exam 1

Know the steps to transcription and translation: initiation, elongation, termination.

1. Initiation. The DNA molecule unwinds and separates to form a small open complex. ... 2. Elongation. RNA polymerase moves along the template strand, synthesizing an mRNA molecule. ... 3. Termination. In prokaryotes there are two ways in which transcription is terminated. ...

Know active versus passive transport. Which one requires energy? What are some examples of those processes?

· Active Transport- the movement of substances across the membrane using energy from adenosine triphosphate (ATP). (Using energy to pump a basketball). · Passive Transport- movement of substances across the membrane without expenditure of cellular energy. (Spoonful of sugar placed in cup of tea).

How are proteins formed? Where in the cell are they formed? What helps put proteins together?

· Amino acids link together by peptide bonds, forming a long chain. Made in the Ribosomes. Peptide Bonds.

Know examples of anatomy versus physiology. Remember, anatomy involves structure while physiology involves function, particularly as it relates to chemical processes.

· An anatomist may study the types of tissues found in different parts of the heart, skeletal muscles · Physiologist may study how the heart regulates blood flow to supply oxygen to other organs in the body, how muscles work

Define an atom

· Atom- made up of subatomic particles (proton, neutron, electron)

What happens if you have disruptions of the cell cycle?

· Cancer can occur · Disruption of the Cell Cycle Checkpoints Can Cause Cancer. If a checkpoint fails or if a cell suffers physical damage to chromosomes during cell division, or if it suffers a debilitating somatic mutation in a prior S phase, it may self-destruct in response to a consequent biochemical anomaly.

Between lipids and carbohydrates, which one provides more energy?

· Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides, depending on the number of monomers in the molecule. · Lipids are a class of macromolecules that are nonpolar and hydrophobic in nature. · Lipids has more energy.

Metabolism involves both catabolic and anabolic interactions. Going further, what is catabolism and anabolism? Be prepared to identify examples

· Catabolism- the process by which larger more complex substances are broken down into smaller simpler molecules. (Digestion) · Anabolism- the process whereby smaller, simpler molecules are combined into larger, more complex substances. (Bone Growth)

Know what occurs during interphase: G1, S, G2.

· Cell Growth, DNA synthesis, Gap, Mitosis

Know the ordering of the cell cycle. Interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis

· Cell increases in size (gap 1, or G1, stage), copies its DNA (synthesis, or S, stage), prepares to divide (gap 2, or G2, stage), and divides (mitosis, or M, stage). · Interphase is composed of G1 phase (cell growth), followed by S phase (DNA synthesis), followed by G2 phase (cell growth). At the end of interphase comes the mitotic phase, which is made up of mitosis and cytokinesis and leads to the formation of two daughter cells.

Can polar substances freely move through the cell membrane? What about non-polar substances?

· Cell membranes consist mostly of nonpolar lipids with various proteins embedded in them. Nonpolar and small polar solutes can diffuse through these nonpolar lipid membranes. Ions and large polar molecules cannot. ... They allow large polar molecules to move in and out of the cell.

What is competitive versus non-competitive inhibition?

· Competitive inhibitor - binds to the active site and prevents the substrate from binding there. · Noncompetitive inhibitor - binds to a different site on the enzyme; it doesn't block substrate binding, but it causes other changes in the enzyme so that it can no longer catalyze the reaction efficiently.

What occurs during cytokinesis?

· Cytokinesis finishes the division process. The cell membrane squeezes together around the middle of the cell until the cell is pinched in two, splitting the cell in two and dividing the cytoplasm, organelles, and other material contained within the cell.

What is helicase?

· DNA helicases are enzymes that are able to unwind DNA by the use of the energy-equivalent ATP. They play essential roles in DNA replication, DNA repair, and DNA recombination in all organisms

When does DNA polymerase come into play?

· DNA polymerase works by sliding along the single strand template of DNA reading its nucleotide bases as it goes along and inserting new complementary nucleotides into the primer so as to make a sequence complementary to the template. DNA polymerase is thought to be able to replicate 749 nucleotides per second.

