Exam 1 life span development
What are the three key developmental processes?
1. Biological processes
What are the three key developmental processes?
1. Biological processes 2. Cognitive processes 3. Socioemotional processes
How is age related to development?
1. Chronological age
How is age related to development?
1. Chronological age 2. Biological age 3. Psychological age 4. Social age
What research designs are used to study human development?
1. Descriptive Research
What research designs are used to study human development?
1. Descriptive Research 2. Correlational Research 3. Experimental Research
What are the eight main characteristics of the life-span perspective?
1. Development is lifelong
What are the eight main characteristics of the life-span perspective?
1. Development is lifelong 2. Development is multidimensional 3. Development is multidirectional 4. Development is plastic 5. Developmental science is multidisciplinary 6. Development is contextual 7. Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss 8. Development is a co-construction of biology, culture, and the individual.
What are some contemporary concerns in life-span development?
1. Health and well-being
What are some contemporary concerns in life-span development?
1. Health and well-being 2. Parenting and education 3. Sociocultural contexts and diversity 4. Social Policy
Why is the study of life-span development important?
1. Helps prepare us to take responsibility for children.
Why is the study of life-span development important?
1. Helps prepare us to take responsibility for children. 2.Gives us insight about our own lives. 3. Gives us knowledge about what our lives will be like as we age.
What are the three main developmental issues?
1. Nature and nurture
What are the three main developmental issues?
1. Nature and nurture 2. Stability and change 3. Continuity and discontinuity
What are three sources of contextual characteristics?
1. Normative age
What are three sources of contextual characteristics?
1. Normative age 2. Normative history 3. Normative life events
What methods do researchers use to collect data on life-span development?
1. Observation
What methods do researchers use to collect data on life-span development?
1. Observation 2. Surveys and Interviews 3. Standardized Tests 4. Case Studies 5. Physiological Measures
What are three main cognitive theories?
1. Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory
What are three main cognitive theories?
1. Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory 2. Vygotsky's Sociocultural Cognitive Theory 3. The Information-Processing Theory
What are eight main developmental periods?
1. Prenatal period is the time from conception to birth
What are eight main developmental periods?
1. Prenatal period is the time from conception to birth 2. Infancy is the developmental period extending from birth to 18 or 24 months 3. Early childhood (preschool) extends from the end of infancy to about 5 or 6 years 4. Middle and late childhood (elementary school) extends from about 6-11 years 5. Adolescence is the developmental period of transition from childhood to early adulthood, entered at approx 10-12 years and ending at 18-22 6. Emerging adulthood lasts from approx 18-25 7. Early adulthood begins in late teens or early twenties and lasts through 30s 8. Middle adulthood begins at approx 40-60 9. Late adulthood 60s or 70s to death
What are three main behavioral and social cognitive theories, and how can they be characterized?
1. Skinner's Operant Conditioning
What are three main behavioral and social cognitive theories, and how can they be characterized?
1. Skinner's Operant Conditioning 2. Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory 3. Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories Behaviorist theories state that development is observable behavior that can be learned through experience with the environment.
gaze following
10 month to 11 month
memory span
6 years old=young adult
Perceptual Categorization
7 mos. • Categorization increases in second year; infants differentiate more
evolutionary psychology
A branch of psychology that emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and "survival of the fittest" in shaping behavior.
doula
A caregiver who provides continuous physical, emotional, and educational support for the mother before, during, and after childbirth.
Turner syndrome
A chromosomal disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or part of one X chromosome is deleted.
Klinefelter syndrome
A chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra X chromosome, making them XXY instead of XY.
XYY syndrome
A chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra Y chromosome.
fragile X syndrome
A chromosomal disorder involving an abnormality in the X chromosome, which becomes constricted and often breaks.
Down syndrome
A chromosomally transmitted form of mental retardation, caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21.
Parkinson disease
A chronic, progressive disease characterized by muscle tremors, slowing of movement, and partial facial paralysis.
fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)
A cluster of abnormalities that may appear in the off spring of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy.
DNA
A complex molecule that has a double helix shape and contains genetic information.
laboratory
A controlled setting in which many of the complex factors of the "real world" are removed.
osteoporosis
A disorder that involves an extensive loss of bone tissue and is the main reason many older adults walk with a marked stoop. Women are especially vulnerable to osteoporosis.
animism
A facet of preoperational thought—the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action.
phenylketonuria (PKU)
A genetic disorder in which an individual cannot properly metabolize phenylalanine, an amino acid; PKU is now easily detected—but, if left untreated, results in mental retardation and hyperactivity.
sickle-cell anemia
A genetic disorder that affects the red blood cells and occurs most often in African Americans.
menarche
A girl's first menstrual period.
dementia
A global term for any neurological disorder in which the primary symptom is deterioration of mental functioning.
social policy
A government's course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens.
testosterone
A hormone associated in boys with the development of the genitals, increased height, and voice changes.
estradiol
A hormone associated in girls with breast, uterine, and skeletal development.
