Exam 2 - Microbiology

lac operon video notes: - the e. coli lac operon is an example of an (blank) set of genes - these genes are responsible for the breakdown of lactose into (blank) used for cellular metabolism - involves: bacterial (blank), repressor, (blank) and sugar molecule ([blank])

lac operon video notes: - the e. coli lac operon is an example of an inducible set of genes - these genes are responsible for the breakdown of lactose into sugars used for cellular metabolism - involves: bacterial DNA, repressor, mRNA and sugar molecule (lactose)

lac operon: - when no lactose is available: repressor protein wont allow for (blank), therefore no (blank) happens - when lactose is available: lactose acts as an (blank), lactose will get into a cell and make repressor get off

lac operon: - when no lactose is available: repressor protein wont allow for transcription, therefore no translation happens - when lactose is available: lactose acts as an inducer, lactose will get into a cell and make repressor get off

long-term effects: - (blank): long-term or permanent damage to tissues or organs caused by infectious disease > meningitis: (blank) > strep throat: (blank) heart disease > lyme disease: (blank) > polio: (blank)

long-term effects: - sequelae: long-term or permanent damage to tissues or organs caused by infectious disease > meningitis: deafness > strep throat: rheumatic heart disease > lyme disease: arthritis > polio: paralysis

major portals of (blank): coughing, sneezing, insect bite, skin cells and open incisions, removal of blood, urine, and feces

major portals of exit: coughing, sneezing, insect bite, skin cells and open incisions, removal of blood, urine, and feces

mechanisms of drug action: - goals of (blank): disrupt the structure or function of an organism to the point where it can no longer survive

mechanisms of drug action: - goals of chemotherapy: disrupt the structure or function of an organism to the point where it can no longer survive

additional epidemiology terms: - (blank) case: may not be the first case of the disease, but it is the first case that brought the epidemic to the attention of officials - (blank): an infectious disease that exhibits a relatively steady frequency over a long time period in a particular geographic locale - (blank): occasional cases are reported at irregular intervals at random locales - (blank): when statistics indicate that the prevalence of an endemic or sporadic disease is increasing beyond what it is expected for a population - (blank): spread of an epidemic across continents

additional epidemiology terms: - index case: may not be the first case of the disease, but it is the first case that brought the epidemic to the attention of officials - endemic: an infectious disease that exhibits a relatively steady frequency over a long time period in a particular geographic locale - sporadic: occasional cases are reported at irregular intervals at random locales - epidemic: when statistics indicate that the prevalence of an endemic or sporadic disease is increasing beyond what it is expected for a population - pandemic: spread of an epidemic across continents

after pyruvic acid: the fermentation strategy - (blank): > the incomplete oxidation of (blank) or other carbohydrates in the absence of (blank) > uses (blank) compounds as the terminal electron acceptors > yields a (blank) amount of ATP > used by organisms that do not have an (blank) transport chain > other organisms can repress the production of electron transport chain proteins when (blank) is lacking in their environment > the can then revert to (blank)

after pyruvic acid: the fermentation strategy - fermentation: > the incomplete oxidation of glucose or other carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen > uses organic compounds as the terminal electron acceptors > yields a small amount of ATP > used by organisms that do not have an electron transport chain > other organisms can repress the production of electron transport chain proteins when oxygen is lacking in their environment > the can then revert to fermentation

catabolism of noncarbohydrate compounds: - complex (blank) broken into component sugars which can enter (blank) - lipids can be broken down by (blank) - proteins are broken down into amino acids by (blank)

catabolism of noncarbohydrate compounds: - complex polysaccharides broken into component sugars which can enter glycolysis - lipids can be broken down by lipases - proteins are broken down into amino acids by proteases

categories of mutations: - (blank) mutation: addition, deletion, or substitution of single bases - (blank) mutation: any change in the code that leads to the placement of a different (blank) acid; can create a faulty, nonfunctional (blank); can produce a (blank) that functions differently; can cause no significant (blank) - (blank) mutation: changes a normal mutation into a (blank) codon

categories of mutations: - point mutation: addition, deletion, or substitution of single bases - missense mutation: any change in the code that leads to the placement of a different amino acid; can create a faulty, nonfunctional protein; can produce a protein that functions differently; can cause no significant alteration - nonsense mutation: changes a normal mutation into a stop codon

