poland, converted Poland to Christianity
Olaf I
968-1000, Norway, raided England with Danish Sweyn I Forkbeard, converted to Christianity, defeated rebellion under pagan Earl Hakon, made Nidaros capital, won Battle of Svold in 1000 against Sweyn I, Swedish Olaf, and sons of Hakon but died
Otto II
973-983, Saxon, HRE, wife Theophano of Byzantine, captured Lorraine but returned it, defeated by Greeks at Crotona in 982
Edward the Martyr
975-978, Saxon, king of England, song of Edgar, assassinated, possibly by mother Aelfthryth and brother Ethelred, remains were said to produce miracles
Basil II
976-1025, Macedonian emperor who campaigned against the Bulgars and annexed Bulgaria, Crete, Cyprus, and Syria, expanding the empire to the Euphrates, nicknamed Bulgaroctonos or slayer of Bulgars
Aethelred II the Unready
978-1016, Saxon, King of England, son of King Edgar, possibly assassinated brother Edward, unprepared for Danish invasions in 980, failed to buy peace, massacred Danish settlers, fled to Normandy when Sweyn I was accepted as king of England, came back in 914
Trajan
98-117, Rome, Second of the Five Good Emperors, conquered Dacia and Mesopotamia, fought Parthians
Louis V
986-987, Last Carolingian
Hugh Capet
987-996, Capetian, vassals elected him over Charles, Duke of Lorraine
Saint Vladimir
988-1015, Rurik(Rus), king, sent envoys to study the religions of the various neighboring nations whose representatives had been urging him to embrace their respective faiths, Rejected Islam and Judasim, decided upon Christianity after hearing reports of Constantinople, baptism made Orhodox Christianity official Russian religion, married Byzantine Basil II's daughter Anne
Boleslaw I
992-1025, Piast, King of Poland, defeated HRE Henry II, crowned by pope in 1025
Robert II the Pious
996-1031, Capetian, educated by Gerbert(soon-to-be Pope Sylvester II), excommunicated by Pope Gregory V for marriage to cousin Bertha of Burgundy
Stephen I
997-1038, Hungary, founded Arpad Dynasty, given title Apostolic Majesty, adopted by future Hungarian sovereigns, by Pope Sylvester II
Hiero I
?-466 BC, Syracuse, patron of the arts, supported Pindar, ousted in favor of democracy
St. Peter
?-64, First Pope, one of the twelve disciples, denied knowing Jesus on night of trial, first to see risen Jesus, called the rock on which the church was founded, martyred in Rome
Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus
Brother who served as people's tribunes and attempted to help the poor by agrarian and corn laws, both died in seperate riots 133 and 121 BC, sons of Cornelia and grandsons of Scipio Africanus
Cylon
C.632 BC, Athens, attempted a coup, victor of the olympics
Hamilcar
Carthage general who occupied Spain, father of Hannibal
Hannibal
Carthaginian military commander who, in the Second Punic War, attempted a surprise attack on Rome, begin in 218 BC, crossing the Alps with a large group of soldiers, horses, and elephants,
Gaius Diulius
Consul who led naval victory over Carthage in First Punic War at Mylae in 260 BC
Marcus Atilius Regulus
General who lost to Carthage in Africa during First Punic Wars
Knights Hospitalers
Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, Organize around hospitals, medical core of the Crusades, founded by Gerard, rules established by Saint Augustine, moved to Rhodes and later Malta, conquered by Napoleon in 1798
Perseus
Macedonia, Son of Phillip V, lost to Romans in Third Macedonian War
Phillip V
Macedonian King who lead the Macedonians in to failure in the 1st and 2nd Macedonian wars. After losing the 2nd M. War he becomes paranoid and kills people, including his son, for 20 years until he died in 179 BCE.
Knights Templar
Poor Knights of Christ, Considered the most famous of the Western Christian military orders. The organization existed for approximately two centuries in the Middle Ages. In 1307, many of the Order's members in France were arrested, tortured into giving false confessions, and then burned at the stake. Under pressure from King Phillip IV, Pope Clement V disbanded the Order in 1312. Founded by Hugh de Payens, rules established by Bernard of Clairvaux, established banking system
Sulla
Powerful commander, earned his men's loyalty, general who used his army for his political advantage, started a civil war in Rome, killed his enemies, reduced power of tribunes, more power to patricians, left Rome to fight Mithridates in 87 BC, returned in 83 BC and defeated Cinna
Gaius Cassius
Roman general and politician who was one of the major forces behind the plot to assassinate Caesar, defeated by Octavian and Antony at Philippi
Scipio Africanus
Roman general who commanded the invasion of Carthage in the second Punic War and defeated Hannibal at Zama (circa 237-183 BC)
Marius
Roman general who was elected consul seven times- he is known for the big changes he made to the Roman army, making it easier for men to be Roman soldiers
Lucius Aemilius Paullus
Roman, Consul during the Battle of Cannae, who dies during the battle, captured Perseus at Pydna in 168 BC
Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Minor
Roman, Destroyed Carthage in 146 BC in Third Punic War
Marcus Drusus
Roman, attempted to help poor, assassinated 91 BC
Marcus Brutus
Rome, Friend of Caesar who kills him "for the good of Rome", crushed by Octavian and Anthony at Phillippi
Marcus Licinius Crassus
Rome, Member of first Triumvirate with Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great, extremely wealthy, killed by Parthians in Syria at Battle of Carrhae
Lucius Cinna
Rome, conspirator who urges Cassius to bring "noble" Brutus into the conspiracy; he assists by placing some of Cassius' forged letters where Brutus will discover them
Julius Gaius Caesar
Rome, member of First Triumvirate with Pompey the Great and Marcus Crassus, Governor of Spain, conquered Northern Gaul, crossed Rubicon and made Pompey flee, assassinated on Ides of March in 44 BC
Pompey the Great
Rome, member of first Triumvirate with Julius Caeser and Marcus Crassus, ended Servile War by Spartacus, cleared Mediterranean of pirates, captured Jerusalem, defeated by Julius Caesar at Pharsalus in 48 BC, murdered in Egypt
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus
Rome, member of the second triumvirate with Mark Antony and Octavian, one of Caesar's top officers and took control of Rome's territories in Africa, failed to cease struggle between Octavian and Antony, tried to take Sicily from Octavian and was expelled from the triumvirate
Mark Antony
Rome, served with Caesar against Pompey, formed Second Triumvirate with Octavius and Lepidus, married Octavius' sister, affair with Cleopatra, defeated by Octavius at Actium, committed suicide with Cleopatra at Alexandria
Antiochus III
c. 200 BC, Seleucid, sixth ruler of the Seleucid Empire, considered the most successful after Seleucus I (Alexander's general), pushed the boundaries of the Seleucid Empire west to Central Asia Minor, tried to conquer Western parts of Asia Minor leading to war with Rome, defeated by Romans at Magnesia 190 BC
Cleisthenes
c. 510-490 BC, Athens, made athenian assembly-law making body, granted some citizenship to some imms. and former slaves. set-up council of 500, introduced Ostracism
Solon
c. 594 BC, Athens, elected Archon, established laws that eased the burden of debt on farmers, forbade enslavement for debt, poet, replaced Aeropagus with a popular assembly
Lycurgus
c. 600s BC, Sparta, semimythical lawgiver, began Spartan militant culture
Draco
c. 621 BC, Athens, issued harsh legal code, said to be killed by having too many hats thrown on him, driven out of Athens to Aegina
Pyrrhus
king of Epirus, helped Greek cities of southern Italy fight Rome, 280-276 BC in Pyrrhic War but lost