What characterizes research journals?
A journal publishes scholarly and academic information. Most journal articles are reports of original research.
corpus callosum
A large bundle of axon fibers that connects the brain's left and right hemispheres.
postpartum depression
A major depressive episode that typically occurs about four weeks after delivery; women with this condition have such strong feelings of sadness, anxiety, or despair that they have trouble coping with daily tasks during the postpartum period.
equilibration
A mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next.
visual preference method
A method developed by Fantz to determine whether infants can distinguish one stimulus from another by measuring the length of time they attend to diff erent stimuli.
free-radical theory
A microbiological theory of aging stating that people age because when their cells metabolize energy, they generate waste that includes unstable oxygen molecules, known as free radicals, that damage DNA and other structures.
rooting reflex
A newborn's built-in reaction that occurs when the infant's cheek is stroked or the side of the mouth is touched. In response, the infant turns its head toward the side that was touched, in an apparent eff ort to find something to suck.
sucking reflex
A newborn's reaction of sucking an object placed in its mouth. The sucking reflex enables the infant to get nourishment before it has associated a nipple with food.
correlation coefficient
A number based on statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables.
amygdala
A part of the brain's limbic system that is the seat of emotions such as anger.
puberty
A period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes during early adolescence.
Alzheimer disease
A progressive, irreversible brain disorder characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and eventually, physical function.
grasping reflex
A reflex that occurs when something touches an infant's palms. The infant responds by grasping tightly.
cross-sectional approach
A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at one time.
longitudinal approach
A research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more.
zygote
A single cell formed through fertilization.
Vygotsky's theory
A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development.
meiosis
A specialized form of cell division that occurs to form eggs and sperm (or gametes).
fertilization
A stage in reproduction whereby an egg and a sperm fuse to create a single cell, called a zygote.
Moro reflex
A startle response that occurs in reaction to a sudden, intense noise or movement. When startled, the newborn arches its back, throws its head back, and flings out its arms and legs. Then the newborn rapidly closes its arms and legs to the center of the body.
hypothalamus
A structure in the brain that is involved with eating and sexual behavior.
adoption study
A study in which investigators seek to discover whether, in behavior and psychological characteristics, adopted children are more like their adoptive parents, who provided a home environment, or more like their biological parents, who contributed their heredity. Another form of the adoption study compares adoptive and biological siblings.
twin study
A study in which the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins.
standardized test
A test with uniform procedures for administration and scoring. Many standardized tests allow a person's performance to be compared with the performance of other individuals.
dynamic systems theory
A theory proposed by Esther Thelen that seeks to explain how infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting.
cataracts
A thickening of the lens of the eye that causes vision to become cloudy, opaque, and distorted.
descriptive research
A type of research that aims to observe and record behavior.
correlational research
A type of research that strives to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characterists.
macular degeneration
A vision problem in the elderly that involves deterioration of the macula of the retina.
kangaroo care
A way of holding a preterm infant so that there is skin-to-skin contact.
Apgar Scale
A widely used method to assess the health of newborns at one and five minutes after birth; it evaluates an infant's heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, body color, and reflex irritability.
Automaticity
Ability to process information with little or no effort
Source Memory
Ability to remember where something is learned
genotype
All of a person's actual genetic material.
A-not-B error
Also called A−B error; this occurs when infants make the mistake of selecting the familiar hiding place (A) rather than the new hiding place (B) as they progress into substage 4 in Piaget's sensorimotor stage.
bulimia nervosa
An eating disorder in which the individual consistently follows a binge-and-purge eating pattern.
anorexia nervosa
An eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation.
What is an eclectic theoretical orientation?
An eclectic theoretical orientation does not follow any one theoretical approach but rather selects and uses from each theory whatever is considered the best in it.
social constructivist approach
An emphasis on the social contexts of learning and construction of knowledge through social interaction. Vygotsky's theory reflects this approach.
pituitary gland
An important endocrine gland that controls growth and regulates the activity of other glands.
case study
An in-depth look at a single individual.
eclectic theoretical orientation
An orientation that does not follow any one theoretical approach, but rather selects from each theory whatever is considered the best in it.