healthcare associated infections: - healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) or (blank) infections: > infectious disease acquired or developed during a hospital or healthcare facility stay > 750,000 cases a year, resulting in 75,000 deaths

healthcare associated infections: - healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) or nosocomial infections: > infectious disease acquired or developed during a hospital or healthcare facility stay > 750,000 cases a year, resulting in 75,000 deaths

interactions between drug and host: - drug is administered to the host even though its target is a (blank): the effect of the drug on the (blank) must be considered - selective (blank) is ideal, but chemotherapy involves contact with foreign chemicals that can harm the (blank): 5% of all people taking an antimicrobial drug will experience an adverse side effect

interactions between drug and host: - drug is administered to the host even though its target is a microbe: the effect of the drug on the host must be considered - selective toxicity is ideal, but chemotherapy involves contact with foreign chemicals that can harm the host: 5% of all people taking an antimicrobial drug will experience an adverse side effect

introduction to genetics and genes: - (blank): the study of inheritance or (blank) of living things, explores: > the transmission of biological properties ([blank]) from parent to offspring > how those (blank) are expressed in an organism

introduction to genetics and genes: - genetics: the study of inheritance or heredity of living things, explores: > the transmission of biological properties (traits) from parent to offspring > how those traits are expressed in an organism

kirby-bauer technique: - surface of an (blank) plate is spread with bacteria - small discs containing a prepared amount of (blank) are placed on the plate - zone of (blank) surrounding the discs is measured and compared with a standard for each drug

kirby-bauer technique: - surface of an agar plate is spread with bacteria - small discs containing a prepared amount of antibiotic are placed on the plate - zone of inhibition surrounding the discs is measured and compared with a standard for each drug

- (blank): master code of DNA used to synthesize an (blank) molecule - (blank): transcribed (blank) used to produce a protein - exceptions to this pattern: 1.) RNA (blank) convert RNA to other RNA 2.) (blank) convert RNA to DNA - a wide variety of RNAs are used to regulate (blank) function

- transcription: master code of DNA used to synthesize an RNA molecule - translation: transcribed RNA used to produce a protein - exceptions to this pattern: 1.) RNA viruses convert RNA to other RNA 2.) retroviruses convert RNA to DNA - a wide variety of RNAs are used to regulate gene function

- (blank) is the synthesis of a protein from an mRNA template - this process involves several molecules: mRNA, small and large subunits of the (blank), tRNA, and a (blank) factor - has 3 stages: (blank), (blank), and (blank)

- translation is the synthesis of a protein from an mRNA template - this process involves several molecules: mRNA, small and large subunits of the ribosome, tRNA, and a release factor - has 3 stages: initiation, elongation, and termination

DNA recombination events: - (blank): > bacteria have no exact equivalent to (blank) reproduction > an event in which one bacterium donates DNA to another bacterium (usually a [blank]) > end result is a new strain different from both the (blank) and the original recipients > provide genes for (blank) to drugs and metabolic poisons, new nutritional and metabolic capabilities, and increased (blank) and adaptation to the environment - (blank): any organism that contains genes that originated in another organism

DNA recombination events: - recombination: > bacteria have no exact equivalent to sexual reproduction > an event in which one bacterium donates DNA to another bacterium (usually a plasmid) > end result is a new strain different from both the donor and the original recipients > provide genes for resistance to drugs and metabolic poisons, new nutritional and metabolic capabilities, and increased virulence and adaptation to the environment - recombinant: any organism that contains genes that originated in another organism

DNA replication: - overall replication process is (blank) replication: > (blank) separate the strands of the existing DNA molecule, copying one strand and producing two complete (blank) strands > each (blank) molecule is identical to the parent in composition > neither is completely new; one strand that serves as a template is an original parent of the DNA strand

DNA replication: - overall replication process is semiconservative replication: > enzymes separate the strands of the existing DNA molecule, copying one strand and producing two complete daughter strands > each daughter molecule is identical to the parent in composition > neither is completely new; one strand that serves as a template is an original parent of the DNA strand

DNA sequencing: - (blank) maps give an exact order of bases in a (blank), chromosome, or entire genome - (blank) sequencing steps: 1.) (blank) is broken into small, manageable fragments 2.) fragments are separated by size through gel (blank) 3.) each fragment is inserted into a (blank) and cloned 4.) (blank) are purified and DNA fragments are sequenced 5.) computer identifies overlaps in sequence data, results in (blank) of nucleotide sequences 6.) (blank) are put in order to determine entire sequence 7.) (blank) -- human looks for irregularities, (blank), or ambiguities