What is the central dogma theory? What order does it follow?

· DNA → RNA → Protein · provides the basic framework for how genetic information flows from a DNA sequence to a protein product inside cells and thus give an insight to the important processes going on inside the cells.

Know the differences between DNA and RNA. How are they similar?

· DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid, is the molecule that contains the genetic code of organisms. · RNA- ribonucleic acid, the nucleic acid that is used in key metabolic processes for all steps of protein synthesis in all living cells and carries the genetic information of many viruses. · SIMILARITIES- Both DNA and RNA have four nitrogenous bases each—three of which they share (Cytosine, Adenine, and Guanine) and one that differs between the two (RNA has Uracil while DNA has Thymine)

What is the difference between a decomposition reaction and a synthesis reaction? Be prepared to identify examples

· Decomposition Reaction - a chemical reaction that breaks down or "de-composes" something larger into its constituents parts. (Hydrogen Peroxide to Water and Oxygen) · Synthesis Reaction - a chemical reaction that results in the synthesis (joining) of components that were formally product. (Sodium and Chlorine to produce Sodium Chloride)

What is dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis? Be prepared to identify examples

· Dehydration Synthesis - two monomers are covalently bonded in a reaction in which one gives up a hydroxyl group and the other a hydrogen atom. A molecule of water is released as a byproduct during dehydration reactions. (Two alpha-glucose units form a glycosidic linkage with elimination of water molecule to form one maltose molecule) · Hydrolysis - the covalent bond between two monomers is split by the addition of a hydrogen atom to one and a hydroxyl group to the other, which requires the contribution of a molecule of water. (Dissolving sulfuric acid in water yields hydronium and bisulfate)

Define Osmosis

· Diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane.

Know diploid versus haploid.

· Diploid - refers to the number of complete chromosome sets present in each cell of an organism: diploid cells contain two complete sets. · Haploid - only contain one complete chromosome set. Chromosome sets can be altered in meiosis, and occasionally in mitosis.

Know the difference between an element and a compound.

· Element- material that consists of single type of atom. · Compound- consists of two or more types of elements held together by covalent or ionic bonds.

Know the characteristics of erythrocytes as it relates to DNA contents.

· Erythrocytes are red blood cells that travel in the blood. Their characteristics of being red, round, and like rubber give them the ability to complete their specific functions. They carry oxygen from the lungs to the body, and bring carbon dioxide back to the lungs to be expelled.

Can the body synthesize amino acids?

· Essential Amino Acids- No (only in diet), Non Essential Amino Acids- Yes.

What is the stored form of glucose in animals?

· Glycogen

During which process of cellular respiration is CO2 produced?

· Glycolysis

Where in the cell does cellular respiration occur? Glycolysis, citric acid cycle, OP

· Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration, where glucose is broken down in to pyruvic acid. This step occurs outside of the mitochondria in the cell's cytoplasm. The pyruvic acid is then transported to the Krebs cycle, where it is used to create high energy molecules.

Know the chemical symbols and ions listed in the power points. Those will be in the form of matching questions.

· H- Hydrogen () · N- Nitrogen · Na- Sodium () · P- Phosphorus · Cl- Chlorine · Ca- Calcium () · Cu- Copper · Ag- Silver · C- Carbon · O- Oxygen · Mg- Magnesium · S- Sulfur · K- Potassium () · Mn- Manganese · Zn- Zinc · Au- Gold · () - Chloride · () - Hydroxyl · () - Ammonium · - Sulfate · ) - Bicarbonate · ) - Phosphate

What does it mean to be semiconservative?

· Half of the original DNA molecule is conserved in each new DNA molecule.

What are some examples of disease?

· Heart or Lung Disease

What is pH a measure of? What are acids and bases?

· How acidic/basic water is. · Acid is a kind of chemical compound that when dissolved in water gives a solution with H+ ion activity more than purified water. A base is an aqueous substance that donates electrons, accept protons or release hydroxide (OH-) ions. An acid is a proton donor. While a base is a proton acceptor.