Meta-linguistic Awareness - Middle Childhood
An understanding of one's own use of language. Explicit understanding of rules governing language. Helps children achieve comprehension by asking for clarification.
teratogen
Any agent that can potentially cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral outcomes.
First Sentences - Timing
Around 18 months, vocab explosion coupled with words being linked together to form sentences.
Key aspects of infant cognitive development
Attention, memory, imitation, concepts
Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory
Bronfenbrenner's environmental systems theory that focuses on five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
Differentiation
By six months, babbling is distinct to language infant is exposed to
experiment
Carefully regulated procedure in which one or more factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant.
mitosis
Cellular reproduction in which the cell's nucleus duplicates itself; two new cells are formed, each containing the same DNA as the original cell, arranged in the same 23 pairs of chromosomes.
socioeconomic status (SES)
Classification of a person's position in society based on occupational, educational, and economic characteristics.
Metacognition
Cognition about cognition, or "knowing about knowing" "thinking about thinking" self modification: learn to apply what they have learned in previous circumstances to adapt their responses to a new situation.
The Interactionist Perspective
Combination f experience and genetic predispositions
Prelinguistic Communication
Communication through sounds, facial expressions, gestures, imitation (chomeleon effect), and other nonlinguistic means.
cross-cultural studies
Comparison of one culture with one or more other cultures. These provide information about the degree to which development is similar, or universal, across cultures, and to the degree to which it is culture-specific.
General Rule
Comprehension precedes production. (ie: kids understand before they speak)
Divided Attention
Concentrating on more than one activity at a time
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
Condition that occurs when an infant stops breathing, usually during the night, and suddenly dies without an apparent cause.
What are some contributions and criticisms of the ecological theory?
Contributions
What are some contributions and criticisms of the ethological theory?
Contributions
What are some contributions and criticisms of the psychoanalytic theories?
Contributions
What are the contributions and criticisms of the behavioral and social cognitive theories?
Contributions
What are the contributions and criticisms of the cognitive theories?
Contributions
What are some contributions and criticisms of the psychoanalytic theories?
Contributions - developmental framework - family relationships - Unconscious mind Criticisms - Lack of scientific support -sexual underpinnings are given too much importance (freud) - These theories present a negative image of humans (especially freud)
What are some contributions and criticisms of the ecological theory?
Contributions • A systematic examination of macro and micro dimensions of environmental systems. • Attention to connections between environmental settings (mesosystem). Criticisms • Even with added discussion of biological influences in recent years, there is still too little attention to biological foundations of development. • Inadequate attention to cognitive processes.
What are some contributions and criticisms of the ethological theory?
Contributions • It provides an increased focus on the biological and evolutionary basis of development. • Ethological theory promotes the use of careful observations in naturalistic settings. Criticisms • The critical and sensitive period concepts may be too rigid. • The emphasis on biological foundations is too strong.
What are the contributions and criticisms of the cognitive theories?
Contributions • These theories offer a positive view of development. • There is an emphasis on the active construction of knowledge and understanding. Criticisms • Skepticism exists about the timing and manner of development according to Piaget's stages. • Little attention is given to individual variations in cognitive development.
What are the contributions and criticisms of the behavioral and social cognitive theories?
Contributions • They provide an emphasis on the importance of scientific research. • They focus on the environmental determinants of behavior. Criticisms • Skinner's theory allows for too little emphasis on cognition. • There is inadequate attention to developmental changes.
active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations
Correlations that exist when children seek out environments they find compatible and stimulating.
passive genotype-environment correlations
Correlations that exist when the biological parents, who are genetically related to the child, provide a rearing environment for the child.
evocative genotype-environment correlations
Correlations that exist when the child's characteristics elicit certain types of environments.
glaucoma
Damage to the optic nerve because of the pressure created by a buildup of fluid in the eye.
nature-nuture issue
Debate about whether devlopement is primilary influenced by nature or nurture. Nature refers to to an organism's biological inhertiance, nuture to its environmental experiences.
stability-change issue
Debate as to whether and to what degree we become older renditions of our early experience (stability) or whether we develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in development (change).
continuity-discontinuity issue
Debate that focuses on the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).
habituation
Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations of the stimulus.
prepared childbirth
Developed by French obstetrician Ferdinand Lamaze, a childbirth strategy similar to natural childbirth but one that teaches a special breathing technique to control pushing in the final stages of labor and provides details about anatomy and physiology.
What is meant by the concept of development?
Development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span.
How is research conducted on the time span of people's lives?