DNA sequencing: - sequence maps give an exact order of bases in a plasmid, chromosome, or entire genome - shotgun sequencing steps: 1.) genome is broken into small, manageable fragments 2.) fragments are separated by size through gel electrophoresis 3.) each fragment is inserted into a plasmid and cloned 4.) plasmids are purified and DNA fragments are sequenced 5.) computer identifies overlaps in sequence data, results in contigs of nucleotide sequences 6.) contigs are put in order to determine entire sequence 7.) editing -- human looks for irregularities, frameshifts, or ambiguities

(blank) is similar to DNA in terms of its general properties, but its structure is different in several ways: - (blank)-stranded molecule that exists in helical form - can assume secondary and tertiary levels of complexity of RNA ([blank] and [blank]) - contains (blank) (U) instead of (blank) (T); (blank) still follows the same pairing rules - contains (blank) rather than deoxyribose

RNA is similar to DNA in terms of its general properties, but its structure is different in several ways: - single-stranded molecule that exists in helical form - can assume secondary and tertiary levels of complexity of RNA (tRNA and rRNA) - contains uracil (U) instead of thymine (T); uracil still follows the same pairing rules - contains ribose rather than deoxyribose

agents vs. processes: - (blank): chemical agents applied directly to exposed body surfaces (skin and mucous membranes), wounds, and surgical incisions to prevent vegetative pathogens > preparing the skin before surgical incisions with iodine compounds > swabbing an open root canal with hydrogen peroxide > ordinary hand washing with a germicidal soap

agents vs. processes: - antiseptics: chemical agents applied directly to exposed body surfaces (skin and mucous membranes), wounds, and surgical incisions to prevent vegetative pathogens > preparing the skin before surgical incisions with iodine compounds > swabbing an open root canal with hydrogen peroxide > ordinary hand washing with a germicidal soap

agents vs. processes: - (blank): the growth of microorganisms in the blood and other tissues - (blank): any practice that prevents the entry of infectious agents into sterile tissues and thus prevents infection - (blank) techniques: practiced in health care; range from sterile methods to antisepsis

agents vs. processes: - sepsis: the growth of microorganisms in the blood and other tissues - antisepsis: any practice that prevents the entry of infectious agents into sterile tissues and thus prevents infection - antiseptic techniques: practiced in health care; range from sterile methods to antisepsis

agents vs. processes: - stasis and static mean to stand (blank) - (blank): chemical agents that prevent the growth of bacteria on tissues or on objects in the environment - (blank): chemicals that inhibit fungal growth - antiseptics and drugs often have (blank) effects because microbicidal compounds can be toxic to human cells - even a -cidal agent does not necessarily result in (blank), depending on how it is used

agents vs. processes: - stasis and static mean to stand still - bacteriostatic: chemical agents that prevent the growth of bacteria on tissues or on objects in the environment - fungistatic: chemicals that inhibit fungal growth - antiseptics and drugs often have microbistatic effects because microbicidal compounds can be toxic to human cells - even a -cidal agent does not necessarily result in sterilization, depending on how it is used

agents vs. processes: - sterilization and disinfection: (blank) - agents used in the process: a.) (blank): chemical that destroys bacteria except for those in the (blank) stage b.) (blank): chemical that can kill fungal spores, hyphae, and yeasts c.) (blank): chemical known to inactivate viruses, especially living on tissue d.) (blank): an agent capable of destroying bacterial endospores e.) (blank)/(blank): chemical agents that kill microorganisms

agents vs. processes: - sterilization and disinfection: processes - agents used in the process: a.) bactericide: chemical that destroys bacteria except for those in the endospore stage b.) fungicide: chemical that can kill fungal spores, hyphae, and yeasts c.) virucide: chemical known to inactivate viruses, especially living on tissue d.) sporicide: an agent capable of destroying bacterial endospores e.) germicide/microbicide: chemical agents that kill microorganisms

allergic responses to drugs: - allergy: > drug acts as an (blank) that stimulates an allergic response > allergies have been reported for every major type of drug, but an allergy to (blank) is most common > (blank) occurs during the first contact with the drug > (blank) exposure can lead to hives, respiratory inflammation, or anaphylaxis