Know the difference between hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic. How would this concept relate to red blood cells? Would they lyse, crenate, or remain the same?

· Hypertonic- a solution that has a higher concentration of solutes than another solution (lyse-burst) · Isotonic- has a solute concentration equal to another solution. (remain same) · Hypotonic- a solution that has a lower concentration of solutes than another solution. (crenate) · Red blood cells- they can swell or decrease depending on the solution they are in.

What is the variable region of an amino acid called?

· Hypervariable and Framework Regions

When does RNA polymerase come into play?

· Initiation begins when RNA polymerase wraps around the promoter region of DNA. The promoter is a DNA sequence that guides RNA polymerase on where to bind upstream of a gene.

What part of the cell cycle does a cell spend the most time in?

· Interphase

What are electrically charged atoms called?

· Ions

Know about the lipid tails and phosphate heads. Are they hydrophobic/hydrophilic? Polar or non-polar?

· Lipid Tails- fatty acids, 14-24 carbon atoms. Hydrophobic Hydrocarbon Tail. Non-Polar Head Group. · Phosphate Heads- membrane bilayer facing outward. Hydrophilic. Polar Head.

How are lysosomes different compared to peroxisomes? What substances do they contain? What do these substances do?

· Lysosome - contains an array of degradative enzymes, which break down almost all the biological polymers inside the cell · Peroxisome - contains enzymes, which carry out oxidation reactions and break down metabolic hydrogen peroxide.

Know examples of maintaining homeostasis.

· Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels · Blood Pressure

Between males and females, which contain flagellated cells?

· Males- Sperm

Be able to distinguish between microscopic anatomy and gross anatomy.

· Microscopic Anatomy- study of very small structures of the body using magnification. · Gross Anatomy- study of the larger structures of the body, typically with the unaided eye.

What is the difference between mitosis and meiosis?

· Mitosis results in two identical daughter cells · Meiosis results in four sex cells.

Is DNA always arranged in chromosome form?

· No, because there is division in the cell

Are organelles evenly distributed throughout every cell?

· No, ribosomes, mitochondria, and chloroplasts, do not need to be distributed between daughter cells, if part of those cells are present.

Know all of the organelles of the cell and their functions.

· Nucleus - DNA Storage · Ribosomes - Protein Synthesis · Rough ER - Protein Production and Modification · Smooth ER - Lipid Production and Detoxification · Golgi Apparatus - Protein Transportation and Export · Chloroplasts - Photosynthesis (Plant Cell) · Mitochondria - Energy Production · Golgi Apparatus - Protein Transportation and Export · Peroxisome - Lipid Breakdown · Lysosome - Protein Destruction · Cytoskeleton - Cell Movement · Cell Membrane - Define the inside and Outside of a Cell · Cell Wall - Structural Support and Protection (Plant Cell) · Cytosol - Cellular Fluid · Chloroplast - Photosynthesis (Plant Cell) · Vacuole - Storage and Water Regulation (Plant Cell)

Know the difference between peripheral and integral proteins.

· Peripheral Protein - only located in the inner or outer surface of the phospholipid bilayer like floating iceberg · Integral protein - embedded in the whole bilayer. · Difference - Integral proteins have hydrophobic and hydrophilic areas where as peripheral do not.

What is phagocytosis? Is it a form of endo or exocytosis?

· Phagocytosis - also known as cell eating, is the process by which cells internalize large particles or cells, like damaged cells and bacteria, endocytosis

Know all the bonds: phosphodiester, peptide, glycosidic, hydrogen and where they occur. Example: Hydrogen bond exists between two single polynucleotide molecules, but also exists between amino acids to form a secondary protein structure forms.