Developmentalists study the relation of age to other variables using three research strategies:
How is research conducted on the time span of people's lives?
Developmentalists study the relation of age to other variables using three research strategies: 1. Cross-Sectional Approach 2. Longitudinal Approach 3. Cohort Effects
neo-Piagetians
Developmentalists who have elaborated on Piaget's theory, emphasizing attention to children's strategies; information processing speed; the task involved; and division of the problem into more precise, smaller steps.
orienting/investigative process
Directs attention to locations ('where') • Recognize objects and their features ('what') • Attention gains flexibility and speed - Sustained (focused) attention increases 3 month-9 month
chronic disorders
Disorders characterized by slow onset and long duration.
What characterizes ecological theory?
Ecological theories emphasize the impact of environmental contexts on development.
What characterizes ecological theory?
Ecological theories emphasize the impact of environmental contexts on development. Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory consists of five interacting environmental systems (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem).
cohort effect
Effects due to a person's time of birth, era, or generation but not to actual age.
What is Erikson's psychoanalytic theory?
Eight psychosocial stages of development which unfold throughout the life span. Each stage represents a crisis must be resolved for healthy development to occur.
What is Erikson's psychoanalytic theory?
Eight psychosocial stages of development which unfold throughout the life span. Each stage represents a crisis must be resolved for healthy development to occur. - Trust v Mistrust - Autonomy v Shame and Doubt - Initiative v Guilt - Industry v Inferiority - Identity v Identity confusion - Intimacy v Isolation - Generativity v Stagnation - Integrity v Despair
Elaboration
Engaging in more extensive processing of information; Thinking of examples, self-referencing; win-bicycle race
What is the nature of the ethological theory?
Ethologists stress the timing of certain influences and the powerful roles that evolution and biological foundations play in development.
Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence
Focuses on the infants ability to process information in such ways as encoding the attributes of objects detecting similarities and differences between objects, forming mental representations and retrieving
Selective Attention
Focusing on specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring irrevelent ones, 4 month
Rapid Bloom - Preschool Years
From late 2's to mid 3's, sentence length increases, and syntax becomes more complex.
Support
Gene related to speech production. Language processing in infants uses same brain structures used by adults.
First Words - Timing
Generally 10-14 months
Affluence and Poverty
Greater affluence, the more they speak to child. Professionals spend almost twice the amount of time interacting with children as do poor. Affluent children exposed to far greater number of words. Effects: Being exposed to a greater number and variety of words linked to measures of childhood intellectual achievement.
Categorie
Grouping based on characteristics
gonadotropins
Hormones that stimulate the testes or ovaries.
Processes of memory
How information is encoded, retained, and stored in memory
schemes
In Piaget's theory, actions or mental representations that organize knowledge.
First Words - Language "Explosion"
In a few weeks between 16 and 24 months, vocab increases from an average 50 words to 400 words.
scaffolding
In cognitive development, a term Vygotsky used to describe the changing level of support over the course of a teaching session, with the more-skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the child's current performance level.
Joint Attention
Individuals focus on same object or event and requires - Ability to track another's behavior - One person directing another's attention - Reciprocal interaction
preterm infants
Infants born three weeks or more before the pregnancy has reached its full term.
low birth weight infants
Infants that weigh less than 5½ pounds at birth.
small for date infants
Infants whose birth weights are below normal when the length of pregnancy is considered; also called small for gestational age infants. Small for date infants may be preterm or full-term.
normative history-graded influences
Influences that are common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances.
normative age-graded influences
Influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group.
Knowledge
Influences what people notice and how they organize, represent, interpret information: ex) chess
Language Acquisition Device
Innate wiring in the brain for gaining language abilities.
binge eating disorder (BED)
Involves frequent binge eating, but without compensatory behavior like purging that characterizes bulimics.
Working Memory
Kind of mental workbench for manipulating and assembling information • Make decisions, solve problems • Comprehend written and spoken language
Metacognition
Knowledge about when and where to use particular strategies
Linguistic-Relativity Hypothesis
Languages shapes the way we perceive and understand the worlds. Other view: the way we see and understand language shape the world
Universal Grammar
Languages share underlying structure, universal.
Telegraphic Speech - Linguistic Inaccuracies
Leaving out words that aren't critical to the message. I put on my shoes - My shoes on.
cellular clock theory
Leonard Hayflick's theory that the number of times human cells can divide is about 75 to 80. As we age, our cells are less able to divide.
Sustained Attention
Maintain focus on selected stimulus over prolonged period; called vigilance
Babbling
Making speechlike but meaningless sounds 2 months-1 year.