allergic responses to drugs: - allergy: > drug acts as an antigen that stimulates an allergic response > allergies have been reported for every major type of drug, but an allergy to penicillin is most common > sensitization occurs during the first contact with the drug > second exposure can lead to hives, respiratory inflammation, or anaphylaxis

an urgent problem: - "threat report" issued by the CDC in 2013 outlines a "potentially catastrophic: antibiotic resistance situation: we may enter a (blank) era where some infections will be untreatable - new and effective antibiotics have been slow to come to market since they are not economically lucrative and are also time consuming and expensive to develop

an urgent problem: - "threat report" issued by the CDC in 2013 outlines a "potentially catastrophic: antibiotic resistance situation: we may enter a post-antibiotic era where some infections will be untreatable - new and effective antibiotics have been slow to come to market since they are not economically lucrative and are also time consuming and expensive to develop

before therapy can begin: - before actual antimicrobial therapy can begin, three factors must be known: 1.) the (blank) of the microorganism causing the infection 2.) the degree of the microorganism's (blank) (or sensitivity) to various drugs 3.) the overall medical (blank) of the patient

before therapy can begin: - before actual antimicrobial therapy can begin, three factors must be known: 1.) the identity of the microorganism causing the infection 2.) the degree of the microorganism's susceptibility (or sensitivity) to various drugs 3.) the overall medical condition of the patient

analysis of DNA: - gel (blank): a.) produces a readable pattern of DNA (blank) b.) samples are placed in compartments in a soft (blank) gel and subjected to an electrical current c.) (blank) groups have a negative charge, which causes DNA to move toward the positive pole in the gel d.) larger fragments migrate more (blank); smaller fragments migrate more (blank) e.) position of (blank) is determined by staining the gel f.) creates a genetic (blank)

analysis of DNA: - gel electrophoresis: a.) produces a readable pattern of DNA fragments b.) samples are placed in compartments in a soft agar gel and subjected to an electrical current c.) phosphate groups have a negative charge, which causes DNA to move toward the positive pole in the gel d.) larger fragments migrate more slowly; smaller fragments migrate more quickly e.) position of fragments is determined by staining the gel f.) creates a genetic fingerprint

antimicrobial resistance: - drug resistance: > an adaptive response in which microorganisms begin to tolerate an amount of drug that would normally be (blank) > due to the genetic versatility and adaptability of microbial populations > can be (blank) as well (i.e. spores are intrinsically resistant because it is dormant)

antimicrobial resistance: - drug resistance: > an adaptive response in which microorganisms begin to tolerate an amount of drug that would normally be inhibitory > due to the genetic versatility and adaptability of microbial populations > can be intrinsic as well (i.e. spores are intrinsically resistant because it is dormant)

(blank)/(blank): reduces the number of microbes on the human skin. A form of decontamination but on living tissues. Involves scrubbing the skin (mechanical friction) or immersing it in chemicals (or both)

antisepsis/degermination: reduces the number of microbes on the human skin. A form of decontamination but on living tissues. Involves scrubbing the skin (mechanical friction) or immersing it in chemicals (or both)

bacterial toxins: - (blank): a specific chemical product of microbes that is poisonous to other organisms - (blank) are named according to their target: > neurotoxins act on the (blank) system > enterotoxins act on the (blank) > hemotoxins: lyse (blank) (blank) cells > nephrotoxins damage the (blank)

bacterial toxins: - toxins: a specific chemical product of microbes that is poisonous to other organisms - toxins are named according to their target: > neurotoxins act on the nervous system > enterotoxins act on the intestine > hemotoxins: lyse red blood cells > nephrotoxins damage the kidneys

before prescribing an antibiotic: - the physician must take careful history before prescribing an antibiotic > preexisting (blank) > history of (blank) to a certain class of drugs > underlying (blank) or kidney disease > infants, the elderly, and pregnant women > intake of other drugs can result in increased (blank) or failure of one or more drugs > some drug combinations have (blank) effect, may allow for reduced dosages

before prescribing an antibiotic: - the physician must take careful history before prescribing an antibiotic > preexisting conditions > history of allergies to a certain class of drugs > underlying liver or kidney disease > infants, the elderly, and pregnant women > intake of other drugs can result in increased toxicity or failure of one or more drugs > some drug combinations have synergistic effect, may allow for reduced dosages

