European Leaders

Edward the Confessor

(1042-1066) Saxon, King of England, The son of Aethelred the Unready and Emma of Normandy, he is usually regarded as the last king of the House of Wessex. His death launched a fight over the English monarchy between Harald and William the Bastard of Normandy, married Godwin's daughter Edith, revolt against Tostig Earl of Northumbria, founded Westminster Abbey

Henry the Navigator

(1394-1460) Portuguese prince who promoted the study of navigation and directed voyages of exploration down the western coast of Africa.

Mary II

(1689-1694) This daughter of James II came to the throne and ruled jointly with her husband and 1st cousin, William of Orange, when James II was deposed in the Glorious Revolution

Anne

(1702-1707) Stuart, daughter of James II, succeeded William III when he died in 1702, 1707 England and Scotland were united as a single sovereign state, the Kingdom of Great Britain, last of the Stuarts, died without any surviving children, War of Spanish Succession 1701-1714

Louis XVIII

(1814-1824) Restored Bourbon throne after the Revoltion. He accepted Napoleon's Civil Code (principle of equality before the law), honored the property rights of those who had purchased confiscated land and establish a bicameral (two-house) legislature consisting of the Chamber of Peers (chosen by king) and the Chamber of Deputies (chosen by an electorate)., Brother of Louis XVI, lived in exile during Napoleons' reign, influenced by liberal minister Elie Decazes but later influenced by reactionary Ultras

Charles X of France

(1824-1830), Restoration, absolutist, wanted to re-establish the old order in France, conquered Algeria to gain support, repudiated the Constitutional Charter, censored the press, headed reactionary Ultras, favoritism to catholics caused the July 1830 revolution, exiled to Britain

Ferdinand I of Austria

(1835-1848) promised reforms and a liberal constitution in response to widespread protests and revolt, abdicates in favor of Francis Joseph, controlled by von Metternich

Theodosius I The Great

(379-395) In 391, declared Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire; heresy became a crime, pagan sacrifice was outlawed (eventually all forms of pagan worship will follow), last to rule an united Roman Empire, persecuted Arians

Charlemagne

(768-814 CE) Carolingian, born in Aachen, brother Crloman, Crowned king on Christmas, 800 CE by Pope Leo III in Saint Peter's Basilica; can be compared to Harsha; brought back unified rule to Europe only during his life; used the missi dominici to check up on imperial officials, gathered scholars including Alcuin of York, fought off Viking invasions

Aethelflaed

(905~911)-919, Saxon, Queen of Mercia, ruled following the death of her husband Aethelred of the Mercians, worked with brother Edward the Elder to conquer the Danes, won at Derby and Leicester, efforts led to Edward almost fully controlling England

Leopold II

(reigned 1865-1909) King of Belgium who employed Henry Morton Stanley to help develop commercial ventures and establish a colony called the Congo Free State in the basin of the Congo River, put workers in terrible conditions, annexed the Belgian congo in 1908, forced to institute reforms aiding workers

Teutonic Knights

.... of St. John of Jerusalem, founded by Germans,Order of knights devoted to Christianity and to fighting Muslims and pagans, Most active in Baltic region where they fought Slavs and controlled Prussia, tried to convert Eastern Europe to Christianity, defeated by Poland at Tannenberg in 1410

Herny II the Saint

1002-1024, Saxon, HRE, last Saxon king of Germany, crowned by Pope Benedict VIII, fought three campaigns in Italy, fought KIng Boleslaw I of Poland

St. Olaf II

1015-1028, Norway, converted to Christianity by english Aethelred II, killed at Battle of Stiklestad, canonized in 1164

Edmund II Ironsides

1016-1016, Saxon, King of England, resisted Danish king Canute's invasion of England following the death of his father Aethelred II the Unready, defeated by Canute at Ashington

Canute II the Great

1016-1035, Dane, King of England, son of Sweyn I the Forkbeard, stayed in England as king of the Danes, exiled Olaf II of Norway, had conflicts in Scandinavia, harsh treatment of English at the beginning but grew warmer, peaceful reign in England, sons Harold(illegitimate) and Hardecanute(legitimate)

Conrad II

1024-1039, Salian, HRE, king of Lombards, inherited Burgundy from Rudolf III

Henry I of Capet

1031-1060, Capetian, struggled with feudiaries, helped then fought with William the Conqueror, lost at Varaville to him

Duncan I

1034-1040, Scotland, King of Scotland, killed by Macbeth of Moray

Harold I Harefoot

1035-1040, Dane, King of England, witenagemot royal council divided England between him and Hardecanute but Hardecanute stayed in Denmark

Henry III the Black

1039-1056, Salian, HRE, appointed Pope Clement II and three more German popes

Hardecanute

1040-1042, Dan, King of England, last dane king of England, left control of England to mom and Godwin, Earl of Wessex

Macbeth

1040-1057, Scotland, King of Scotland, murdered Duncan I, Killed in battle by Malcolm Canmore in 1057

St. Leo IX

1049-1054, Pope, caused Great Schism by excommunicating patriarch Michael Cerularius of Constantinople with bull in Hagia Sophia

Henry IV

1056-1106, Salian, HRE, won civil war against Rudolf Duke of Swabia, deposed Pope Gregory VII and replaced him with Clement III

Harold II

1066, Saxon, King of England, last Saxon King of England, defeated Tostig and Norwegian Harold III but lost to William Duke of Normandy at Hastings October 14 1066

William I the Conqueror

1066-1087, Norman, King of England, son of Robert I of Normandy, Pope Alexander II sanctioned his invasion of England, landed at Pevensey and won at Hastings 1066, crowned at Westminster Abbey, invaded Malcolm III MacDuncan's Scotland 1072, fell off horse at Mantes in campaign against French Philip I

Olaf III the Quiet

1066-1093, Norway, father Harold III Hard Ruler killed at Battle of Stamford Bridge, ruled for three years with brother Magnus II Barefoot

St. Gregory VII

1073-1085, Pope, opposed simony(sale of clerical office) and lay investiture, leading to Investiture Controversy, HRE Henry IV declared him deposed

Alexius I Comnenus

1081-1118, Byzantine emperor whose request for aid from the west served as the pretext for the Crusades, fought Norman invaders led by Robert Guiscard alongside Venetians, regained Anatolia from Seljuk Turks during the First Crusade, disputed with Bohemia, daughter Anna Comnena wrote his biography, Alexiad

William II Rufus

1087-1100, Norman, King of England, defeated uncle Odo who wanted to replace him with Robert, thrice invaded Normandy against brother Robert II, killed on hunting trip

Urban II

1088-1099, Pope, launched First Crusade, sought to end Great Schism but continued opposition to investiture

Donald Bane

1093-1094, 1095-1097, Scotland, King of Scotland, briefly deposed by nephew Duncan II

Pashal II

1099-1118, Pope, resolved disputes with English Henry I and French Phillip I, first Crusade successful, continued investiture conflict with HRE Henry IV and V, who took him prisoner, after 61 days gave Henry right to appoint bishops but nulified this in 1112

Henry I Beauclerc

1100-1135, Norman, King of England, defeated brother Robert II at Tinchebray

Boleslaw III

1102-1138, Piast, King of Poland, defended Silesia against HRE Henry V, conquered Pomerania, at his death kingdom was divided among sons and deteriorated

Henry V

1106-1125, Salian, HRE, last Salian, fought Pope Paschal II over lay investiture

Louis VI the Fat

1108-1137, Capetian, fought Henry I of England and Henry V of the Holy Roman Empire, aided peasants

David I

1124-1153, Scotland, King of Scotland, failed to have niece Matilda enthroned in England

Sverker

1130-1156, Sweden, King, united Swedes and Goths, capital at Uppsala

Stephen of Blois

1135-1154, Blois, King of England, nephew of Henry I, usurped throne from cousin Matilda

Louis VII the Young

1137-1180, Capetian, married Eleanor of Aquitane before the marriage was annulled and she married Henry II of England, led the Second Crusade with Conrad III of Germany, lost Aquitane

Conrad III

1138-1152, Hohenstaufen, HRE, first Hohenstaufen, king of Italy, leader in Second Crusade

Alfonso I

1139-1185, Portugal, first King of Portugal, captured Lisbon

Frederick I Barbarossa

1152-1190, Hohenstaufen, HRE, defeated by Lombard League at Legnano, led Third Crusade in 1189, drowned in Calycadnus River

Henry II

1154-1189, Plantagenet, king of England, broadened the system of royal justice by expanding accepted customs into law and establishing royal courts. Married to Eleanor of Aquitaine, father of King John Lackland, four of his knights murdered Thomas a Beckett, but forced to do penance, son of Matilda, defeated Stephen of Blois

Alexander III

1159-1181, Pope, studied under Gratian, father of canon law, negotiated Treaty of Constance with HRE Frederick I, forced English Henry II to do penance for murder of Thomas a Beckett, forced into French exile by Frederick I, presided over Third Lateran Council

William the Lion

1165-1214, Scotland, King of Scotland, made alliance with French Louis VII, captured by English Henry II near Alnwick and assented to Treaty of Falaise acknowledging Henry II as overlord, secured independence of Scottish church from pope, Richard surrendered claims for payment

Hadrian

117-138, Rome, Third of the Five Good Emperors, ended Roman expansion, built namesake wall for defense, patron of arts, erected Athenaeum, Temple of Venus, Roma, mausloleum Castel Sant'Angelo and rebuilt Pantheon

Phillip II Augustus

1180-1223, Capetian, fought Richard I and John I of England, defeated European powers at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, fixed the capital at Paris and improved the city

Ivan Asen I

1186-1196, Tsar of the Second Bulgarian empire, founded the Asen dynasty, led an uprising against Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelus, murdered by one of his boyars in 1196

Peter Asen II

1186-1197, Tsar of the Second Bulgarian empite, founded the Asen dynasty, murdered in 1197 in a riot

Richard I the Lionheart

1189-1199, Plantagenet, King of England, given Aquitaine by mom Eleanor, Brother was King John. Launched the 3rd crusade with Phillip II of France to retake Jerusalem after Saladin captured it. He took Aere, but could not take Jerusalem,captured by HRE Henry IV and ransomed, made peace with brother John

Phillip of Swabia

1197-1208, Hohenstaufen, HRE, fought for the German throne following the death of Henry VI, first German king to be assassinated

Otto IV of Brunswick

1198-1215, Hohenstaufen, HRE, grandson of Henry II of England, excommunicated by Pope Innocent III, defeated by France at Bouvines

Innocent III

1198-1216, Pope, established control of the Papal States, declared Crusade against dualist Albigensianism in 1208, launched unsuccessful Fourth Crusade, convoked Fourth Lateran Council, encouraged St. Dominic and St. Francis

John Lackland

1199-1216, Plantagenet, King of England, Though he tried to seize the crown from his brother Richard while the latter was in Germany, Richard forgave John and made him his successor. Excommunicated by the Pope for four years for refusing to accept Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury, John was also weak as a fighter, as French King Philip II routed him at Bouvines in 1214. A year later, England's barons forced John to sign the Magna Carta at Runnymede, an event that marked the beginning of the development of the British constitution.