Thinking
Manipulating, transforming information in memory, in order to reason, reflect, think critically, evaluate ideas and solve problems and make decisions.
Norms
Meaningful comparisons
Schema
Mental frameworks that organize concepts and information; affects encoding and retrieval
natural childbirth
Method attempting to reduce the mother's pain by decreasing her fear through education about childbirth stages and relaxation techniques during delivery.
What are the first 3 Scales of Infant Development that are administered to the infant
Moter, Language, and Cognitive Development
fine motor skills
Motor skills that involve finely tuned movements, such as any activity that requires finger dexterity.
gross motor skills
Motor skills that involve large muscle activities, such as walking.
neurons
Nerve cells that handle information processing at the cellular level.
Fast Mapping - Preschool Years
New words are associated with meaning after only a brief encounter
Nativist Approach
Noam Chomsky, there is an innate mechanism that directs language development.
phenotype
Observable and measurable characteristics of an individual, such as height, hair color, and intelligence.
naturalistic observation
Observing behavior in real-world settings.
Infantile Amnesia
One cause: immature prefrontal lobe • Adults recall little or none of first three years
First Words - Holophrases
One word utterances that stand for whole phrases. Mom-could mean pick me up, Mom.
affordances
Opportunities for interaction offered by objects that fit within our capabilities to perform activities.
epigenetic view
Perspective that emphasizes that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment.
hypothetical-deductive reasoning
Piaget's formal operational concept that adolescents have the cognitive ability to develop hypotheses about ways to solve problems and can systematically deduce which is the best path to follow in solving the problem.
assimilation
Piagetian concept in which children use existing schemes to incorporate new information.
accommodation
Piagetian concept of adjusting schemes to fit new information and experiences.
organization
Piagetian concept of grouping isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order, more smoothly functioning cognitive system.
Infant Directed Speech
Pitch of voice rises, intonation takes on musical quality, separate words carefully, short and simple sentences. Effects: Infants exposed to a great deal of this speech master language milestones earlier.
hormones
Powerful chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands and carried through the body by the bloodstream.
Fuzzy Trace Theory:Verbatim memory trace
Precis Details
organogenesis
Process of organ formation that takes place during the first two months of prenatal development.
socioemotional processes
Processes that involve changes in an individual's relationships with other people, emotions, and personality.
cognitive processes
Processes that involve changes in an individual's thought, intelligence, and language.
biological processes
Processes that produce changes in an individual's physical nature.
Pros and Cons of Intelligence Testing
Pros: Standardized 2. Predict school achievement 3. Help identify youngsters far ahead and behind the average student. Cons: Underestimate intelligence for children whose behaviors may lower test scores 2. Timed test assume certain speed levels
sensation
Reaction that occurs when information interacts with sensory receptors—the eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, and skin.
shape constancy
Recognition that an object remains the same even though its orientation to us changes.
size constancy
Recognition that an object remains the same even though the retinal image of the object changes as you move toward or away from the object.
Pragmatics - Preschool Years
Refers to communicating effectively with others. Turn-taking, sticking to topic, and what should or should not be said.
Learning Theory Approach
Reinforcement (rewards) and conditioning -Not good on it's own.
Long-Term Memory
Relatively permanent, unlimited type of memory
Prospective Memory
Remembering to do something in the future
Storage
Retaining information over time
Short Term Memory
Retains information up to 15 to 30 seconds without rehearsal (span is very limited)
operations
Reversible mental actions that allow children to do mentally what before they had done only physically.
shared environmental experiences
Siblings' common experiences, such as their parents' personalities or intellectual orientation, the family's socioeconomic status, and the neighborhood in which they live.
What are the later two Scales of Infant Development that are later given to the caregiver
Socio-emotional and Adaptive
lateralization
Specialization of function in one hemisphere or the other of the cerebral cortex.
hypotheses
Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy.
Social Speech - Preschool Years
Speech directed towards another person
Private Speech - Preschool Years
Spoken language that is not intended for others, kids think out loud.
core knowledge approach
States that infants are born with domain-specific innate knowledge systems. Among these domain-specific knowledge systems are those involving space, number sense, object permanence, and language.
aerobic exercise
Sustained activity that stimulates heart and lung functioning.
Language
Systematic, meaningful arrangements of symbols used to communicate.
Retrieval
Taking information out of storage
imaginary audience
That aspect of adolescent egocentrism that involves feeling one is the center of attention and sensing that one is on stage.