· Phosphodiester- when exactly two of the hydroxyl groups in phosphoric acid react with hydroxyl groups on other molecules to form two ester bonds · Peptide - a chemical bond formed between two molecules when the carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the amino group of the other molecule, releasing a molecule of water (H2O). · Glycosidic- forms by a condensation reaction, which means that one water molecule is produced during formation of a glycoside. Occurs- DNA molecule between sugar and nitrogen base. · Hydrogen- interaction involving a hydrogen atom located between a pair of other atoms having a high affinity for electrons

Know the difference between positive feedback and negative feedback. Be prepared to be given examples of the two.

· Positive Feedback- intensifies a change in the body's physical condition rather than reversing it. (Childbirth) · Negative Feedback- a self-regulatory system in which it feeds back to the input a part of a system's output to reverse the direction of change of the output. (Blood Glucose)

Know potential versus kinetic energy. Explore ATP. What type of bonds exist? Do they contain kinetic or potential energy?

· Potential- stored energy that is later released · Kinetic- active energy that is being used · ATP- It allows the cell to store energy briefly and transport it within the cell to support endergonic chemical reactions. · Bonds- Chemical energy, the energy stored in chemical bonds, is thus considered a form of potential energy

Know the difference between cilia, microvilli, and flagella. Know some examples where they may be found in the body.

· Primary cilia - are found on most animal cells. They are used not for motion but for chemical sensing on the cell's surface. (Epithelial Tissue) · Flagella - are whip-like appendages that protrude from the cell membrane. (Back of Single-Celled Organism or Cell) · Microvilli - are different, however, in that they are shorter in length and more tightly packed on the surface of cells. (Intestinal Mucosa)

Know the difference between primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary proteins.

· Primary- the sequence of amino acids that make up the polypeptide chain. · Secondary- hydrogen bonds between amino acids in different regions of the original polypeptide strand. · Tertiary- further holding and bonding of the secondary structure. · Quaternary- result of interactions between two or more tertiary subunits.

What physiological factors have a significant impact of the structure of proteins? What effect do they have on the structure of proteins? What do we call this term?

· Processes of life and perform functions in every system of the human body. · Protein structure depends on its amino acid sequence and local, low-energy chemical bonds between atoms in both the polypeptide backbone and in amino acid side chains. Protein structure plays a key role in its function; if a protein loses its shape at any structural level, it may no longer be functional.

Know the difference between products and reactants. What are some examples? I'd go through cellular respiration and assign the terms. What would glucose be considered in glycolysis? What about pyruvate? CO2? FADH? Etc...

· Products - a substance that is present at the end of a chemical reaction. · Reactants - a substance that is present at the start of a chemical reaction. · Example- Hydrogen (H2) and Fluorine (F2) à Hydrogen Fluorine (HF)

What occurs during each phase of mitosis? Does the nuclear envelope remain intact during mitosis? At which phase do chromosomes align at the center of the cell?

· Prophase - loosely packed chromatin coils and condenses into visible chromosomes. During prophase, each chromosome becomes visible with its identical partner attached, forming the familiar X-shape of sister chromatids. The nucleolus disappears early during this phase, and the nuclear envelope also disintegrates. · Prometaphase - the process that separates the duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells. During prometaphase, the physical barrier that encloses the nucleus, called the nuclear envelope, breaks down. · Metaphase - - the sister chromatids, with their attached microtubules, line up along a linear plane in the middle of the cell. A metaphase plate forms between the centrosomes that are now located at either end of the cell. The metaphase plate is the name for the plane through the center of the spindle on which the sister chromatids are positioned. The microtubules are now poised to pull apart the sister chromatids and bring one from each pair to each side of the cell. · Anaphase - Anaphase takes place over a few minutes, when the pairs of sister chromatids are separated from one another, forming individual chromosomes once again. These chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends of the cell by their kinetochores, as the microtubules shorten. Each end of the cell receives one partner from each pair of sister chromatids, ensuring that the two new daughter cells will contain identical genetic material · Telophase - Telophase is characterized by the formation of two new daughter nuclei at either end of the dividing cell. These newly formed nuclei surround the genetic material, which uncoils such that the chromosomes return to loosely packed chromatin. Nucleoli also reappear within the new nuclei, and the mitotic spindle breaks apart, each new cell receiving its own complement of DNA, organelles, membranes, and centrioles. At this point, the cell is already beginning to split in half as cytokinesis begins.