Mithridates VI Eupator

120-63 BC, king of Pontus, defeated by Sulla, Lucullus, and Pompey the Great in 66 BC

Alexander II

1214-1249, Scotland, King of Scotland, supported barons against English John, Peace of York established boundary with England

Frederick II

1215-1250, Hohenstaufen, HRE, led Fifth Crusade, fought Lombards

Henry III

1216-1272, Plantagenet, forced to accept Provisions of Oxford to share power with barons in 1258, son Edward defeated barons at Evesham

Hakon IV the Old

1217-1263, Norway, defeated rival Earl Skule, acquired Greenland in 1261 and Iceland in 1262, murdered historian Snorri Sturluson

Louis VIII

1223-1226, House of Capet. Though he reigned for only three years, his contributions to the rise of French power were enormous. He annexed Languedoc and captured Poitou from England. Perhaps more importantly, he established the systems of appanages (land grants) which replaced the older, local nobles with barons who owed their fiefs to the crown. This allowed for the subsequent rise in French royal (and national) power. Offered English Crown to barons who opposed John but was defeated at Lincoln, participated in crusades against Albigenses(Cathars)

Saint Louis IX

1226-1270, Capetian, created a judicial system, led the Seventh Crusade but lost in Egypt in 1250, signed the Treaty of Corbeil with Aragon in 1258, signed Treaty of Paris with English Henry III, died on a crusade in Tunis

Gregory IX

1227-1241, Pope, excommunicated HRE Frederick II for not going on crusade, issued Excommunicamus to prosecute Albigensian heretics, establishing Inquisition, collected decretals to codify canon law

Alexander Nevsky

1246-1263, Rurik(Rus), Prince of Novgorod, beat Swedes at Neva River, beat Teutonic Knights at Lake Peipus Estonia, allied with Mongols to defeat the Germans

Conrad IV

1250-1254, Hohenstaufen, HRE, deposed by Pope Innovent IV, fought Henry Raspe and William of Holland for German crown

Great Interregnum

1254-1273, long period without a Holy Roman Emperor, began after Conrad IV and ended by the coronation of Rudolf I, transitioning from Hohenstaufen to Hapsburg

Michael VIII Palaeologus

1261-1282, restored Greek rule of the Byzantine Empire, retook Constantinople from the Latins, fought King Charles I of the Two Sicilies, formented plot by Sicilian Vipers

Visconti family

1262-1447, Milan, patrons of Petrarch, Ottone defeated Della Torre at Desio, last ruler was Filipepo Maria

Charles I

1266-1285, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, son of Louis VIII, went on Sixth Crusade with Louis IX, pope gave him Two Sicilies for helping fight Ghibellines, killed King Manfred, defeated revolt by Conrad III, went on failed Seventh Crusade, lost to Pedro III of Aragon

Edward I

1272-1307, Plantagenet, invaded Scotland in 1296, failed to crush William Wallace revolt in 1298, executed Wallace in 1305, Robert Bruce became Scottish King

Rudolf I

1273-1291, Hapsburg, HRE, fought Alfonso X of Castile and Ottokar II of Bohemia for German crown, ending Great Interregnum

Phillip IV the Fair

1285-1314, Capetian, Pope Boniface VIII issued Unam Sanctam bull against him in 1302 for making the clergy pay taxes, obtained election of Clement V as pope who moved to Avignon beginning Babylonian Captivity(until 1377), arrested Jacques de Molay of Knights Templar and burned many at stake

John de Baliol

1292-1296, Scotland, King of Scotland, English Edward I selected him over Robert de Bruce VI as king, allied with France and captured by English

Boniface VIII

1294-1303, Pope, issued Clericis Laicos against French Philip IV and English Edward I, forbidding clergy taxes, asserted papal supremacy in Unam Sanctum bull, imprisoned by Philip IV

Albert I

1298-1308, Hapsburg, HRE, lost war to Thuringia, murdered by nepher John of Swabia

Clement V

1305-1314, Pope, first pope to reside at Avignon in Babylonian Captivity, controlled by French Philip IV, suppressed Knights Templar

Robert I Bruce

1306-1329, Scotland, King of Scotland, deposed by English Edward I but reconquered most of Scotland within two years, defeated English at Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, made truce with Edward II but warred again with Edward III

Edward II

1307-1327, Plantagenet, First heir known as Prince of Wales, in 1311 barons led by Thomas Earl of Lancaster established committee of lords called lords ordainers and executed his friend Piers Gaveston, lost to Robert Bruce of Scotland in 1314, defeated Lancaster with the help of Hugh le Depenser, imprisoned by barons with wife Isabella, murdered by captors

Louis IV the Bavarian

1314-1347, Hapsburg, HRE, fought Frederick II the Fair and Leopold I for crown, opposed by Pope John XXII

Phillip V the Tall

1317-1322, Capetian, frequently convoked the Estates General, fined Jews

Wladyslaw I

1320-1333, Piast, King of Poland, defeated Tectonic Knights, reunited kingdom of Poland

Charles IV the Fair

1322-1328, Capetian(last), helped sister Isabelle dethrone husband Edward II of England, increased taxes

Edward III

1327-1377, Plantagenet, arrested mom Isabella and hung her lover Roger de Mortimer, defeated Scots, began Hundred Years' War in 1337, gained Aquitaine in Peace of Calais but lost most of his French possessions in 1375 truce

Phillip VI

1328-1350, Valois, crushed revolt in Flanders, began Hundred Years War, lost at Sluis(Netherlands 1340), Crecy(France 1346), Calais(France 1347), made truce with Edward III, plague began in France in 1347

David II Bruce

1329-1371, Scotland, King of Scotland, deposed by Edward de Baliol, allied with Franch eand lost to English at Neville's Cross in 1346, ransomed

Kazimierz III the Giant

1333-1370, Piast, King of Poland, conquered Galicia, enlightened, founded university

Louis I the Great

1342-1382, Hungary and Poland, fought three wars with Venice

Charles IV of Luxemburg

1347-1378, Hapsburg, HRE, issued Golden Bull, establishing method of imperial election

John II the Good

1350-1354, Valois, captured by Edward the Black Prince at Poitiers in 1356, tried to raise ransom under the Peace of Bretigny but failed and was imprisoned

Charles V the Wise

1364-1380, Valois, reagent when John II was imprisoned, faced Jacquerie peasant revolt, insurrection of Paris under Etienne Marcel, successful in war against England, built the Bastille, founded first French royal Library

Robert II

1371-1390, Stuart, King of Scotland, twice regent for David II

Richard II

1377-1399, Plantagenet, asserted authority over Parliament with help of uncle John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, exiled but later caught by John of Gaunt's son Henry Blingbroke, Duke of Hereford, confined in Pontefract Castle

Wenceslas

1378-1400, Hapsburg, HRE, made Prague capital, supported John Huss but later fought his followers in Hussite Wars

Antonius Pius

138-161, Rome, Fourth of the Five Good Emperors, built wall between Forth and Clyde rivers in Britain, Antonine Column now in Vatican built in his honor by Marcus Aurelius

Charles VI of France

1380-1422, Valois, went insane in 1392, civil wars between Armagnacs of Orleans and Burgundians, Lost to England at Agincourt in 1415, England imposed treaty of Troyes giving Henry V succession to the French throne

Wladyslaw II Jagiello

1386-1434, Jagiellonian, King of Poland, grand duke of Lithuania, converted Lithuania to Roman Catholicism, defeated Teutonic Knights at Tannenberg in 1410

Henry IV Bolingbroke

1399-1413, Lancaster, exiled by cousin Richard II but raised an army to defeat him, suppressed rebellions by nobles, Scots, and Welsh, persecuted Lollards, followers of Wycliffe

Tiberius

14-37, Rome, emperor, stepson of Augustus, married his daughter Julia, studied at Rhodes for seven years, left Praetorian guard prefect Lucius Sejanus in charge when he went to Campania and Capreae

James I

1406-1437, Stuart, King of Scotland, English prisoner 1406-1423, daughter married French Louis XI, assassinated by nobles

Sigismund

1411-1437, Hapsburg, HRE, wife Queen Mary of Hungary, defeated by Ottoman Bayazid I at Nicopolis in Bulgaria, convoked Council of Constance, executed John Huss and fought Hussite wars

Henry V

1413-1422, Lancaster, defeated French at Agincourt in 1415, became heir to French Charles VI and married his daughter Catherine of Valois, brother Thomas duke of Clarence lost Normandy to the French

Martin V

1417-1431, Pope, election by Council of Constance ended Great Schism

Charles VII of France

1422-1461, Valois, established a royal army composed of cavalry and archers. He recieved from the Estates General the right to levy the taille without any further approval of them. It meant less power for the Estates General, ruled only Southern France while England controlled Northern France, regained English territory

Henry VI

1422-1471, Lancaster, nobles attempted to replace him with Richard duke of York in the War of Roses, Richard killed in 1460 but his son Edward imprisoned him in Tower of London

Eugene IV

1431-1447, Pope, struggled against Council of Basel, French Charles VII issued Pragmatic Sanction in 1438 giving French church some freedom, moved Council of Basel to Ferrara then Florence, temporarily rejoined Roman Catholic and Greek orthodox churches

Cosio de'Medici

1434-1464, Florence, established Medici dominance in Florence, his line included Lorenzo and Popes Leo X and Clement VII, family ruled Florence until 1737

James II

1437-1460, Stuart, King of Scotland, Douglas family served as a regent, stabbed William 8th earl of Douglas, entangled in War of Roses, killed in siege of Roxburgh Castle

Alfonso V the African

1438-1481, Portugal, King, sponsored west African exploration by Henry the Navigator

Kazimierz IV

1447-1492, Jagiellonian, King of Poland, won land from the Teutonic Knights in Treaty of Torun

Constantine XI Paleaeologus

1449-1453, the last Byzantine emperor, Byzantine Empire was reduced to Constantinople by the Ottomans, Muhammad II over took the city, only defended by a few hundred Greeks and Genoese

Sforza family

1450-1535, Milan, patrons of Bramante and da Vinci

James III

1460-1488, Stuart, King of Scotland, gained Orkney and Shetland islands by marrying Margaret of Denmark, imprisoned by brother Alexander Stewart duke of Albany, English captured Berwick, lost to nobles at Sauchieburn

Louis XI of France

1461-1483, Valois, rebelled against Charles VII in 1440 but was pardoned, rival of Charles the Bold

Edward IV

1461-1483, York, won Battle of Mortimer's Cross in 1461, Lancastrians and Richard Neville earl of Warwick drove him into exile by 1470 but he returned in 1471

Ivan III the Great

1462-1505, Rurik(Rus), first csar, Grand Duke of Moscow, ended Mongol domination of his dukedom, extended territories, subdued nobles, and attained absolute power; made Moscow the center of a new Russian state with a central government, invaded Lithuania, ruled like a Byzantine, acquired land from Lapland to Urals

Lorenzo de'Medici the Magnificent

1464-1492, Florence, directed Medici bank and was de facto ruler of Florentine republic, patronized artists including Michelangelo and Sandro Botticelli

Zygmunt II Augustus

1469-1472, Jagiellonian, King of Poland, joined Poland and Lithuania in the Commonwealth, dynasty ended at his death and nobles and the Sejm Parliament ruled

Isabella I

1474-1504, Spain, Queen of Spain, began Spanish Inquisition with Husband Ferdinand V

Ferdinand V

1479-1516, Spain, King of Spain, began Spanish Inquisition with wife Isabella I on the empowerment of Pope Sixtus IV, led by Torquemada, funded Christopher Columbus

Edward V

1483, York, power struggle between uncles Richard duke of Gloucester and Anthony Woodville second Earl Rivers when dad Edward IV died, confined to the Tower of London

Richard III

1483-1485, York, murdered nepherws Edward and Richard, slain at Bosworth Field

Charles VIII of France

1483-1498, Valois, French king, invited by Sforza to invade Florence, fought over Italy with Ferdinand of Aragon in the first of many French Italian wars. In 1494, he controlled Florence, the Papal States, and Naples before being defeated by Italy, Gained Brittany by marrying Anne of Brittany

Henry VII

1485-1509, Tudor/Lancaster, defeated Richard III at Bosworth Field in 1485, married Yorkist heiress Elizabeth to unite houses and end War of Roses

James IV

1488-1513, Stuart, King of Scotland, supported Perkin Warbeck's claim to English throne, married Margaret Tudor, leading to eventual English-Scottish Union, allied with France but lost to England at Battle of Flodden Field, patronized arts

Maximillian I

1493-1519, Hapsburg, HRE, defeated Louis XI of France for Burgundy, won thrones of Hungary and Bohemia for Hapsburgs, son Phillip I married Joanna the Mad, establishing Hapsburgs in Spain

Girolamo Savonarola

1494-1497, Florence, Dominican friar, displaced Medicis with Charles VIII(France)'s aid, hanged as heretic

Manuel I

1495-1521, Portugal, King, sponsored Vasco de Gama, Pedro Alvares Cabral, Afonso de Albuquerque

Louis XII of France

1498-1515, Valois, rebelled against Charles VIII, known as Father of the People, mild rule, invaded Italy

Henry VIII

1509-1547, Tudor, joined Holy League against France, faced riots over heavy taxes in 1525, wives Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves, Catherin Howard, Catherine Parr, established Church of England when Pope wouldn't annul marriage to Catherine of Aragon, THomas Cranmer annuled marriage

Leo X

1513-1521, Pope, son of Lorenzo de'Medici, led Fifth Lateran Council, excommunicated Martin LUther in 1521 for 1517 protests against sale of indulgences

Christian II

1513-1523, claimed the Swedish throne under the Union of Kalmar and captured Stockholm in 1523, executed many Swedish nobles, becoming known as the Cruel, Gustav Vasa rebelled against him and took crown, Uncle Frederick I elected Danish King, supported by Holy Roman Empire Charles VI but was still imprisoned for 27 years

James V

1513-1542, Stuart, King of Scotland, John Stewart duke of Albany became his protector, taken prisoner by stepdad Archibald 6th earl of Angus, refused to repudiate Catholicism and was routed by English Henry VIII at Solway Moss

Louis II

1515-1526, Hungary, fought Ottoman Suleiman, invaded Turks

Francis I of France

1515-1547, Valois, Lost election for Holy Roman Emperor to Charles V of Hapsburg, lost and captured in Italy but ransomed, sold judicial and financial offices

Charles I(HRE Charles V)

1516-1556, Spain, King of Spain, 1552 Peace of Passau allowed Lutherans to exercise religion, reaffirmed by 1555 Peace of Augsburg, fought France and Ottomans

Charles V

1519-1556, Hapsburg, HRE, 1552 Peace of Passau allowed Lutherans to exercise religon, reaffirmed by 1555 Peace of Augsburg, fought France and Ottomans, ruled as Charles I of Spain

John III

1521-1557, Portugal, King, title to Brazil confirmed by Congress of Badajoz in 1524, established Inquisition in Portugal, increased influence over the Moluccas(Spice Islands)