categories of mutations: - (blank) mutation: alters a base, but does not change the (blank) acid, and has no effect - (blank)-mutation: when a gene that has undergone a mutation (blank) back to its original base composition - (blank) mutation: one or more of bases are (blank) or deleted; changes the reading (blank) of the mRNA; nearly always results in a nonfunctional (blank)

categories of mutations: - silent mutation: alters a base, but does not change the amino acid, and has no effect - back-mutation: when a gene that has undergone a mutation reverses back to its original base composition - frameshift mutation: one or more of bases are inserted or deleted; changes the reading frame of the mRNA; nearly always results in a nonfunctional protein

causes of mutations: - (blank) mutation: a random change in the DNA arising from errors in replication - (blank) mutation: results from exposure to known (blank), physical or chemical agents that disrupt DNA (i.e. radiation or chemicals)

causes of mutations: - spontaneous mutation: a random change in the DNA arising from errors in replication - induced mutation: results from exposure to known mutagens, physical or chemical agents that disrupt DNA (i.e. radiation or chemicals)

characteristics of the ideal antimicrobial drug: - remains (blank) in tissues and body fluids - readily delivered to the site of (blank) - reasonably (blank) - does not disrupt the (blank)'s health by causing allergies or predisposing the (blank) to other infections

characteristics of the ideal antimicrobial drug: - remains active in tissues and body fluids - readily delivered to the site of infection - reasonably priced - does not disrupt the host's health by causing allergies or predisposing the host to other infections

characteristics of the ideal antimicrobial drug: - toxic to the microbe but not toxic to (blank) cells - (blank) rather than microbistatic - relatively (blank), which is easier for tissues to absorb - remains (blank) enough to act - does not lead to the development of antimicrobial (blank)

characteristics of the ideal antimicrobial drug: - toxic to the microbe but not toxic to host cells - microbicidal rather than microbistatic - relatively soluble, which is easier for tissues to absorb - remains potent enough to act - does not lead to the development of antimicrobial resistance

chemical agents in microbial control: - occur in liquid, gaseous, or solid state - range from disinfectants and antiseptics to sterilants and preservatives - (blank): chemicals dissolved in pure water as the solvent - (blank): chemicals dissolved in pure alcohol or water-alcohol mixtures

chemical agents in microbial control: - occur in liquid, gaseous, or solid state - range from disinfectants and antiseptics to sterilants and preservatives - aqueous: chemicals dissolved in pure water as the solvent - tinctures: chemicals dissolved in pure alcohol or water-alcohol mixtures

chemical strength or concentration: - (blank): a small volume of the liquid chemical is diluted in a larger volume of solvent to achieve a certain ratio - (blank) per million: used for solutions such as chlorine that are effective in very diluted concentrations - (blank) solutions: solute is added to water by weight or volume

chemical strength or concentration: - dilution: a small volume of the liquid chemical is diluted in a larger volume of solvent to achieve a certain ratio - parts per million: used for solutions such as chlorine that are effective in very diluted concentrations - percentage solutions: solute is added to water by weight or volume

circumstances make HAIs unavoidable: - factors tied to healthcare associated infections: > (blank) patients > collection point for (blank) > lowered (blank) permit normal biota to enter the body > infections acquired directly or indirectly from fomites, medical equipment, other patients, medical personnel, visitors, air, and water

circumstances make HAIs unavoidable: - factors tied to healthcare associated infections: > compromised patients > collection point for pathogens > lowered defenses permit normal biota to enter the body > infections acquired directly or indirectly from fomites, medical equipment, other patients, medical personnel, visitors, air, and water

step five: vacating the host (portals of exit) - portal of (blank): shed through secretion, excretion, discharge, or sloughed tissue; high number of (blank) in these materials

step five: vacating the host (portals of exit) - portal of exit: shed through secretion, excretion, discharge, or sloughed tissue; high number of microbes in these materials

colonization, infection, and disease: - (blank): microbes are with us for the long term and do not cause disease - (blank): microbes get past host defenses, enter tissues, then multiply - (blank): deviation from health; pathologic state that results when cumulative effects of infection damage or disrupt tissues and organs - (blank) disease: pathogenic state caused directly by microorganisms or their products