Phonology
The Basic sounds of language that can be combined to produce words and sentences.
object permanence
The Piagetian term for one of an infant's most important accomplishments: understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched.
intermodal perception
The ability to integrate information about two or more sensory modalities, such as vision and hearing.
transitivity
The ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions. Piaget argued that an understanding of transitivity is characteristic of concrete operational thought.
conservation
The awareness that altering the appearance of an object or a substance does not change its basic properties.
culture
The behavior, patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group of people that are passed on from generation to generation.
gender
The characteristics of people as males or females.
nonshared environmental experiences
The child's own unique experiences, both within the family and outside the family, that are not shared by another sibling; thus, experiences occurring within the family can be part of the "nonshared environment."
seriation
The concrete operation that involves ordering stimuli along a quantitative dimension (such as length).
accommodation of the eye
The eye's ability to focus and maintain an image on the retina.
behavior genetics
The field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual diff erences in human traits and development.
sensorimotor stage
The first of Piaget's stages, which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age, during which infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions.
symbolic function substage
The first substage of preoperational thought, occurring roughly between the ages of 2 and 4. In this substage, the young child gains the ability to represent mentally an object that is not present.
centration
The focusing of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others.
bonding
The formation of a close connection, especially a physical bond between parents and their newborn in the period shortly after birth.
formal operational stage
The fourth and final Piagetian stage, which appears between the ages of 11 and 15; individuals move beyond concrete experiences and think in more abstract and logical ways.
neurogenesis
The generation of new neurons.
adolescent egocentrism
The heightened selfconsciousness of adolescents, which is reflected in adolescents' beliefs that others are as interested in them as they are in themselves, and in adolescents' sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility.
prefrontal cortex
The highest level of the frontal lobes that is involved in reasoning, decision making, and self-control.
egocentrism
The inability to distinguish between one's own and someone else's perspective; an important feature of preoperational thought.
gene 3 environment (g 3 e) interaction
The interaction of a specific measured variation in the DNA and a specific measured aspect of the environment.
perception
The interpretation of sensation.
theory
The interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain phenomena and make predictions.
climacteric
The midlife transition during which fertility declines.
personal fable
The part of adolescent egocentrism that involves an adolescent's sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility.
development
The pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span.
postpartum period
The period after childbirth when the mother adjusts, both physically and psychologically, to the process of childbirth. This period lasts for about six weeks or until her body has completed its adjustment and returned to a near prepregnant state.
embryonic period
The period of prenatal development that occurs from two to eight weeks after conception. During the embryonic period, the rate of cell diff erentiation intensifies, support systems for the cells form, and organs appear.
germinal period
The period of prenatal development that takes place during the first two weeks after conception; it includes the creation of the zygote, continued cell division, and the attachment of the zygote to the wall of the uterus.
life-span perspective
The perspective that development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual; involves growth, maintenance, and regulation; and is constructed through biological, sociocultural, and individual factors working together.
Heritability
The portion of the variance in a population that is attributed to genes.
fetal period
The prenatal period of development that begins two months after conception and lasts for seven months, on average.
Encoding
The process by which information gets into memory; depend on increased skill at encoding relevant information and ignoring irrelevant information
myelination
The process of encasing axons with a myelin sheath, which helps increase the speed and efficiency of information processing.
dishabituation
The recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation.
Pragmatics - Middle Childhood
The rules governing the use of language in a social context.
Semantics
The rules that govern the meaning of words and sentences.
preoperational stage
The second Piagetian developmental stage, which lasts from about 2 to 7 years of age; children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings.
intuitive thought substage
The second substage of preoperational thought, occurring between approximately 4 and 7 years of age. Children begin to use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions.
proximodistal pattern
The sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities.
cephalocaudal pattern
The sequence in which the fastest growth occurs at the top of the body—the head—with physical growth in size, weight, and feature diff erentiation gradually working from top to bottom.
gonads
The sex glands, which are the testes in males and the ovaries in females.
Morphemes
The smallest language unit that has meaning. --s for plural or --ed for the past tense
Crammer - Preschool Years
The system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed
hormonal stress theory
The theory that aging in the body's hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease.
mitochondrial theory
The theory that aging is caused by the decay of the mitochondria, which are tiny cellular bodies that supply energy for cell function, growth, and repair.
concrete operational stage
The third Piagetian stage, which lasts from approximately 7 to 11 years of age; children can perform concrete operations, and logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning as long as the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples.
menopause
The time in middle age, usually in the late forties or early fifties, when a woman's menstrual periods cease.
life span
The upper boundary of life, which is the maximum number of years an individual can live. The maximum life span of humans is about 120 years of age.