Clement VII

1523-1534, Pope, held prisoner by HRE Charles V for seven months in 1527, declared English Henry VIII;s marriage to Catherine of Aragon still valid, patronized Cellini, Raphael and Michelangelo

Gustav I Vasa

1523-1560, Sweden, led a successful uprising agains the Danes and became king of Sweden, encouraged the spread of Protestant ideas and allowed Petri to continue his Swedish translations of the mass and the Lutheran service, founded house of Vasa, freed Sweden from Danish Christian II

Ivan IV the Terrible

1530-1584, Rurik(Rus), first crowned csar, Confirmed power of tsarist autocracy by attacking authority of boyars (aristocrats), continued policy of Russian expansion, established contacts with western European commerce and culture, son of Basil III, convoked first national assembly, expanded to Volga River, became erratic and brutal

Paul III

1534-1549, Pope, revised Inquisition, started Counter Reformation, Michelangelo began work on Sistine Chapel, negotiated Treaty of Nice between HRE Charles V and French Francis I, excommunicated English Henry VIII 1538, called Council of Trent, established Jesuits(society of Jesus)

Mary Queen of Scots

1542-1567, Stuart, Queen of Scotland, married French Francis II, then Henry Stewart Lord Darnley, Catholic relative to Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England, allegedly plotted with Spain's Philip II to overthrow Elizabeth and reassert Catholicism in England, Elizabeth had her beheaded, defeated revolt by brother James Stuart earl of Moray, Darnley murdered adviser David Rizzio, James Hepburn 4th earl of Bothwell had Darnley strangled and married Mary, lost to nobles, executed by Elizabeth I

Edward VI

1547-1553, Tudor, uncle Edward Seymour 1st Earl of Hertford was Lord Protector and Duke of Somerset, John Dudley executed Seymour

Henry II of France

1547-1559, Valois, married Catherine de Medicis, persecuted the Huguenots, fought Charles V, won Calais and Gines from England, lost to Phillip II of Spain at St. Quentin Picardy, gave up Italian possessions in Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis

Mary I Tudor

1553-1558, Tudor, deposed Lady Jane Grey, married Spanish Phillip II, lost Calais, reestablished authority of pope

Phillip II

1556-1598, Spain, King of Spain, Netherlands started to fight for independence, destroyed Ottoman navy at Lepanto, became King of Portugal, Spanish Armada defeated by English 1588

Elizabeth I

1558-1603, Tudor, imprisoned by Mary until she converted to Catholicism, reverted to Protestantism when Mary died, established Church of England in Elizabethan Compromise, execute Catholic cousin Mary Queen of Scots, defeated Spanish Armada in 1588, Robert Devereux 2nd Earl of Essex lost to Irish and then led failed revolt against Elizabeth

Francis II of France

1559-1560, Valois, married Mary, Queen of Scots, dominated by Francois duke of Guise and Cardinal Charles of Lorraine

Pius IV

1559-1565, Pope, reconvened Council of Trent, commissioned Michelangelo

Charles IX of France

1560-1574, Valois, convinced by other Catherine of Medicis to approve St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre in 1572 v. The Huguenots

James VI

1567-1625, Stuart, James I of Great Britain

Henry III of France

1574-1589, Last Valois, initially opposed but then accepted Huguenot Henry of Navarre as successor

Rudolph II

1576-1612, Hapsburg, HRE, patron of Brahe and Kepler, gave religious liberties to Bohemians

Henry IV of France

1589-1610, Bourbon, raised by Calvinist mom Jeanne d'Albret, married Charles IX's sister Margaert of Valois converted to Catholicism but then back, issued Edict of Nantes in 1610

Boris Godunov

1598-1605, Russian, regent for young czar Fyodor, became Czar, first to banish people to Siberia, civil war against pretender to throne in Poland

Phillip III

1598-1621, Spain, King of Spain, agreed to a truce with England after the defeat of the Armada and officially recognized the United provinces as a country, backed Austria in Thirty Year's War, drove out last of the Moriscos

James I

1603-1625, Stuart, only son of Mary Queen of Scots, believed in the divine right of kings, authorized the King James Bible, gunpowder plot led by Guy Fawkes and Robert Catesby foiled November Fifth 1605

Charles IX

1604-1611, Vasa, King of Sweden, defeated Catholic nephew Polish Zygmunt III at Stangebro, war with Poland and Denmark, youngest son of Gustav I Vasa, defeated by poles at Kirklholm

False Dmitri

1605-1606, Russian, this man leads a peasant revolt to seize the crown. he is killed by the boyars

Marcus Aurelius

161-180, Rome, Last of the Five Good Emperors, wrote Meditations detailing his personal philosophy, Stoic, champion of the poor, end of Pax Romana

Louis XIII of France

1610-1643, Bourbon, mom Marie de Medicis served as regent until 1617, married Anne of Austria(daughter of King Phillip III of Spain), dominated by Cardinal Richelieu, entered the Thirty Year's War on the side of the Protestants and Sweden

Gustavus II Adolphus the Lion of the North

1611-1632, Vasa, King of Sweden, entered Thirty Year;s War to acquire Baltic States, killed at Battle of Lutzen

Michael Romanov

1613-1645, Romanov, Tsar of Russia, elected by national assembly, established dynasty

Ferdinand II

1619-1637, Hapsburg, HRE, Bohemian rebels threw two of his ministers out a window in the Defenestration of Prague, causing the Thirty Year's War

Phillip IV

1621-1665, Spain, King of Spain, lost Netherlands in Treaty of Westphalia, cede Roussillon to France in treaty of the Pyrenees

Charles I

1625-1649, Stuart, born in Dunfermline, accepted Petition of Right demanding reforms in exchange for funds for Thirty Years' War but dismissed Parliament, called Short Parliament to quell Presbyterian Scots riots, called Long Parliament whihc refused funding to down Irish revlot, tried to arrest members of Parliament, civil war between Roundheads and Cavaliers, Oliver Cromwell led Independents in Parliament, Rump Parliament executed him

Christina

1632-1654, Vasa, Queen of Sweden, Axel Oxenstierna served as regent, supported lower estates against nobles and Council of the Realm, Thirty Years' War caused economic problems, influenced by Descartes, never married, converted to Catholicism

Ferdinand III

1637-1657. Hapsburg, HRE, centralized government, strengthened Habsburg holdings, established a standing army, wanted to conquer the plains of Hungary, absolutist, signed Peace of Westphalia, letting rulers of each region to choose their religon

John IV

1640-1656, Braganza, King of Portugal, drove out Spanish Usurpers at Battle of Montijo, first Braganza king

Frederick William the Great Elector

1640-1688, Prussia, acquired land for Brandenburg, admitted Hugeunots, neutral during Thirty Years' War

Louis XIV of France

1643-1715, Bourbon, The Sun King, longest reign in European history, mom Anne of Austria and Cardinal Jules Mazarin ruled as regent, Fronde(slingshot) rebellions from 1648-1653, married Spanish cousin Marie Therese, built palace at Versailles, revoked Edict of Nantes in 1685, leading to Camisard's revolt, Invaded Spanish Netherlands, claimed Palatinate in the Rhineland, grandson Phillip became Spanish King leading to War of Spanish Succession

Alexis I

1645-1676, Romanov, Tsar of Russia, son of Michael I, lost war to Sweden, schism in Russian Orthodox Church

Oliver Cromwell

1653-1658, Commonwealth, won battle of Naseby against Cavaliers in English Revolution, became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth, tolerated Puritans

Charles X Gustav

1654-1660, Palatinate, King of Sweden, first of Palatinate dynasty, invaded Poland against cousin Jan II Kazimierz, allied with Brandenburg Frederick William and won at Warsaw, won lands from Danish Frederick II in Treaty of Roskilde, lost at Copenhagen

Richard Cromwell

1658-1659, son of Oliver Cromwell who briefly succeeded him as dictator until he was deposed in favor of restoring the monarchy

Charles II

1660-1685, Stuart, routed by Cromwell in 1651 but returned to power in 1660, granted amnesty to opponents, gained New Netherlands in unpopular Dutch War of 1672

Charles XI

1660-1697, Palatinate, King of Sweden, allied with French Louis XIV in Dutch Wars, lost land but regained most in Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, wiped out public debt and strengthened military

Peter I the Great

1682-1725, Romanov, Tsar of Russia, 6'8", first shared throne with older half-brother Ivan V, traveled in Europe to set a model for Russia, reformed the army by offering better pay and drafting peasants as professional soldiers, first Russian navy, ordered aristocrats to study mathematics, increased bureaucracy to improve efficiency, ordered his subjects to wear European styles and cut off their beards, taxing people with beards, constructed his capital, St. Petersburg, which had a large seaport, captured Azoz from Turks on Black Sea, defeated Sweden in Battle of Poltava 1709

James II

1685-1689, Stuart, Brother of Charles II, converted to Catholicism, deposed by Glorious Revolution, lost at Battle of the Boyne in Ireland in 1690, fled to France

William III

1689-1702, Stuart, hesitant to come into England from the Netherlands and immediately take over the thrown but most of the British army took his side so it was easy to make James II flee, passed the Act of Toleration in 1689 which guaranteed religious tolerance to Protestants, stopped catholic rule, placed more power towards the Parliament and stopped many of the illegal activities that James II was doing, joined Grand Alliance, opposed Parliament;s domestic reforms

Charles XII

1697-1718, Palatinate, King of Sweden, fought Great Northern War 1700-1721, invaded Denmark, routed Russia at Narva Estonia, overran Poland, crushed by Russia, besieged at Stralsund, killed in Norway

Phillip V (of Anjou)

1700-1746, Bourbon, King of Spain, first Spanish Bourbon, grandson of Louis XIV of France, ascension led to War of Spanish Succession

Frederick I

1701-1713, Prussia, First King, patronized scholars such as Leibniz, established Academy of Sciences

John V

1706-1750, Braganza, King of Portugal, allied with British in War of Spanish Succession, named "Most Faithful King" by Pope Benedict XIV

Charles VI

1711-1740, Hapsburg, HRE, Archduke of Austria and emergent Austrian empire. To keep it all together - i.e. Austria, Bohemia and Hungary, proposed Pragmatic Sanction, 1713, lost War of the Polish Succession

Frederick William I

1713-1740, Prussia, King, centralized Prussian finances, proud of Potsdam Guard, developed strong army

George I

1714-1727, Hanover, succeeded Queen Anne under Act of Settlement, never learned English, attempt to be replaced by James II's son failed

Louis XV

1715-1774, Bourbon, great-grandson of Louis XIV, Phillipe II duc d'Orleans ruled as regent, Prime Minister ANdre Hercule, gained Lorraine in War of Polish Succesion(1733-1735), indecisive War of Austrian Succesion(1740-1748), lost overseas possessions to Britain in the Seven Year's War(1756-1763)

Frederick I

1720-1751, Palatinate, King of Sweden, wife Ulrika Eleonora abdicated for him, Hats wanted to regain land from Russia but Caps wanted Peace, warred with Russia 1741-1743

Robert Walpole

1721-1742, Whig Prime Minister of Great Britain, first PM but title not that until later, supported peace and low taxes

Catherine I

1725-1727, Romanov, wife of Peter I the Great

George II

1727-1760, Hanover, subordinated English interests to Hannover in War of Austrian Succession 1740-1748, last monarch to fight in battle, at Battle of Dettingen in Bavaria

Maria Theresa

1740-1780, Hapsburg, HRE, ruled with Francis I, lost Silesia in War of the Austrian Succession, joined France and Russia against Prussia in Seven Year's War, acquired Galicia from Poland

Frederick II the Great

1740-1786, Prussia, King, learned war from dad Frederick William I and music from mom Sophia Dorothea, won Silesia from Maria Theresa, supported US in revolution

Charles III

1759-1788, Spain, King of Naples and Sicily and finally Spain, conquered Two Sicilies, enlightened despot

George III

1760-1820, Hanover, appointed Frederick North 2nd Earl of Gilford as Prime Minister 1770-1782, lost American colonies, appointed William Pitt as Prime Minister, contracted dementia and son served as regent from 1811 onwards

Catherine II the Great

1762-1796, Romanov, Tsaress of Russia, wife of Grand Duke Peter of Holstein who was overthrown by Imperial guards, expanded serfdom, enlightened despot, disbanded Cossack army after revolt, won two wars against Ottomans, annexed Crimea

Stanislaw II Augustus

1764-1795, King of Poland, paramour of Catherine the Great(russia), last king, Kosciusko, who had aided US in American Revolution, rebelled against Russians but was defeated by Suvorov, Poland was partitioned three times among Austria, Prussia and Russia

William Pitt

1766-1768, Prime Minister of Great Britain, defeated France in Seven Year's War 1756-1763, allied with Thomas Pelham-HOlles duke of Newcastle, distrusted by George III

Frederick North

1770-1782, Prime MInister of Britain, carried out George III's taxes of America despite thinking it unwise, resigned after surrender to America, opposed William Pitt the Younger with Charles James Fox