colonization, infection, and disease: - colonize: microbes are with us for the long term and do not cause disease - infection: microbes get past host defenses, enter tissues, then multiply - disease: deviation from health; pathologic state that results when cumulative effects of infection damage or disrupt tissues and organs - infectious disease: pathogenic state caused directly by microorganisms or their products

conjugation: genetic transmission through direct contact between two cells - transfer of the (blank) factor or conjugative (blank) - done with a bridge made with (blank)

conjugation: genetic transmission through direct contact between two cells - transfer of the F factor or conjugative plasmid - done with a bridge made with pilus

conjugation: resistance plasmids - (blank) (R) plasmids or factors: > bear genes for resisting (blank) > commonly shared among bacteria through (blank) > can confer one or more of the following: 1.) resistance to multiple (blank) 2.) resistance to heavy (blank) 3.) synthesizing (blank) factors such as: toxins, enzymes, and adhesion molecules

conjugation: resistance plasmids - resistance (R) plasmids or factors: > bear genes for resisting antibiotics > commonly shared among bacteria through conjugation > can confer one or more of the following: 1.) resistance to multiple antibiotics 2.) resistance to heavy metals 3.) synthesizing virulence factors such as: toxins, enzymes, and adhesion molecules

controlling microorganisms: - controlling our degree of (blank) to potentially harmful microbes is a monumental concern in our lives - the methods of microbial control used outside of the body and designed to result in four possible outcomes: 1.) (blank) 2.) (blank) 3.) (blank) (also called sanitation) 4.) (blank)

controlling microorganisms: - controlling our degree of exposure to potentially harmful microbes is a monumental concern in our lives - the methods of microbial control used outside of the body are designed to result in four possible outcomes: 1.) sterilization 2.) disinfection 3.) decontamination (also called sanitation) 4.) antisepsis

course of an infection: 1.) (blank) period: the time from initial contact with the infectious agent to the appearance of symptoms; ranges from several hours to several years (almost 2-30 days) 2.) (blank) stage: 1-2 day period when the earliest notable symptoms of infection appear 3.) (blank) phase: infectious agents multiplies at high levels, exhibits its greatest virulence, becomes well established in its target tissue; extremely variable in length of this period 4.) (blank) period: patient begins to respond to the infection and symptoms decline; patient's strength and health gradually return due to the healing nature of the immune response 5.) (blank) phase: only some infections have this phase; either the organism lingers for months, years, or indefinitely after the patient is well or the organism is gone but symptoms continue

course of an infection: 1.) incubation period: the time from initial contact with the infectious agent to the appearance of symptoms; ranges from several hours to several years (almost 2-30 days) 2.) prodromal stage: 1-2 day period when the earliest notable symptoms of infection appear 3.) acute phase: infectious agents multiplies at high levels, exhibits its greatest virulence, becomes well established in its target tissue; extremely variable in length of this period 4.) convalescent period: patient begins to respond to the infection and symptoms decline; patient's strength and health gradually return due to the healing nature of the immune response 5.) continuation phase: only some infections have this phase; either the organism lingers for months, years, or indefinitely after the patient is well or the organism is gone but symptoms continue

(blank)/(blank): cleansing technique that mechanically removes microorganisms as well as other debris to reduce contamination to safe levels. Important to restaurants, dairies, breweries, and other large commercial entities that handle large number of soiled utensils/containers

decontamination/sanitization: cleansing technique that mechanically removes microorganisms as well as other debris to reduce contamination to safe levels. Important to restaurants, dairies, breweries, and other large commercial entities that handle large number of soiled utensils/containers

goal of antimicrobial drugs: - disrupt (blank) processes or structures of bacteria, fungi, or protozoa - inhibit (blank) replication - destroy (blank) already formed in cells - selectively (blank): kill or inhibit microbial cells without damaging host tissues

goal of antimicrobial drugs: - disrupt cell processes or structures of bacteria, fungi, or protozoa - inhibit virus replication - destroy structures already formed in cells - selectively toxic: kill or inhibit microbial cells without damaging host tissues

desirable qualities in a germicide: - (blank) action, even in low concentrations - (blank) in water or alcohol and long-term stability - broad spectrum (blank) action without being toxic to human and animal tissues - penetration of (blank) surfaces to sustain a cumulative or persistent action - (blank) to becoming inactivated by organic matter - not corrosive and non-staining - (blank) and deodorizing properties - affordability and availability