Middle Childhood Speech
The use of passive voice and conditional sentences increases. Understanding of syntax grows (ex: Give me lollipop, I will stop biting.)
ecological view
The view proposed by the Gibsons that people directly perceive information in the world around them. Perception brings people in contact with the environment in order to interact with it and adapt to it.
What is Freud's psychoanalytic theory?
The way we resolve crises at the five stages of psychosexual development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genitals) determines our adult personality.
Syntax - Preschool Years
The ways words and phrases are combined to create sentences
social cognitive theory
Theoretical view that behavior, environment, and cognition are the key factors in development.
psychoanalytic theories
Theories that describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior. Early experiences with parents are emphasized.
information-processing theory
Theory emphasizing that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Central to this theory are the processes of memory and thinking.
Piaget's theory
Theory stating that children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development.
ethology
Theory stressing that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods.
Erikson's theory
Theory that proposes eight stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved.
How can theory and hypotheses be defined?
Theory- interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps explain and make predictions.
How can theory and hypotheses be defined?
Theory- interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps explain and make predictions. Hypotheses - specific predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy.
postformal thought
Thinking that is reflective, relativistic, and contextual; provisional; realistic; and influenced by emotions.
Other Possibilities - Language and Thought
Thought might shape language -Language and thought are intertwined and influence one another.
chromosomes
Threadlike structures made up of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA.
Fuzzy Trace Theory
Two types of memory representations:Charles Brainerd and Valerie Reyna
genes
Units of hereditary information composed of DNA. Genes direct cells to reproduce themselves and assemble proteins that direct body processes.
nonnormative life events
Unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the individual's life.
ethnic gloss
Use of an ethnic label such as African American or Latino in a superficial way that portrays an ethnic group as being more homogeneous than it really is.
Under-extension - Linguistic Inaccuracies
Using words too restictively, thinking that occurs to a specific instance of a concept rather than al examples. They don't get that there are other meanings that refers to all blankets.
zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Vygotsky's term for tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but can be mastered with guidance and assistance from adults or more skilled children.
WAIS-IV
Wechsler Adult Intelligence scale is a test designed to measure intelligence in adults and older adolescents
Over-extension - Linguistic Inaccuracies
Words used too broadly, overgeneralizing their meaning. Doggy - all furry animals.
ethnicity
a characteristic based on cultural heritage, nationality characteristics, race, religion, and language.
Eyewitness testimony
age different, individual differences in susceptibiltiy, interviewing technique
Crystallized intelligence
an individuals accumulated information and verbal skills which continues to increase with age
Mental Age
an individuals level of mental development relative to that of others
Imagery
another strategy for improving memory. creating mental images. for verbal information works better for older children.
Achievement Test
assess past learning
cognitive flexibility
aware that options and alternatives are available and adapting to the situation: self efficacy is important
Developmental changes: Ages 2 to 3
awareness of emotions, perceptions, and desires
tip of the tougue(TOT) phenomenon
cannot retrieve familiar information but have the feeling that they should be able to retrieve it.
Fuzzy Trace Theory:Gist
central idea of information(used more)
Concept
cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas
Executive Attention
cognitive process involving planning actions, allocating attention to goals, deteting and compensation for errors and compensation, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances
Explicit Memory
conscious memory of facts and experiences; appears after 6 months
Adulthood Long-term:Explicit
conscious/declarative memory
Reliability
consistent results
Sternbergs Triarchic Theory
consists of analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence.
Strategy construction
creating new procedure for processing information
dual process model
decision making is influenced by two cognitive systems-one analytical and one experiential. They compete with each other.
sematic
decline in the sixten.
Habituation
decreased responsiveness to stimulus after repeated presentations
Developmental changes: Age 7
deepening appreciation of the mind itself
Bayley Scales of Infant Development
developed by psychologist used primarily to assess the motor, language, cognitive development and socio-emotional and adaptive
preschool children
do not use strategies such as rehearsal and organization to remember.
implicit memory
drive a car, swing a golf club(Procedural memory. automatically)
Organizing
elaborating on the information to be rememberred, make it relevant,
Robert Siegler
emphasizes that mechanisms of change
Wisdom
expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgement about important matters
Skinner's behavioral view
external rewards and punishment determine behavior, not thoughts
Spearman's two factor theory
factor analysis, general intelligence, intellectual abilities.
attention
focusing of mental resources
Giftedness
having about average intelligence and or superior talent for something
expertise
having extensive, highly organized knowledge and understanding of a particular domain.
education, work, health
important the cognitive functioning of older adults.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
individuals mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100
Functional Fixedness
is a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.