Louis XVI

1774-1792, Bourbon, called the Estates General in 1788 for the first time in 175 years, imprisoned in Tuileries, Bastille stormed July 14th 1789, legislative assembly replace Constituent Assembly, dominated by Girondists who declared war on Austria, Maganards under George Jacques Danton took control of Paris, guillotined January 21st 1793

Joseph II

1780-1790, Hapsburg, HRE, controlled the Catholic Church closely, granted religious toleration and civic rights to Protestants and Jews, and abolished serfdom, enlightened despot

William Pitt the Younger

1783-1801, 1804-1806, Prime Minister of Britain, negotiated trade deal with France, established colony in Australia, 1791 Canada act established representative institutions for English and French, wanted to incorporate Ireland into UK, opposed French expansion, resigned over opposition to equal rights for Catholics

Frederick William II

1786-1797, Prussia, King, supported Louis XVI, forced to cede land to France in Treaty of Basel, won land in Polish partitions, influenced by Rosicrucian order not Enlightenment

Charles IV

1788-1808, Spain, King of Spain, ceded Louisiana to France, navy destroyed at Trafalgar, influenced by wife Maria Louisa of Parma and paramour Manuel de Godoy, deposed by Napoleon

Leopold II

1790-1792, Hapsburg, HRE, opposed capital punishment, brother of Joseph II, pacified the Netherlands and Hungary, made agreements with Prussia and Turkey

Gustav IV Adolphus

1792-1809, Palatinate, King of Sweden, lost land to Napoleon

Francis II

1792-1835, Hapsburg, last HRE, dissolved empire in 1806, gave Klemens von Metternich control of foreign affairs, daughter Marie Louise married Napoleon, fought Napoleonic Wars, regained most lost land at Congress of Vienna

Louis XVII

1793-1795, Bourbon, ruler only in name, others claimed to be him later

Frederick William III

1797-1840, Prussia, King, in 1815 he promised to institute some form of constitutional government, formally reneged on his pledge in 1817, created a Council of State which improved administrative efficiency, was responsible to him alone, In 1823 he established eight provincial states or diets, dominated by the Junkers, exercised only an advisory function, fought Napoleon I, joined Holy Alliance

Commodus

180-192, Rome, son of Marcus Aurelius, cruel tyrant, murdered, Galen of Pergamum was his physician

Alexander I

1801-1825, Romanov, Tsar of Russia raised on enlightenment ideas, relaxed censorship, freed political prisoners, reformed the educational system, refused to grant a constitution free of serfs in the face of opposition from the nobility, later became reactionary and promoted censorship, allied with Prussia but then France briefly, turned back Napoleon near Moscow, formed Holy Alliance with Austria and Prussia 1815

Napoleon I Bonaparte

1804-1815, First Republic of France, conquered Italy and Egypt as a French general, married Josephine de Beauharnais in 1796, gained dictatorial powers in 1799, defeated Austria at Marengo in 1800, settled quarrel with Pope in 1801, Charles Talleyrand was his foreign minister, defeated Austria and Russia at Austerlitz in 1805, defeated Prussia at Jena Auerstadt in 1806, defeated Russia at Friedland, allied with Czar Alexander I, seized Portugal, made brother Joseph king of Spain in 1808, caused Peninsular War, defeated Austria at Wagram in 1809, married Hapsburg Marie Louise in 1810, abolished feudalism and serfdo and granted bill of rights, invaded Russia in winter of 1812 but retreated, exiled to Elba in 1814, escaped but lost at Waterloo in 1815, exiled to St. Helena, French law is still the Napoleonic Code

Joseph

1808-1813, Spain, King of Spain, Napoleon's brother

Frederick VI

1808-1839, allied with Napoleon during the Napoleonic wars, Lost Norway to Sweden in the Treaty of Kiel

Charles XIII

1809-1818, Palatinate, King of Sweden, lost Finland to Russia in 1809 but united with Norway in 1814

Ferdinand VII

1814-1833, Spain, King of Spain, arrested by father Charles IV, imprisoned by Napoelon, imprisoned during 1820 rebellion

William I

1815-1840, Orange-Nassau, King of the Netherlands, son of William V of Orange, last stadtholder of United Netherlands, as general lost to France in War of the First Coalition 1793-1795, first king of Belgium-Netherlands created by Treaty of Paris before Belgium seceded in 1830

Ferdinand I

1816-1825, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, aka Ferdinand IV of Naples, led Naples against Napoelon

John VI

1816-1826, Braganza, King of Portugal, fled to Brazil, mother Maria I became insane, son Pedro became emperor of Brazil, suppressed revolt led by wife and son Dom Miguel

Charles XIV John

1818-1844, Bernadotte, King of Sweden, fought in French Revolution and at Austerlitz, fought against France at Leipzig, obtained Norway from Denmark by Treaty of Kiel

George IV

1820-1830, Hanover, extravagant, married cousin Caroline of Brunswick, lost public support when he attempted to divorce her

Nicholas I

1825-1855, Romanov, Tsar of Russia, suppressed Decembrist revolt of reformist army officers who favored his brother Constantine, wars against Iran, Poland and Turkey, entered Crimean War

King Ioannis Kapodistrias

1827-1831, Greece, came to power following Greece winning independence from the Ottomans at Navarino, assassinated

William IV

1830-1837, Hanover, liason with Irish actress Dorothea Jordan and had 10 kids, married German princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, Reform Bill of 1832 passed, abolished colonial slavery, reformed poor laws, Municipal Reform Act

Louis Phillipe

1830-1848, Restoration, "Citizen King", favored the wealthy, Supported the upper-middle class and outlawed labor unions, lowered voting restrictions; eventually overthrown by Revolution of 1848 and fled to Britain, joined the Jacobins in 1790 before fleeing to Switzerland, proclaimed king by the Chamber of Deputies in 1830,

Ferdinand II Bomba

1830-1859, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, fought insurrection in 1848, bombarded rebellious cities

Leopold I

1831-1865, married Charlotte Augusta, daughter of George IV, first monarch of Belgium post seperation from the Netherlands in 1831, signed treaty assuring Belgian neutrality

King Otto I

1832-1861, Greece, Bavarian Catholic, made capital at Athens, powers recuced by 1843 coup

Isabella II

1833-1868, Spain, Queen of Spain, Salic Law set aside, Carlists supporting her uncle Don Carlos defeated in 1839, mom Maria Christina, deposed in 1868 Revolution

Robert Peel

1834-1835, 1841-1846, Prime Minister of Great Britain, founded Conservative party with 1834 Tamworth Manifesto, repealed Corn Laws which limited Grain imports, London police known as Bobbies because of the Metropolitan Police Act, faced Irish potato famine, known as Orange Peel for opposition to Catholics but later passed Catholic Emancipation

Victoria

1837-1901, Hanover, second longest English reign, appointed William Lamb as prime minister, married cousin Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, supported Conservative Party leader Benjamin Disraeli, became empress of India in 1876, opposed William Gladstone, won Boer War 1899-1902

Christian VIII

1839-1848, King of Norway in 1814 before defeat by Charles XIII of Sweden, became king of Denmark in 1839, proclaimed Schleswig and Holstein united to Denmark

William II

1840-1849, Orange-Nassau, King of the Netherlands, served under General Wellesley duke of Wellington in Napoleonic Wars, commanded Dutch and Belgians at Waterloo, liberalized constitution in 1848

Frederick William IV

1840-1861, Prussia, King, unable to unify Germany "from above," he was replaced by William I, new constitution, became insane

Oscar I

1844-1859, Bernadotte, King of Sweden, married granddaughter Josephine de Beauhranais, wife of Napoleon

Pius IX

1846-1878, Pope, longest Pontificate, fled to Naples during 1848 revolution, supported Ultramontanism, called First Vatican Council, proclaimed Immaculate Conception, lost Papal States to reunified Italy

Frederick VII

1848-1863, New nationalistic king of Denmark who tried to integrate both Schleswig and Holstein into the rest of the state. Germans in these provinces revolt. Adopted a representative government. Last of the Oldenburg Dynasty.

Napoleon III

1848-1870, Second Republic/Empire, president 1848-1852, emperor 1852-1870, tried to overthrow Louis Phillipe twice, elected President in 1848, became Emperor in 1852 coup following the success of Royalists in elections in 1849, began liberal reforms in 1860, rebuilt Paris under the direction of Baron Haussman, lost the Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871, appointed Maximillian as king of Mexico

Francis Joseph

1848-1916, Austrian king, established the Austria-Hungary dual monarchy in 1867, took the throne following Ferdinand I, uncle of Franz Ferdinand

Lajos Kossuth

1849, Hungary, briefly established independent Hungarian Republic, defeated by Austrians, gave speeches in US and Britain

William III

1849-1890, Orange-Nassau, King of the Netherlands, wanted to sell Luxembourg to France but Prussia made it independent at London Conference, reign of peace

Alexander II

1855-1894, Romanov, Tsar of Russia, ended Crimean War with Treaty of Paris, abolished serfdom in 1861, reforms, sold Alaska to the US in 1867, assassinated by bomb thrown in carriage by People's Will revolutionaries

Alexandru Ion Cuza

1857-1866, Romania, Prince of Moldova and Walachia and later ruler of Romania, united Moldova and Walachia as Romania subject to the Ottoman Empire

Francis II

1859-1861, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, last Bourbon ruler of Naples and Sicily, invaded by Giuseppe Garibaldi

Charles XV

1859-1872, Bernadotte, King of Sweden, made Riksdag bicameral, instituted reforms, wrote poems

Victor Emmanuel II

1861-1878, Savoy, King of Piedmont, Savoy, and Sardinia, eventually became first king of a united Italy, Led the north in Italian unification and united with Garibaldi's south in 1861, drove the pope into the Vatican city, made Rome the capital of Italy.

William I

1861-1888, Second Reich, chief minister was Otto von Bismarck, unified Germany under Prussia, fought Franco-Prussian War

Christian IX

1863-1906, King of Denmark who tried to take over some Confederation states. Austria and Prussia fought them together which allowed Bismarck to spy on Austria's army. lost Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia and Austria under Treaty of Vienna: liberals gained control of Rigsdag; called Grandfather of Europe because daughters married English Edward VII and Russian Alexander III and son became King George I of Greece

King George I

1863-1913, Greece, Danish, established House of Gluksburg in Greece, worked with Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos to defeat Turkey in the First Balkan War, assassinated

Carol I

1866-1914, Romania, King, aided Russia in Russo-Turkish War and gained independence from Ottoman Empire at the Congress of Berlin, fought Balkan Wars, member of Hohenzollern family

Benjamin Disraeli

1868 and 1874-1880, Prime Minister of Great Britain, joined Conservative Party, Sephardic Jew converted to Christianity, opposed Peel's repeal of Corn Laws, purchased Suez Canal, claimed "peace with honor" after Berlin Conference on Eastern Question of Ottoman Empire, Proclaimed Victoria Empress of England

William Gladstone

1868-1874, 1880-1885, 1886, 1892-1894, Prime Minister of Britain, first joined Tory party, then changed to Liberal Party in 1859, established national elementary education, judicial, civil and military reforms, disestablished Anglican church in England, opposed annexation of South Africa, Reform Act of 1884 allowed rural people to vote, crusaded for Irish Home Rule

Louis Jules Trochu

1870-1871, Third Republic of France, President of the Government of National Defense before resigning in 1871

Adolphe Thiers

1871-1873, Third Republic of France, a French politician and historian. He was a prime minister under King Louis-Philippe of France. Following the overthrow of the Second Empire he again came to prominence as the French leader who suppressed the revolutionary Paris Commune of 1871. From 1871 to 1873 he served initially as Head of State (effectively a provisional President of France), then provisional President, wrote the National Newspaper which led to the 1830 revolution

Oscar II

1872-1973, Bernadotte, King of Sweden, allowed Norwegian independence, arbitrated international disputes

Humbert I

1878-1900, Savoy, King of Italy, signed Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany in 1882, colonial expansion in Africa but lost to Ethiopia at Adwa v. Emperor Menelik II, assassinated by anarchist at Monza

Leo XIII

1878-1903, Pope, Rerum Novarum encyclical supported just wages and trade unions, known as the worker's pope, opened Vatican library and established universities

Jules Grevy

1879-1887, third Republic of France, first republican President of France, president of the National Assembly(1871-1873) following the fall of the Second Empire

Alexander III

1881-1894, Romanov, Tsar of Russia, son of Alex II, increased use of secret police, censorship, exiles to Siberia, Russian unification to suppress non-Russians, pogroms, persecuted Jews, joined France against Triple Alliance

Alphonso XIII

1885-1923, Spain, King of Spain, lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, Philippines, Sulu Islands and Marianas in Spanish-American War

(Marie Francois) Sadi Carnot

1887-1894, Third Republic of France, fourth president until his assasination by an Italian anarchist, dominated by Georges Boulanger

Frederick III

1888-1888, Second Reich, led Prussians against Austria at Sadowa in the Seven Weeks War in 1866