Know what occurs during mitosis: PMAT

· Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase. · In prophase, the nucleolus disappears and chromosomes condense and become visible. ... In anaphase, sister chromatids (now called chromosomes) are pulled toward opposite poles. In telophase, chromosomes arrive at opposite poles, and nuclear envelope material surrounds each set of chromosomes.

What is receptor mediated endocytosis?

· Receptor-mediated endocytosis - is a targeted version of endocytosis where receptor proteins in the plasma membrane ensure only specific, targeted substances are brought into the cell.

Know the non-membrane bound organelles of the cell.

· Ribosomes, Cell Wall, and Cytoskeleton

Know somatic versus germ cell derived gametes.

· Somatic cells - contain two full sets of chromosomes (making them diploid cells). · Gametes - are involved directly in the reproductive cycle and are most often haploid cells, meaning they only have one set of chromosomes.

Know the levels of structural organization of the human body.

· Subatomic Particles - Protons, Neutrons, Electrons · Atoms - Calcium, Iron, Argon · Molecules - CaO, NaCl, O · Organelles - ER, Lysosome, Golgi Apparatus · Cells - Skin Cells or Blood Cells · Tissues - Connective, Epithelial, Nervous, Muscular · Organs - Heart, Lungs, Liver, Eyes · Organ System - Digestive, Cardiovascular · Organisms - Dog, Person, or Bacteria

What does a nucleotide consist of?

· Sugar molecule (DNA or RNA) attached to a phosphate group and a nitrogen- containing base.

Know symport versus antiport

· Symport- move two or more substances in the same direction at the same time · Antiport- move two or more substances in opposite directions across the cell membrane

Differentiate between sister chromatid and homologous chromosomes.

· The homologous chromosomes are similar in size, shape, and centromere location. The type of genetic information they carry is also similar. · Sister chromatids are identical.

Know the difference between microtubules and microfilaments.

· The main difference between microtubules and microfilaments is in their structure and function. · Microtubules have a long, hollow cylindrical structure. They are formed by the polymerization of tubulin proteins. · Microfilaments are helical structures, more strong and flexible compared to microtubules.

What is a phagosome? What does it fuse with?

· The phagosome fuses with lysosomes to form a phagolysosome, which has various bactericidal properties. The phagolysosome contains reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS) and hydrolytic enzymes.

Why are phospholipids considered amphipathic?

· They have a hydrophilic, polar phosphate head, and two hydrophobic fatty acid tails.

What kind of DNA does the mitochondria contain? How is it different than the DNA of the nucleus?

· This DNA is small and circular. It has only 16,500 or so base pairs in it. · This genetic material is known as mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA. ... Mitochondrial DNA contains 37 genes, all of which are essential for normal mitochondrial function.

Know totipotent versus pluripotent/multipotent stem cells.

· Totipotent cell can give rise to both the placenta and the embryo. · Multipotent stem cells have the ability to develop specific types of cells (terminally differentiated cells).

Can the body synthesize vitamins?

· Yes to an extent.

What is the octet rule?

· an atom will give up, gain, or share electrons with another atom so that it ends up with eight electrons in its own valence shell.

-Know the three types of RNA.

· messenger RNA (mRNA) - protein production · transfer RNA (tRNA) - helps decode a messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence into a protein · ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - molecule in cells that forms part of the protein-synthesizing organelle known as a ribosome and that is exported to the cytoplasm to help translate the information in messenger RNA (mRNA) into protein.

What role does oxygen play in oxidative phosphorylation?

· oxygen must be present to receive electrons from the protein complexes. This allows for more electrons and high energy molecules to be passed along, and maintains the hydrogen pumping that produces ATP.

What are cyclin-dependent kinases?

· regulating transcription, mRNA processing, and the differentiation of nerve cells.