WISC-IV
is a group of test that is designed for test the IQ of school age children
Rigidity
is a quality found in people and objects that don't bend though they might eventually break
Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences
is a theory of intelligence that differentiates it not specific modalities, rather than seeing intelligence as dominated by a single general ability.
adulthood implicit memory
is less likely to be affected by aging.is less likely to be affected by aging than explicit memory
componential analysis
is the analysis of words through structured sets of semantic features, which are give as present, absent or indifferent with reference to feature.
Metamemory
knowledge about memory
Developmental changes Age: 5
learn realization of false beliefs
Mental Retardation
limited mental ability, low IQ, difficult adapting to everyday life
executive function
managing one's thoughts to engage in goal-directed behavior and to exercise self-control. child's success in school.
everyday knowledge
meaning of words, famous individuals, important places, common things
Aptitude Tests
measures general intelligence ones capacity to learn
Implicit Memory
memory without conscious recollection; skills and routine done automatically 2 1/2 month
Developmental changes:Middle and Late Childhood
mind seen as active constructor of knowledge
microgenetic method
obtain detailed information about processing mechanisms. have been used to discover how children learn a particular issue in science or a key aspect of learning to read.+-
Adulthood Long-term:Explicit Semantic memory
one's knowledge about world including field of expertise, geometry, chess
Developmental changes:Adolescence
realize ambivalent feelings exist
schema theory
reconstruct the past rather than take an exact photograph of it, and the mind can distort an event as it encodes and stores impressions of it.
Dishabituation
recovery of a habituated response after change in stimulation
Rehearsal
repetition: work better for short-term
Adulthood Long-term:Episodic Memory
retention of information about the where and when of events autobiograhical memories, reminiscence bump
Memory
retention of information over time
Adulthood Long-term:Explicit Implicit memory
routine skills and procedures performed automatically (unconscious memory)
executive function
self-control/inhibition, working memory, flexibility
Piaget cognitive development
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
autogbiographical memory
significant events and experiences in ones life
contemplative science
study of mental and physical training might enhance children's development.
Fluid Intelligence
the ability to reason abstractly which beings to decline in middle adulthood
Chronological Age
the number of years a person has lived, used especially in psychometrics as a standard against which certain variables, such as behavior and intelligence, are measured.
autism
theory of mind deficits
schema theory
theory stating that people mold memories to fit information that already exist in their minds.
Critical Thinking
thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating the evidence; mindfulness
Divergent Thinking
thinking that produces many answers to the same question; characteristics of creativity
Covergent thinking
thinking that produces one correct answer, characteristic of the kind of thinking required on conventional intelligence test
Theory of Mind
thoughts about how one's own mental processes work and the mental processes of others ;curiosity or thoughts about how mental processes work
Intelligence
to solve problems and to adapt to and learn from experiences
executive function
umbrella-like concept. that encompasses a number of higher-level cognitive process linked to the development of the brain's prefrontal cortex.
strategies
use of mental activities to improve the processing of information: rehearsing, organizing.
The Seattle Longitudinal Study
verbal comprehension, verbal memory, numeric ability, special orientation, inductive reason, perceptual speed
Validity
what it claims to measure
episodic
younger adult better
How can gender, cultural, and ethnic bias affect the outcome of a research study?
• Gender bias—it is important to keep in mind that you cannot generalize research conducted on one gender to the other gender.
How can gender, cultural, and ethnic bias affect the outcome of a research study?
• Gender bias—it is important to keep in mind that you cannot generalize research conducted on one gender to the other gender. • Cultural and ethnic bias can be fought by including more people from diverse ethnic groups in research. • The tendency to overgeneralize about ethnic groups is referred to as ethnic gloss.
What are researchers' ethical responsibilities to the people they study?
• Informed consent: Participants in research are told what their participation will entail and any risks that might be involved. If younger than 7 years of age, informed consent must be provided by the parent or legal guardian.
What are researchers' ethical responsibilities to the people they study?
• Informed consent: Participants in research are told what their participation will entail and any risks that might be involved. If younger than 7 years of age, informed consent must be provided by the parent or legal guardian. • Confidentiality: All data is kept completely confidential and anonymous. • Debriefing: Upon completion, participants are informed of the purpose and methods used in the study. • Deception: Hiding true purpose to avoid unnatural results due to participants knowledge of purpose that may cause them to behave differently .