desirable qualities in a germicide: - rapid action, even in low concentrations - solubility in water or alcohol and long-term stability - broad spectrum microbicidal action without being toxic to human and animal tissues - penetration of inanimate surfaces to sustain a cumulative or persistent action - resistance to becoming inactivated by organic matter - not corrosive and non-staining - sanitizing and deodorizing properties - affordability and availability

direct controls on the action of enzymes: - (blank) inhibition: "mimic" occupies the active site, preventing the actual (blank) from binding - (blank) inhibition: > enzymes have two binding sites: the (blank) site and the (blank) site > molecules bind to the (blank) site > slows down enzymatic activity once a certain concentration of (blank) is reached

direct controls on the action of enzymes: - competitive inhibition: "mimic" occupies the active site, preventing the actual substrate from binding - noncompetitive inhibition: > enzymes have two binding sites: the active site and the regulatory site > molecules bind to the regulatory site > slows down enzymatic activity once a certain concentration of product is reached

(blank): physical process or a chemical agent to destroy vegetative pathogens but not bacterial endospores. Removes harmful products of microorganisms (toxins) from material. Normally used on inanimate objects because the concentration of disinfectants required to be effective is harmful to human tissue. Common uses: boiling food utensils, applying 5% bleach solution to an examining table, immersing thermometers in iodine solution between uses.

disinfection: physical process or a chemical agent to destroy vegetative pathogens but not bacterial endospores. Removes harmful products of microorganisms (toxins) from material. Normally used on inanimate objects because the concentration of disinfectants required to be effective is harmful to human tissue. Common uses: boiling food utensils, applying 5% bleach solution to an examining table, immersing thermometers in iodine solution between uses.

drug interactions: - drugs with excellent selective (blank) block the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall (penicillins): human cells lack the chemical (blank) and are unaffected by the drug - drugs most toxic to humans: drugs that act upon a structure common to both the infective agent and the host cell ([blank] membrane)

drug interactions: - drugs with excellent selective toxicity block the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall (i.e. penicillins): human cells lack the chemical (blank) and are unaffected by the drug - drugs most toxic to humans: drugs that act upon a structure common to both the infective agent and the host cell (i.e. cytoplasmic membrane)

elongation and termination: - some bacteria can add nucleotides at a pace of 750 bases per (blank) at each fork - bacteria have a (blank) chromosome which means you can have 2 different replication forks - DNA polymerase I removes (blank) primers and replaces them with (blank) - (blank) move along the lagging strand to link the fragments and complete the synthesis and separation of the two (blank) molecules - mistakes in DNA replication happens rarely but most are corrected by DNA (blank) (blank)

elongation and termination: - some bacteria can add nucleotides at a pace of 750 bases per second at each fork - bacteria have a circular chromosome which means you can have 2 different replication forks - DNA polymerase I removes RNA primers and replaces them with DNA - ligases move along the lagging strand to link the fragments and complete the synthesis and separation of the two daughter molecules - mistakes in DNA replication happens rarely but most are corrected by DNA polymerase III

endotoxin: - (blank) (LPS) part of the outer membrane of gram-negative walls - causes fever, inflammation, hemorrhage, and diarrhea - (blank) infections by salmonella, shigella, neisseria, meningitis, and escherichia coli are particularly dangerous and can lead to shock

endotoxin: - lipopolysaccharide (LPS) part of the outer membrane of gram-negative walls - causes fever, inflammation, hemorrhage, and diarrhea - blood infections by salmonella, shigella, neisseria, meningitis, and escherichia coli are particularly dangerous and can lead to shock

enzyme structure: - simple enzymes consist of (blank) alone - conjugated enzymes contain (blank) and (blank) molecules > sometimes referred to as a (blank) > (blank): protein portion of a conjugated enzyme > cofactor: either organic molecules called coenzymes or inorganic elements (metal ions) - (blank): nonorganic - (blank) organic

enzyme structure: - simple enzymes consist of protein alone - conjugated enzymes contain protein and nonprotein molecules > sometimes referred to as a holoenzyme > apoenzyme: protein portion of a conjugated enzyme > (blank): either organic molecules called (blank) or inorganic elements (metal ions) - cofactor: nonorganic - coenzyme: organic