William II

1888-1918, Second Reich, dismissed Otto von Bismarck, formed Triple Alliance with Italy and Austria, fought WWI, abdicated to the Netherlands

St. Victor I

189-199, first Latin pope, born in Africa, threatened exommunication for Quatrodecimans, who celebrated Easter on Nisan 14, condemned Theodotus and Dynamic Monarchism, which said Jesus was human until Baptism, replaced Greek with Latin as official language

Wilhelmina

1890-1948, Orange-Nassau, Queen of the Netherlands, mom Emma was a regent, Luxembourg terminated union with Netherlands because it refused a woman ruler, married Henry duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, neutral in WWI, set up government-in-exile in England during WWII

Nicholas II

1894-1917, Romanov, Tsar of Russia, married German princess Alexandra, opposed democracy, lost Russo-Japanese War 1904, formed Duma, relied on mystic Rasputin, abdicated March 1917, executed by Bolsheviks July 16th 1918 with family

Victor Emmanuel III

1900-1946, Savoy, King of Italy who asked Mussolini to form a cabinet in 1922, allowing Mussolini to take power legally, served in WWI, recognized sovreignty of Vatican in Lateran Treaty 1929, abdicated after WWII

Edward VII

1901-1910, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, son of Victoria and Prince Albert; famous for his elegant sporting ways, signed Entente Cordiale in 1904 with France and a pact with Russia in 1907, promoted international amity and known as Edward the Peacemaker

St. Pius X

1903-1914, Pope, opposed Modernist movement, which reinterpreted religon in light of science, opposed anticlerical legislation in France and Portugal, started Roman Catholic Action movement

Hakon VII

1905-1957, Norway, chosen king by Storting parliament, headed WWII government-in-exile

Gustavus V

1907-1950, Bernadotte, King of Sweden, maintained neutrality in WWI and WWII

Manuel II

1908-1910, Braganza, King of Portugal, last king, father King Carlos assassinated, fled naval revolt

Ferdinand I of Bulgaria

1908-1918, proclaimed Bulgarian independence on October 5th 1908, became the first tsar of modern Bulgaria, led the Balkan League in the first Balkan War, but lost the Second Balkan War, was on the side of the Axis in WWI, abdicated the throne for his son Boris III

Albert I of Belgium

1909 - 1934, warned France of German war plans and announced Belgian neutrality; when Germans invaded Belgium he undertook delaying actions

Eleftherios Venizelos

1910-1915, 1915, 1917-1920, 1924, 1928-1932, 1932, 1933, Greece, PM, autonomized the Cretan State, leader of the Liberal Party, credited as maker of modern Greece

George V

1910-1936, Windsor, led Britain during WWI

Christian X

1912-1947, broadened suffrage; sold Danish West Indies to US; allowed Iceland independence; joined League of Nations; obtained North Schleswig from Germany; symbol of resistance during German occupation (possibly wore Star of David)

King Constantine I

1913-1917, 1920-1922, Greece, favored Germany in WWI but Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos favored allies, forced to abdicate in favor of son Alexander, regained throne when son died

Benedict XV

1914-1922, Pope, neutral during WWI, restored relations with France and Britain, promulgated Code of Canon Law

Ferdinand I

1914-1927, Romania, King, joined Allies in WWI

Charles I of Austria-Hungary

1916-1918, emperor of Austria-Hungary during WWI, supported France in secret letter about Alsace-Lorraine; twice tried to regain Hungarian throne in 1921; exiled to Madeira

David Lloyd George

1916-1922, Prime Minister of Great Britain, instituted social reforms for workers, participated in Treaty of Versailles, introduce Irish Home Rule for Ireland, alienating conservatives from his coalition

Prince Georgi Lvov

1917, Russia, Prime Minister of the new provisional government in Russia; Minister of the interior; Leader of progressive liberals

Aleksandr Kerensky

1917, Russia, head of the provisional government of Russia after Czar Nicholas II stepped down from power, suppressed Lenin's Bolshevik Party, troops refused to fight at Petrograd, lectured in the US

Vladimir Ilich Lenin

1917-1922, Soviet Union, first leader of the Soviet Union, in exile wrote "What Is to Be Done", his Bolsheviks were opposed by Mensheviks, took power in second revolution in October 1918, he and Trotsky won civil war, made peace with Germans with Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, issued New Economic Policy with mixed market, strokes in 1922 and 1923

Petar I

1918-1921, Yugoslavia, Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes established after WWI

Jozef Pilsudski

1918-1922, 1926-1935, Poland, first chief of state, led a coup and gained office as minister of defense, won Polish independence after Germany lost WWI, defeated Soviet invasion in Russo-Polish War

Boris III

1918-1943, gained control of the throne following abdication of his father Ferdinand I, worked with Hitler in WWII, died in 1943, refused to attack the Soviet Union, ran a thinly-veiled dictatorship

Freidrich Ebert

1919-1925, Weimer Republic, last German chancellor, suppressed leftist Spartacists, elected president under Weimar constitution, France occupied Ruhr

Alexandar I

1921-1934, Yugoslavia, ruled as dictator, assassinated by Croatian separatist in Marseilles

King George II

1922-1923, 1935-1941, 1946-1947, Greece, lost land to Turkey in Treaty of Lausanne, monarchy abolished in 1922 but twice restored

Pius XI

1922-1939, Pope, Quadragesimo Anno encyclical supported reconstruction of social order, signed Lateran Treaty with Mussolini, gaining control of Vatican

Benito Mussolini

1922-1943, Italy, Fascist dictator who formed a government with Victor Emmanuel III in 1922, conquered Ethiopia and Albania, aided Francisco Franco in Spanish Civil War, dismissed by Victor Emmanuel III in 1943 but rescued by Nazis, set up puppet state in Northern Italy, shot and hanged upside down by Italians

Joseph Stalin

1922-1953, Sovet Union, joined troka with Zinovyev and Kamenev after Lenin's death, sole leader by 1929, forced massive collectivization programs, political purges, won in WWII

Stanley Baldwin

1923-1924, 1924-1929, 1935-1937, Prime Minister of Great Britain, joined conservative party, proposed protective tariff, curbed trade unions, first premier to visit overseas dominion(Canada)

Primo de Rivera y Orbaneja

1923-1930, Spain, Dictator then Prime Minister, established military dictatorship but shifted to prime minister, suppressed Moroccan revolt, son founded Falange Party

Paul von Hindenberg

1925-1934, Weimer Republic, won at Tannenberg with Ludendorff, established system of trenches, elected president in 1925 and 1932 over Hitler, who was elected chancellor

Zog I

1925-1939, Albanan leader who came in power by ousting Noli, ruled as a protectorate of Italy until invasion in 1939

Lucius Septimus Severus

193-211, Rome, purchased throne from the Praetorian Guard, military and legal reform, reduced power of aristocracy, defeated Parthians and British revolt

Carol II

1930-1940, Romania, King, formed but later ended Fascist Iron Guard, abdicated when Germany invaded, appointed Ion Antonescu as premier

Niceto Alcala Zamora

1931-1936, Spain, President during Second Republic, socialist

Albert Lebrun

1932-1940, Third Republic, Last president of Third Republic, attempted to preserve French unity against Germany military threat, re-elected in 1939

Antonio de Oliveira Salzar

1932-1968, Portugal, Prime Minister and dictator of Portugal, founded and led the Estado Novo ("New State"), the authoritarian, right-wing government that presided over and controlled Portugal from 1932 to 1974, former economics progessor at Coimbra, balanced budget

Adolf Hitler

1934-1945, dictator, fought World War II; wrote Menin Kampf; initiated Holocost; Gestapo secret police; 1936 sent troops to Rhineland; supported Nationalist Franco; took Austria 1938; Czechoslovakia 1939; committed suicide 1945

Leopold III

1934-1951, quickly surrendered to Germany; suspected of treason; exonerated in 1946 and won referendum permitting return; abdicated 1951

Edward VIII

1936, Windsor, abdicated the throne to marry American Mrs. Wallis Warfield Simpson, given title Duke of Windsor

Manuel Azana

1936-1939, Spain, President, fled to France after Nationalist victory in Spanish Civil war, had little control over Republican generals such as Negrin(ousted in coup by Casado, who surrendered to Nationalists under Franco)

Ionnais Metaxas

1936-1941, Greece, restored George II, dictator, joined Allies in WWII

George VI

1936-1952, Windsor, married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, visiter many fronts during WWII, visited Canada, US and South Africa, India and Pakistan gained independence

Neville Chamberlain

1937-1940, Prime Minister of Great Britain, appeasement policy towards Germany, signed Munich Pact September 1938

Pius XII

1939-1958, Pope, Mystici Corporis Christi condemned false mysticism, named 32 new cardinals to the Sacred College, anti-communist, tried to bring peace to WWII

Francisco Franco

1939-1975, Spain, El caudillo, Spanish General, organized the revolt in Morocco, which led to the Spanish Civil War, Leader of the Nationalists, right wing, supported by Hitler and Mussolini, won the Civil War after three years of fighting, led until death

Ion Antonescu

1940-1944, Romania, soldier and authoritarian politician, appointed Premier by Carol II, joined Germany in invasion of USSR, Prime Minister and Conducător during most of World War II, presided over two successive wartime dictatorships, convicted of war crimes and executed

Henri Petain

1940-1944, Vichy France, WWI Hero, headed Pro-German French government at the age of 84

Winston Churchill

1940-1945, 1951-1955, Prime Minister of Great Britain, as admiral lost Gallipoli campaign in WWI, led Britain in WW2, won a Nobel Prize for "A History of the English-Speaking Peoples"

Josep Broz Tito

1943-1980, Yugoslavia, Communist leader, led partisans, rival of Cetniks, during WWII, leader of Nonaligned Nations

Enver Hoxha

1943-1985, Founder of the Albanian Communist Party, renounced Stalinism and broke from the USSR in 1961.

Clement Atlee

1945-1951, Prime Minister of Great Britan, first labour PM, nationalized Iron, Steel, railroads, coal and healthcare

Alcide de Gasperi

1945-1953, Italy, PM, The leader of the Christian Democrats in Italy, he was committed to democracy and moderate social reform

Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej

1945-1965, Romania, communist leader of Romania, promoted development of industry in Romania, important in Yugoslav break, became prime minister in 1952, resigned 1955 and took position as president of state council 1961, Took independent course, forming relations with West and China, cult of personality

Georges Bidault

1946, Fourth Republic, led the French Resistance during WWII, began negotiations for Atlantic defense alliance, leading to NATO

Humbert II

1946, Savoy, King of Italy for around a month before the monarchy was abolished

Walter Ulbricht

1946-1971, East Germany, He was selected by the Soviet Union to be the leader of the German Communist Party who believed that the Germans in his region would not want to go back to the Weimar-style republic- thus he reasoned that they would support the German Communist Party, Social Unity Party

Vincent Auriol

1947-1953, Fourth Republic, first president of the Fourth French Republic, French Indochina War, overwhlemed by factionalism and economic depression

King Paul I

1947-1964, Greece, US, following Truman Doctrine, aided anti communist forces in civil war

Frederick IX

1947-1972, house of Glucksburg, King of Denmark as it modernized

Juliana

1948-1980, Orange-Nassau, Queen of the Netherlands, oversaw the decolonization of the Dutch East Indies(Indonesia) and Suriname, abdicated in 1980 in favour of Beatrix

Konrad Adenauer

1949-1963, West Germany, first chancellor of West Germany, mayor of Cologne, founded Christian Democratic Union, joined NATO and EU

Gustav VI Adolph

1950-1973, Bernadotte, King of Sweden, expert on Chinese archaeology

Baudouin

1951-1993, he worked to create Congolese independence, son of Leopold III, King of Belgium

Elizabeth II

1952-present, Windsor, married Prince Phillip duke of Edinburgh, children Charles, Anne, Andrew and Edward, about 40 colonies gained independence, joined EU, nationalized many industries

Imre Nagy

1953-1955, 1956, Hungary, allowed peasants to leave collective farms, promised free elections, suppressed by Soviets, returned to power briefly in 1956 Hungarian Revolution, executed

Rene Coty

1953-1958, Fourth Republic, last president of the Fourth Republic, did little to influence presidency, threat to resign led to national assembly to elect de Gaulle as prime minister

Nikita Khrushchev

1953-1964, Soviet Union, battled for power with Malenkov and KGB head Beria, executed Beria, denounced Stalin, 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis

Todor Zhikov

1954-1989, First secretary of the ruling Bulgarian Communist Party's Central committee from 1954-1989, Communist President of Bulgaria from 1971-1989, longest reign of any eastern bloc leader, protege of Khrushchev, close ties with the USSR, resigned in 1989, jailed for many years

Anthony Eden

1955-1957, Prime Minister of Great Britain, resigned after attacking Egypt after they seized the Suez Canal

Konstantinos Karamanlis

1955-1964, Greece, leader of National Radical Union, conflict in Cyprus

Wladyslay Gomulka

1956-1970, Poland, de facto leader of Poland until 1948, then ousted from Communist party in 1949, but reinstated after the death of Stalin, regained power in 1956

Janos Kadar

1956-1988, Hungary, first secretary of Hungary's Communist Party, convinced the Soviet Union to withdraw troops, allowing Hungary some autonomy

Harold Macmillan

1957-1963, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Conservative leader, visited Khrushchev in Moscow in 1959, failedto admit Britain to the EEC, resigned after personal scandal of War Secretary John Profumo

Olaf V

1957-1991, Norway, commander of Norwegian armed forces 1944-1945

John XXIII

1958-1963, Pope, called Second Vatican Council, established Secretariat for promoting Christian unity, Ecumenical Movement promoted Christian-Jewish dialogue

Charles de Gaulle

1958-1969, Fifth Republic, headed French national committee in exile in 1940, provisional premier 1945-1946, appointed by National Assembly to draft new constitution in 1958, negotiated Algerian independence, joine EU, resolved widespread strike in 1968

Eamon De Valera

1959-1973, Ireland, President, math teacher, led Sinn Fein rebels in 1916 Easter Rebellion, fled to US, nationalist and isolationalist

Ludwig Erhard

1963-1966, West Germany, chancellor from 1963-1966, Minister of the economy, bet on the free economy while maintaining the extensive social welfare network inherited from the Hitler era, leading to German economic miracle

Paul VI

1963-1968, Pope, presided over most of Second Vatican Council, nullified excommunications with Greek Orthodox patriarch Athenagoras I, met with Coptic Orthodox patriarch Shenouda III, traveled extensively

Georgies Papandreou

1964-1965, Greece, PM, leader of Central Union Party, had led Greek government in exile during WWII

Harold Wilson

1964-1970, 1974-1976, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Labour Party leader

King Constantine II

1964-1973, Greece, deposed by military, abolishing monarchy and establishing republic

Leonid Brezhnev

1964-1982, Soviet Union, shared power with Malenkov and KGB head Beria, developed Brezhnev Doctrine stating communist states can intervene in each other's affairs, ordered forces in to Afghanistan and Czechoslovakia, detente with US, signed first SALT Treaty

Nicolae Ceausescu

1965-1989, Romania, militant leader and dictator, fought rebellion beginning in Timisoara, defeated and sent to the Hague to be executed by demand of a military court, executed with wife Elena on Christmas 1989

Kurt Georg Kiesinger

1966-1969, West Germany, formed grand coalition of CDU with Social Democrats

Alexander Dubcek

1968-1969, Communist Party Secretary of Czechoslovakia; loosens strict rules; permits criticism of government; begins Prague Spring; assures loyalty to USSR; gets kicked out when the Warsaw Pact invades

Georges Pompidou

1969-1974, Fifth Republic, President of France who strengthened ties with French allies, such as the United States, and ended French opposition to British membership in the European Economic Community, supported British entry into the EU

Willy Brandt

1969-1974, West Germany, chancellor of West Germany worked to reduce tensions with eastern Europe (1913-1992), mayor of West Berlin 1957-1966, Social Democrat, won Nobel Prive in 1971

Gustav Husak

1969-1987, Stalinist leader put into power in Czechoslovakia by Brezhnev after the Prague Spring movement was put down, instituted normalization, reversed Dubcek's reforms

Edward Heath

1970-1974, Prime Minister of Great Britain, joined EEC, Conservative Party Leader

Edward Gierek

1970-1980, Poland, secretary of the ruling Polish United Worker's Party, expelled from party in 1981, ousted after Solidarity strikes, opened markets to Western products, greater freedom to travel

Erich Honecker

1971-1989, East Germany, Little Stalin who led a totalitarian rule of East Germany along with Walter Ulbricht, as head of security forces built Berlin Wall in 1961, resisted politicial reforms

Margrethe II

1972-present, first queen in over 550 years, allowed by 1953 succession law

Carl XVI Gustavus

1973-Present, Bernadotte, King of Sweden, became figurehead only

Valery Giscard d'Estaing

1974-1981, Fifth Republic, member of UN General Assembly from 1956-1958, finance minister under de Gaulle and Pompidou, financial conservativism caused recession, strengthened France's role in the EEC

Helmut Schmidt

1974-1982, West Germany, chancellor who believed that if a war arose between East and West Europe, Germany would suffer and lose no matter what; tried to ease tension, he and D'Estaing led European Community

Juan Carlos

1975-2014, Spain, King, grandson of Alphonso XIII, wife of Sofia of Greece, 1978 constitution

James Callaghan

1976-1979, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Labour Leader, allied with Liberals and Scottish National Party

John Paul I

1978, Pope, first with double name, died after 34 days

John Paul II

1978-2005, Pope, Polish(Karol Wojtyla), first non-Italian since 1523, assassination attempt May 13, 1981 by Mehmet Ali Agca, conservative and well-traveled

Margaret Thatcher

1979-1990, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Conservative Leader, first female PM, defeated Argentina in the Falkland's War in 1982, opposed full economic integration of Britain in Europe

Beatrix

1980-2013, Orange-Nassau, Queen of the Netherlands, saw the secession of Aruba, Curacao, Sint Maarten, formation of municipalities of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba, earned doctorate in law from University of Leiden, marriage to West German Claus von Amsberg caused controversy, son Willem Alexander first male heir in generations

Andreas Papandreou

1981-1989, 1993-1996, Greece, first socialist PM, established national healthcare system, founded PASOK political party

Wojciech Jaruzelski

1981-1990, Poland, premier then chairman of the Council of State then President, outlawed Solidarity but legalized it again in 1988 after Gorbachev instituted Glasnost

Francois Mitterrand

1981-1995, Fifth Republic, The Socialist leader who was the longest serving president of France. Rather than focusing on radical economic policies, he focused on social reform programs and reducing unemployment, reversed many economic policies of preceding conservatives, died of prostate cancer

Yuri Andropov

1982-1984, Soviet Union, Brezhnev's successor and longtime chief of secret police, tried to invigorate the communist system but little came of his efforts, worsening economy led to emergence of Gorbachev, died of illness

Helmut Kohl

1982-1990, West Germany, reunified Germany 1990, elected to four terms as Chancellor

Konstantin Chernenko

1984-1985, Soviet Union, office was interim, died six months after election, previously headed agitprop

Mikhail Gorbachev

1985-1991, Soviet Union, introduced perestoika and glasnost, withdrew troops from Afghanistan, won 1990 Nobel Prize, survived 3-day 1991 coup then resigned, allowed Baltic independence

Kurt Waldheim

1986-1992, President of Austria despite possible Nazi war crimes, UN Secretary General from 1972-1981, previously ambassador to Canada

Egon Krenz

1989-1990, East Germany, took down the Berlin Wall, removed the power monopoly of the Communists and resigned the East German Communist Party altogether, and called for free elections

Slobodan Milosevic

1989-1997, 1997-2001, Serbia/Yugoslavia, President of Serbia 1989-1997, President of Yugoslavia 1997-2001, supported ethnic cleansing of Bosnian Serbs, signed Dayton Accords, tried in the Hague for war crimes, ended war in Bosnia

Vaclav Havel

1989-2003, Czech playwright of plays such as The Garden Party and The Memorandum, led protests which toppled communism, founded Charter 77 Movement, called for the independence of Czechoslovakia by 1989; became the first President of Czechoslavakia n 1989 and the first President of the Czech Republic in 1993

Lech Walesa

1990-1995, Poland, president, led strike in 1980 at Lenin shipyard in Gdansk, formed Solidarity trade federation, won 1983 Nobel Peace Prize, elected President 1990

Ion Iliescu

1990-1996, 2000-2004, Romania, President, led National Salvation Front, restored Democraacy

Mary Robinson

1990-1997, Ireland, nominated by Irish Labour Party, first woman president, won when Brian Lenihan was involved in scandal, first president not in Fianna Fail of Fine Gael parties, resigned to become UN High Commissioner for Human Rights

John Major

1990-1997, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Conservative Leader, established dialogue with Irish Republican Army

Franjo Tudjman

1990-1999, Croatia, leader of Croatian Democratic Union, won independence for Croatia from Yugoslavia, fought Serb-controlled Krajina, signed Dayton Accords

Alija Izetbegovic

1990-2001, Bosnia, President, Muslim leader in Bosnian Civil War, won independence for Bosnia from Yugoslavia, signed Dayton accords

Boris Yeltsin

1991-2000, Russia, resisted August 1991 hardline coup, first elected Russian president, formed Commonwealth of Independent States, introduced free market reforms, Chechnya rebellion, defeated Zyuganov in 1996, Premier Chernomydrian, cooperated with NATO, widespread corruption, economic collapse, enormous political and social problems, elected with 57% of the popular vote, radical economic reforms in early 1992 which were widely blamed for devastating the living standards of most of the Russian population, deeply unpopular figure in Russia, approval rating as low as two percent

Harald V

1991-present, Norway, sailed at the 1964, 1968 and 1972 olympic games

Lennart Meri

1992-2001, the second president of Estonia, led the movement to restore Estonian independence from the Soviet Union, writer and filmmaker

Eduard Shevardnadze

1992-2003, Georgian, second president of Georgia, survived coup annd two assassination attempts, appointed by Gorbachev to replace Gromyko as Minister of Foreign Affairs, consolidating Gorbachev's circle of relatively young reformers.

Albert II

1993-2013, Brother of Baudouin, longtime member of the International Olympic Committee, abdicated the throne in 2013, King of Belgium

Silvio Berlusconi

1994-1995, 2001-2006, 2008-2011, Italy, PM, owner of Mediaset and AC MIlan football club, Leader of Forza Italia and the People of Freedom parties, convicted of tax fraud

Leonid Danylovych Kuchma

1994-2005, Ukraine, President, increased privatization, free trade, close ties with Russia

Aleksandr Lukashenko

1994-present, President of Belarus, authoritarian

Aleksander Kwasniewski

1995-2005, Poland, President, founding member of Democratic Left Alliance, formed ruling coalition with Polish Peasant Party, relected in 2000, supported war against terror, gained entry to NATO and EU

Jacques Chirac

1995-2007, Fifth Republic, French conservative president elected in 1995; pursued a plan of sending illegal immigrants back to their home countries; an outspoken opponent of the US invasion of Iraq, privatized business, Gaullist, prime minister for domestic affairs in 1986 under cohabilitation arrangement, his RPR and Giscard's Union for French democracy gained majority in the National Assembly in 1986

Costas Simitis

1996-2004, Greece, PM, leader of PASOK(Panhellenic Socialist Movement), Eksynchronismos policy

Peter Stoyanov

1997-2002, President of Bulgaria, succeeded by former king Simeon II in 2001

Tony Blair

1997-2007, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Labour leader, youngest PM in 200 years, met with Sinn Fein leader Gerry Adams, allowed Scottish parliament and Welsh assembly

Mary Mcaleese

1997-2011, Ireland, first president to come from Northern Ireland or Ulster

Gerhard Schroeder

1998-2005, United Germany, elected chancellor of Germany. took and active role in foreign affairs, opposed war in Iraq, highest unemployment rate in Europe, Social Democrat Party, coalition with Green Parties, closed nuclear power plants

Robert Kocharyan

1998-2008, Second Armenian President, served as President of Nagorno-Karabakh from 1994-1997 and Prime Minister of Armenia from 1997-1998, presidency contained the 1999 shooting of Prime Minister Vazgen Sargsan in Parliament

Rudolf Schuster

1999-2004, President of Slovakia

Ferenc Madl

2000-2005, Hungary, president, oversaw entry into the EU

Vladimir Putin

2000-2008, 2012-present, Russia, appointed Prime Minister in August 1999, led Russia against Chechnya, invaded Crimea, Unity Bloc supported him

Stipe Mesic

2000-2010, Croatia, President, supported Croatian Spring, Croatian National Party

Kostas Karamanlis

2004-2009, Greece, PM, leader of New Democracy party, first PM to be born after WWII

Viktor Yushchenko

2005-2010, Ukraine, President, Dioxin poisoning during 2004 elections, Mass protests (Orange Revolution) after Yanukovych was declared the winner, became president Jan 2005

Benedict XVI

2005-2013, Pope, German, first to resign before death since Gregory XII in 1415

Angela Merkel

2005-present, Reunited Germany, first female Chancellor, Christian Democratic Union, doctorate in Physical Chemistry, led EU management of financial crisis

Gordon Brown

2007-2010, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Labour Leader, chancellor of the Exchequer from 1997-2007, Scottish, lost power following the 2008 recession

Nicolas Sarkozy

2007-2012, Fifth Republic, Elected French President in 2007 promised to address the Muslim tensions but failed to do so, Union for a Popular Movement Party, married Carla Bruni

Dmitry Medvedev

2008-2012, Russia, President, invaded Georgia during the South Ossetia War, Putin as prime minister, modernization movement for Russia, police reforms, anti-corruption campaign, foreign policy reforms, Recognized Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent states

George Papandreou

2009-2011, Greece, PM, son of Andreas Papandreou, leader of PASOK, resigned due to Greek debt crisis

Viktor Yanukovych

2010-2014, Ukraine, President, ran for president in 2004 and won, but election was fraud, caused the Orange Revolution, Supreme Court ordered a second runoff election, where he lost to Yushchenko, favored ties with Russia to ties with the EU, ousted by Euromaidan protests, Russia annexed Crimea

David Cameron

2010-2016, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Conservative leader, resigned following the referendum leaving EU passed

Lucas Papademos

2011-2012, Greece, PM, worked at European Central Bank, Bank of Greece, resigned due to debt crisis

Michael D. Higgins

2011-present, Ireland, re-elected in 2018, former mayor of Galway, worked to address justice, anti-sectarianism, anti-racism, and inclusion, first state visit to the UK by an Irish President, President of Labour Party

Antonis Samaras

2012-2015, Greece, PM, New Democracy party, known for controversy in which he caused the New Democracy government to fall out of power

Francois Hollande

2012-2017, Fifth Republic, socialist, legalized same-sex marriage, withdrew from Afghanistan, terror attacks in Nice and Paris in 2016 and 2015, support Saudi intervention in Yemen, high unemployment, unpopular

Janos Ader

2012-present, Hungary, worked to crezte new constitution guaranteeing human rights

Francis I

2013-?, Pope, Argentine(Jorge Bergoglio), first from Americas, first Jesuit pope, first non-European since Syrian Gregory III in the 700s, supported same-sex marriage, acknowledged climate change

Xavier Bettel

2013-present, Luxembourg, first openly gay PM to be re-elected to a second term

Willem Alexander

2013-present, Orange-Nassau, King of the Netherlands, first King since 1890, focus on water management, International Olympic Committee

Phillipe

2013-present, Son of Albert II of Belgium, former senator

Oleksandr Turchynov

2014-2014, Ukraine, interim President following removal of Viktor Yanukovych

Petro Poroshenko

2014-2019, Ukraine, President, chocolate king, owns mass-media outlet, prominent oligarch

Klaus Iohannis

2014-present, Romania, president, former physics teacher and school inspector, first Romanian president to come from an ethnic minority

Felipe VI

2014-present, Spain, king

Alexis Tsipras

2015-2019, Greece, PM, led left-wing party Syriza, initiated Greek bailout referendum, country loses 25% of GDP

Kolinda Grabar-Kitarovic

2015-2020, Croatia, first female president of Croatia, youngest president of Croatia

Andrzej Duda

2015-present, Poland, President, beat Bronislaw Komorowski, independent, met with Trump on second trip abroad, repeatedly met with Xi Jinping

Marinko Cavara

2015-present, President of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatian Democratic Union

Theresa May

2016-2019, Prime Minister of Great Britain, Home Secretary from 2010-2016, survived a vote of no confidence from Conservative MPs and Parliament

Emmanuel Macron

2017-present, Fifth Republic, En Marche movement, beat Le Pen, Edouard Phillipe as prime minister, youngest president in French history, based union policy off of Scandinavia and Germany, resticted immigration in 2018, stricter anti-terror laws, unpopularity caused the yellow vest movement

Giuseppe Conte

2018-present, Italy, PM, head of coalition formed by Five Star Movement and the League

Pedro Sanchez

2018-present, Spain, Prime Minister, Spanish Socialist Workers' Party

Kyriakos Mitsotakis

2019-present, Greece, PM, leader of New Democracy

Boris Johnson

2019-present, Prime Minister of Great Britain, former journalist, mayor of london from 2008-2016, withdrew from the European Union, lost working majority

Volodymyr Zelensky

2019-president, Ukraine, President, comedian, won with 73% of the vote

Zoran Milanovic

2020-present, Croatia, current president

Caracalla

211-217, Rome, real name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, nickname from Gaul cloak, cruel, built Baths of Carcalla and Arch of Septimus

Marcus Macrinus

217, Rome, murdered Caracalla

Heliogabalus

218-222, Rome, priest of Baal, invented first cushion, ate 365 oysters

Alexander Severus

222-235, Rome, assassinated marked the epoch for the Crisis of the Third Century

Claudius II

268-270, Rome, Illyrian Emperor, defeated Goths

Lucius Aurelian

270-275, Rome, Illyrian Emperor, defeated Germanic Alamanni, made Danube the western boundary, defeated Queen Zenobia of Palmyra, given title Restitutor Orbis(restorer of the empire) by Senate, built namesake wall among Rome

Augustus Caesar

27BC-14AD, Rome, first emperor of Rome, originally Octavian, member of Second Triumvirate with Lepidus and Antony, forced Lepidus from power, defeated Antony at Actium, wife Livia, period of cultural development called Augustan Age

Diocletian

284-305, Rome, last Illyrian Emperor, empire divided into four patys ruled by caesars and augusteses, Maximian second in command

Ermanaric

300s, Goth, established kingdom from Baltic to Black Sea

Antigonus I Cyclops

306-301 BC, Macedonia, controlled much of Asia Minor, almost reunified Alexander's empire but was killed by Lysimachus of Thrace and Seleucus I at Ipsus

Constantine the Great

306-337, Rome, first Roman ruler to convert to Christianity, believed in sun god Sol bu then saw cross on sun before winning a battle, co-emperor Lucinius, issued Edict of Milan mandating tolerance of Christians, presided over Council of Nicaea in 325, began builiding Constantinople

Agathocles

317-? BC, Syracuse, restored despotic government, praised in The Prince

Alexander III the Great

336-323 BC, Macedonia, born in Pella, tutored by Aristotle, defeated Thebes rebellion, defeated Darius III of Persia at Issus and Gaugamela, built Alexandria in Egypt, cut Gordian knot, at his death empire was divided between "successor kings" Antigonus I(Greece), Seleucus(Babylonia), and Ptolemy I(Egypt)

Constantinius II

351-361, Rome, Emperor, defeated Magnentius at Battle of Mursa, Arian Christian, opponent of St. Athanasius(orthodox bishop of Alexandria)

Phillip II

359-336 BC, Macedonia, learned military skills as a captive in Thebes, renmaed Crenides Philippi, Demosthenes warned Athens about him, became head of the Amphictyonic League, defeated Athens and Thebes at Chaeronea, assasinated, father of Alexander III

Julian the Apostate

361-363, Rome, Emperor who rejected the faith completely, Implemented paganism with a Christian "look"

Jovian

363-364, Rome, Last emperor before division of the empire

Valentinian I

364-375, Western Rome, Last great emperor, split empire between him and brother Valens, defeated Alamanni and the Saxons, orthodox Christian, last Roman Golden Age

Valens

364-378, Roman emperor who fought the Visigoths, lost at the Battle of Adrianople near Edirne.

Caligula

37-41, Rome, emperor, name means little boot, joint heir with Tiberius Gemellus but chosen sole emperor by Senate, became tyrant after illness, made horse a consul, assassinated by guards

Valentinian II

375-392, Western Rome, Emperor, driven from Italy by Magnus Maximus, restored to power by Theodosius I, murdered by Arbogast who installed Eugenius as emperor

Honorius

384-423, Western Rome, Emperor, Rome was sacked by King Alaric I of the Visigoths in 410, Ataulf withdrew Visigoths to Gaul and Walla founded dynasty at Toulouse

Brennus

390, Gaul general who overtook Rome and was bribed out of it with more than1000 lbs of gold

Theodosius I the Great

394-395, Western Rome, Emperor, last to rule a united Roman Empire, orthodox Christian, persecuted Arians

Alaric I

395-410, Visigoth, invaded Greece and Italy, pillaged rome in 410

Thirty Tyrants

404-403 BC, Athens, puppet government set up by Sparta following the Peloponnesian War, soon deposed and democracy restored

Claudius I

41-54 BC, Rome, emperor, semiretired after conspiracy against him, cruel wife Messalina assumed powers, began conquest of Britain, executed Messalina, married niece Agrippina the Younger, who poisoned him

Ataulf

410-415, Visigoth, brother of Alaric I, invaded Spain

Wallia

415-418, Visigoths, conquered Spain and Southern Gaul, made capital at Toulouse

Theodoric I

418-451, Visigoth, died fighting the Huns with Rome at Chalons

Euric

420-484, Visigoth, king of the Spanish Visigoths

Valentinian III

425-455, Western Rome, emperor, General Flavius Aetius held most power, Africa taken by King Gaiseric of the Vandals, fought Attila the Hun at Chalons-sur-Marne in 451

Gaiseric

428-477, Vandal, defeated Roman general Bonifacus in Africa, captured Carthage and made it his capital, pillaged Rome after Valentinian III's death in 455

St. Leo I the Great

440-461, Pope, born in Tuscany, persuaded Attila the Hun not to sack Rome, Council of Chalcedon in 451 endorsed Leo's views, said "Peter has spoken through Leo"

General Riimer the Suebe

455-475, Western Rome, known as the Kingmaker, held power throughout 9 emperors in 20 years

Cincinnatus

458 BC, Rome, model dictator who defeated Aequi and returned to his farm all in the course of 16 days

Pericles

461-431 BC, Athens, made Athens supreme in the Delian League, built Parthenon, deposed as the Peloponnesian War began, generated most of the surviving structures on the Acropolis, succumbed to the Plague of Athens, friends with Zeno, populist, companion of Aspasia

Theodoric

474-526, Ostrogoth, fought Byzantine ruler Zeno, invaded Italy and killed Odoacer, controlled the Western Roman Empire

Romulus Augustulus

475-476, Western Rome, known for his youth, exiled by Odoacer when he sacked Rome, last Roman Emperor

Odoacer

475-493, Goth, led uprising of Germanic troops in the Roman army against Romulus, Germanic barbarian leader who ended the western Roman Empire in 476 and became the first barbarian ruler of Italy (434-493), established capital at Ravenna, defeated and killed by Ostrogoth Theodoric

Clovis I

481-511, Merovingian, united northern Salian and Southern Ripuarian franks; capital at Soissons then Paris; converted to Christianity; defeated Alamanni Germans and Visigoths

Alaric II

484-507, Visigoths, issued law code Breviary of Alaric, killed by Clovis I at Vouille

Gelon

485-? BC, Syracuse, tyrant of Gela, defeated Carthage at Himera

Leonidas I

490-480 BC, Sparta, lead a army of Spartans and held against 100,000 Perisans for a week, sent away 600 troops and guarded rear with 300 Spartans and 1000 other Greeks in the 2nd Persian war in 480Bc, was killed in the Battle of Thermopylae fighting against Xerxes I

St. Gelasius I

492-496, Pope, cultivated relations with Arian Ostrogothic King Theodoric, predecessor Felix III had excommunicated patriarch of Constantinople for monophysitism, alienated Byzantine emperor Anastasius I, "two swords" of pope and emperor, opposed Pelagianism, Manichaeism, and Lupercalia, called vicar of Christ, wrote part of Leonine Sacramentary

Justinian I the Great

527-565, Byzantine Emperor, ruled with Theodora, oversaw a revitalization of Constinople. Revival of the legal traditions of Rome. His collection of laws was called the Corpus Juris Civilis, General Belsarius crushed unrest, defeated Vandals and Ostrogoths, he built the Hagia Sophia

Lucius Tarquinius Superbas/Tarquin the Proud

534-510 BC, Rome, King, tyrant, son Sextus raped Lucretia, leading to revolt in 509 BC creating the Roman Republic, banished

Nero

54-68, Rome, emperor, moderate rule for five years, then executed mom and wife Octavia, Rome burned in 64, revolts in Britain and Judea, Praetorian Guard revolt in 68, suicide

Pisistratus

561-527 BC, Athens, son of Hippocrates, instituted the Panathenaic Games, early example of populism with championing the Hyperakrioi, opposed the aristocracy, distant relative of Solon, dictator

Servius Tullius

578-534 BC, Rome, King, created new Constitution, enlarged boundaries of Rome

St. Gregory I

590-604, Pope, During difficult times, this man organized Rome, negotiated peace, wrote instructional letters to Catholics, sent monks to evangelize to the Barbarians, and reformed the liturgy and music. (*Gregorian Chant*), last of four original Doctors of the Church, consolidated Papal states, sent St. Augustine to England

Lucius Tarquinius Priscus

616-578 BC, Rome, King, constructed many public buildings in Rome

Honroius I

625-638, Pope, bestowed pallium on archbishops of Canterbury and York, wrote letter seeming supporting Monothelitism, saying Christ had one will but two natures, called a heretic by Third Council of Constantinople in 680

St. Linus

64-76, second pope, possibly martyred

Ancus Macius

641-613 BC, Rome, King, captured many Latin towns, built port of Ostia

Tulius Hostilius

673-641 BC, Rome, King, destroyed Alba Longa and fought Sabines

Galba

68-69, Rome, Emperor, Julius Vindex, governor of Gallia backed Galba vs. Nero

Otho

69, Rome, second emperor of year of four emperors

Vitelius

69, Rome, third emperor of year of four emperors

Vespasian

69-79, Favian Emperor, Rome, campaigned in Britain and Judea, 9-year world peace, suppressed Germanic Batavian revolt under Julius Civilis, General Agricola led conquests in Britain, Colosseum constructed

Numa Pompilius

715-676 BC, Rome, King, introduced many religious customs

Charles Martel

715-741, Merovingian, ruler of Austrasia, the Hammer, son of Pepin of Herstal, defeated Muslims in 732 at Poitiers, killed Abd-ar-Rahman, grandfather of Charlemagne

Childeric III

743-751, last Merovingian

Pepin the Short

751-768, Carolingian, crowned by Pope Stephen II, ceded Donation of Pepin, foundation of the Papal States, acquired Aquitane, father of Charlemagne

Romulus

753-715 BC, Rome, King, founded Rome with twin brother Remus(sons of Rhea Silvia, daughter of king of Alba Longa

Titus

79-81, Favian Emperor, Rome, destroyed Jerusalem in 70, beneficient after Vesuvius eruption in 79 and fire and plague in Rome in 80

St. Leo III

795-816, Pope, gang tried to gouge out his eyes and cut out his tongue, imprisoned for perjury and adultey, exonerated by Charlemagne, leading to him crowning Charlemagne HRE

Egbert

802-839, Saxon, king of Wessex, given title of Bretwalda(ruler of the British), defeated danes and Welsh at Hingston Down(cornwall) in 838, won the Battle of Ellendune against Beornwulf, king of Mercia in 825

Domitian

81-96, Favian Emperor, Rome, clashed with Senate, defeated revolt led by Antonius Saturnius of Upper Germany, executed many aristocrats, murdered by officials and wife Domitia

Louis I the Pious

814-840, Carolingian, following the death of his son Pepin, he divided his succession between surviving sons Charles I the Bald, Lothair I, and Louis II the German in the Treaty of Verdun in 843

Aethelwulf

839-858, Saxon, king of Wessex, son of Egbert, withstood Viking invaders, allied Wessex with Merica, married daughter of Charles II the Bald, won Battle of Surrey

Charles I the Bald

840-877, Carolingian, son of Louis I the Pious and Judith of Bavaria, received the West Frankish Kingdom in Treaty of Verdun, fought off viking raids, crowned by Pope John VIII

Kenneth I MacAlpin

846-860, Scotland, King of Picts and later first Scottish King, conquered Pictish Kingdom, made capital at Scone, invaded Lothain

Boris I

852-889, King of Bulgaria,forced by Byzantine Michael III to adopt Christianity, retired to monastery but later deposed his corrupt son Vladimir, replacing him with Simeon, Krum dynasty

Rurik

862-879, Rurik(Rus), consolidated Slavic tribes at Novgorod, founded Kievan Rus, dynasty moved to Kiev in 972

Aethelred I

866-871, Saxon, king of Wessex and of Kent, son of Aethelwulf, struggled against the Danes, lost to Danes at Reading, won at Aescesdun, defeated at Basing, won at Maeretun, imposed Danegeld tax

Basil I

867-886, Macedonian who was co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire with Michael III, had Michael killed, and established the Macedonian Dynasty, restored scholar Photius

Alfred the Great

871-899, Saxon, king of Wessex, son of Aethelwulf, captured London in 886, began court school and invited scholars such as Welsh Asser and Irish John Scotus Erigena, promulgated laws which didn't distinguish Welsh and English

Charles II the Fat

884-887, Carolingian, Charles III of the Holy Roman Empire, deposed by nephew Arnulf, dissolution of the Frankish Empire

Harold I the Fairheaded

885-933, Norway, first ruler of All Norway, won Battle of Hafrsfjord, amny fled and launched Viking raids, allied with english Athelstan

Simeon I

893-927, Tsar of Bulgaria, created Bulgarian Orthodox Church, his reign was the Golden Age of Bulgaria, successful campaigns against th Byzantines, Magyars and Serbs, created the most powerful state in contemporary Southeast and Eastern Europe.

Charles III the Simple

898-922, Carolingian, ceded much of Normandy to Vikings, imprisoned in Peronne

Edward the Elder

899-924, Saxon, King of Wessex, defeated the Danes in 918 following the help and later death of his sister Aethelflaed, ruler of Mercia, constructed enclosures around Wessex, almost fully conquered England

Henry I the Fowler

919-936, Saxon, HRE, first Saxon German King, defeated Magyars, Wends and Danes

Athelstan the Glorious

924-940, Saxon, King of Wessex, first king of Wessex to have effective rule over the entirety of England, annexed York, brought up by Aethelflaed, extensive law codes punishing theft and corruption yet letting minors off easier, titled himself Rex totius Britanniae

Hakon I the Good

935-961, Norway, dethroned half brother Eric Bloodaxe, attempted to introduce Christianity

Otto I the Great

936-973, Saxon, HRE, good at putting down revolts, pacifies the Eastern frontier, intervenes in the West, made king of Italy, marries Adelaide, his son (Liudulf) and Conrad the Red rebel against him, in the midst of that the Magyars invade, he forgives the boys rebellion, they end up dying for him, he has to deal with papal drama, deposed Pope John XII, replaced him with Leo VIII

Edmund I

939-936, Saxon, king of the English, recaptured northern England from viking occupation, son of Edward the Elder, began the monastic revival in England, killed by a robber

Edgar the Peaceful

959-976, Saxon, king of the English, youngest son of Edmund I, succeeded brother Eadwig, made St. Dunstan Archbishop of Canterbury, patron of the monastic revival, laws penalized the nonpayment of contribution to the Roman Catholic church, tolerant of local customs, legislated for the Danelaw

Nerva

96-98, Rome, first of the Five Good Emperors

Mieszko

962-992, Piast, King of Poland, converted Poland to Christianity

Olaf I

968-1000, Norway, raided England with Danish Sweyn I Forkbeard, converted to Christianity, defeated rebellion under pagan Earl Hakon, made Nidaros capital, won Battle of Svold in 1000 against Sweyn I, Swedish Olaf, and sons of Hakon but died

Otto II

973-983, Saxon, HRE, wife Theophano of Byzantine, captured Lorraine but returned it, defeated by Greeks at Crotona in 982

Edward the Martyr

975-978, Saxon, king of England, song of Edgar, assassinated, possibly by mother Aelfthryth and brother Ethelred, remains were said to produce miracles

Basil II

976-1025, Macedonian emperor who campaigned against the Bulgars and annexed Bulgaria, Crete, Cyprus, and Syria, expanding the empire to the Euphrates, nicknamed Bulgaroctonos or slayer of Bulgars

Aethelred II the Unready

978-1016, Saxon, King of England, son of King Edgar, possibly assassinated brother Edward, unprepared for Danish invasions in 980, failed to buy peace, massacred Danish settlers, fled to Normandy when Sweyn I was accepted as king of England, came back in 914

Trajan

98-117, Rome, Second of the Five Good Emperors, conquered Dacia and Mesopotamia, fought Parthians

Louis V

986-987, Last Carolingian

Hugh Capet

987-996, Capetian, vassals elected him over Charles, Duke of Lorraine

Saint Vladimir

988-1015, Rurik(Rus), king, sent envoys to study the religions of the various neighboring nations whose representatives had been urging him to embrace their respective faiths, Rejected Islam and Judasim, decided upon Christianity after hearing reports of Constantinople, baptism made Orhodox Christianity official Russian religion, married Byzantine Basil II's daughter Anne

Boleslaw I

992-1025, Piast, King of Poland, defeated HRE Henry II, crowned by pope in 1025

Robert II the Pious

996-1031, Capetian, educated by Gerbert(soon-to-be Pope Sylvester II), excommunicated by Pope Gregory V for marriage to cousin Bertha of Burgundy

Stephen I

997-1038, Hungary, founded Arpad Dynasty, given title Apostolic Majesty, adopted by future Hungarian sovereigns, by Pope Sylvester II

Hiero I

?-466 BC, Syracuse, patron of the arts, supported Pindar, ousted in favor of democracy

St. Peter

?-64, First Pope, one of the twelve disciples, denied knowing Jesus on night of trial, first to see risen Jesus, called the rock on which the church was founded, martyred in Rome

Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus

Brother who served as people's tribunes and attempted to help the poor by agrarian and corn laws, both died in seperate riots 133 and 121 BC, sons of Cornelia and grandsons of Scipio Africanus

Cylon

C.632 BC, Athens, attempted a coup, victor of the olympics

Hamilcar

Carthage general who occupied Spain, father of Hannibal

Hannibal

Carthaginian military commander who, in the Second Punic War, attempted a surprise attack on Rome, begin in 218 BC, crossing the Alps with a large group of soldiers, horses, and elephants,

Gaius Diulius

Consul who led naval victory over Carthage in First Punic War at Mylae in 260 BC

Marcus Atilius Regulus

General who lost to Carthage in Africa during First Punic Wars

Knights Hospitalers

Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, Organize around hospitals, medical core of the Crusades, founded by Gerard, rules established by Saint Augustine, moved to Rhodes and later Malta, conquered by Napoleon in 1798

Perseus

Macedonia, Son of Phillip V, lost to Romans in Third Macedonian War

Phillip V

Macedonian King who lead the Macedonians in to failure in the 1st and 2nd Macedonian wars. After losing the 2nd M. War he becomes paranoid and kills people, including his son, for 20 years until he died in 179 BCE.

Knights Templar

Poor Knights of Christ, Considered the most famous of the Western Christian military orders. The organization existed for approximately two centuries in the Middle Ages. In 1307, many of the Order's members in France were arrested, tortured into giving false confessions, and then burned at the stake. Under pressure from King Phillip IV, Pope Clement V disbanded the Order in 1312. Founded by Hugh de Payens, rules established by Bernard of Clairvaux, established banking system

Sulla

Powerful commander, earned his men's loyalty, general who used his army for his political advantage, started a civil war in Rome, killed his enemies, reduced power of tribunes, more power to patricians, left Rome to fight Mithridates in 87 BC, returned in 83 BC and defeated Cinna

Gaius Cassius

Roman general and politician who was one of the major forces behind the plot to assassinate Caesar, defeated by Octavian and Antony at Philippi

Scipio Africanus

Roman general who commanded the invasion of Carthage in the second Punic War and defeated Hannibal at Zama (circa 237-183 BC)

Marius

Roman general who was elected consul seven times- he is known for the big changes he made to the Roman army, making it easier for men to be Roman soldiers

Lucius Aemilius Paullus

Roman, Consul during the Battle of Cannae, who dies during the battle, captured Perseus at Pydna in 168 BC

Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Minor

Roman, Destroyed Carthage in 146 BC in Third Punic War

Marcus Drusus

Roman, attempted to help poor, assassinated 91 BC

Marcus Brutus

Rome, Friend of Caesar who kills him "for the good of Rome", crushed by Octavian and Anthony at Phillippi

Marcus Licinius Crassus

Rome, Member of first Triumvirate with Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great, extremely wealthy, killed by Parthians in Syria at Battle of Carrhae

Lucius Cinna

Rome, conspirator who urges Cassius to bring "noble" Brutus into the conspiracy; he assists by placing some of Cassius' forged letters where Brutus will discover them

Julius Gaius Caesar

Rome, member of First Triumvirate with Pompey the Great and Marcus Crassus, Governor of Spain, conquered Northern Gaul, crossed Rubicon and made Pompey flee, assassinated on Ides of March in 44 BC

Pompey the Great

Rome, member of first Triumvirate with Julius Caeser and Marcus Crassus, ended Servile War by Spartacus, cleared Mediterranean of pirates, captured Jerusalem, defeated by Julius Caesar at Pharsalus in 48 BC, murdered in Egypt

Marcus Aemilius Lepidus

Rome, member of the second triumvirate with Mark Antony and Octavian, one of Caesar's top officers and took control of Rome's territories in Africa, failed to cease struggle between Octavian and Antony, tried to take Sicily from Octavian and was expelled from the triumvirate

Mark Antony

Rome, served with Caesar against Pompey, formed Second Triumvirate with Octavius and Lepidus, married Octavius' sister, affair with Cleopatra, defeated by Octavius at Actium, committed suicide with Cleopatra at Alexandria

Antiochus III

c. 200 BC, Seleucid, sixth ruler of the Seleucid Empire, considered the most successful after Seleucus I (Alexander's general), pushed the boundaries of the Seleucid Empire west to Central Asia Minor, tried to conquer Western parts of Asia Minor leading to war with Rome, defeated by Romans at Magnesia 190 BC

Cleisthenes

c. 510-490 BC, Athens, made athenian assembly-law making body, granted some citizenship to some imms. and former slaves. set-up council of 500, introduced Ostracism

Solon

c. 594 BC, Athens, elected Archon, established laws that eased the burden of debt on farmers, forbade enslavement for debt, poet, replaced Aeropagus with a popular assembly

Lycurgus

c. 600s BC, Sparta, semimythical lawgiver, began Spartan militant culture

Draco

c. 621 BC, Athens, issued harsh legal code, said to be killed by having too many hats thrown on him, driven out of Athens to Aegina

Pyrrhus

king of Epirus, helped Greek cities of southern Italy fight Rome, 280-276 BC in Pyrrhic War but lost