enzyme-substrate interactions: - a temporary enzyme-substrate must occur at the (blank) site: > a fit which is so specific that it is described as a lock and key fit - bond that is formed between the substrate and enzyme is weak and easily (blank) - once the enzyme-substrate complex has formed, the designated reaction occurs on the (blank), often with the aid of a (blank) - (blank) is formed and released - (blank) is free to interact with another substrate

enzyme-substrate interactions: - a temporary enzyme-substrate must occur at the active site: > a fit which is so specific that it is described as a lock and key fit - bond that is formed between the substrate and enzyme is weak and easily reversible - once the enzyme-substrate complex has formed, the designated reaction occurs on the substrate, often with the aid of a cofactor - product is formed and released - enzyme is free to interact with another substrate

enzymes involved in DNA replication: - (blank): unzipping the DNA helix - (blank): synthesizing an RNA primer - DNA (blank) (blank): adding bases to the new DNA chain; proofreading the chain for mistakes - DNA (blank) (blank): removing primer, closing gaps, repairing mismatches - (blank): final binding of nicks in DNA during synthesis and repair - (blank) I and II: supercoiling and untangling

enzymes involved in DNA replication: - helicase: unzipping the DNA helix - primase: synthesizing an RNA primer - DNA polymerase III: adding bases to the new DNA chain; proofreading the chain for mistakes - DNA polymerase I: removing primer, closing gaps, repairing mismatches - ligase: final binding of nicks in DNA during synthesis and repair - topoisomerase I and II: supercoiling and untangling

enzymes: - (blank) are biological catalysts which: > (blank) the rate of chemical reactions > do not become part of the (blank) > are not (blank) in the process > do not create a (blank) by itself - enzymes work on (blank) (each enzyme is specific to only one (blank))

enzymes: - enzymes are biological catalysts which: > increase the rate of chemical reactions > do not become part of the products > are not consumed in the process > do not create a reaction by itself - enzymes work on substrates (each enzyme is specific to only one substrate)

epidemiological statistics: - (blank): total number of existing cases in a given population; snapshot (total number of cases in a population divided by persons in that population) - (blank): the number of new cases over a certain time period; number of new cases in a designated time period divided by total number of susceptible person

epidemiological statistics: - prevalence: total number of existing cases in a given population; snapshot (total number of cases in a population divided by persons in that population) - incidence: the number of new cases over a certain time period; number of new cases in a designated time period divided by total number of susceptible person

epidemiological statistics: - statistics of concern to the epidemiologist are rates of disease with regard to sex, race, or geographic location - (blank) rate: measures the total number of deaths in a population due to a certain disease; overall death rate from infectious diseases has dropped, although the number of persons afflicted with infectious rates (morbidity rate) has remained high - (blank) rate: how many people are infected

epidemiological statistics: - statistics of concern to the epidemiologist are rates of disease with regard to sex, race, or geographic location - mortality rate: measures the total number of deaths in a population due to a certain disease; overall death rate from infectious diseases has dropped, although the number of persons afflicted with infectious rates (morbidity rate) has remained high - morbidity rate: how many people are infected

extracellular enzymes: - (blank): secreted by microbes that break down tissues; dissolve the host's defense barriers to promote the spread of disease to other tissues ([blank]) - examples of (blank): > mucinase: digests the protective coating on (blank) membranes > (blank): causes clotting of blood or plasma

extracellular enzymes: - exoenzymes: secreted by microbes that break down tissues; dissolve the host's defense barriers to promote the spread of disease to other tissues (dissemination) - examples of exoenzymes: > mucinase: digests the protective coating on mucous membranes > coagulase: causes clotting of blood or plasma

factors affecting the germicidal activity of chemicals: - nature of the (blank) being treated - nature of the material being treated - degree of (blank) - time of exposure - strength and chemical action of the (blank)

factors affecting the germicidal activity of chemicals: - nature of the microorganisms being treated - nature of the material being treated - degree of contamination - time of exposure - strength and chemical action of the germicide

factors that influence the action of antimicrobial agents: - the concentration (dose, intensity) of the (blank): UV radiation is most effective at (blank) nm; most disinfectants are more active at (blank) concentrations - the mode of action of the (blank): how does it kill or inhibit the microorganism - the presence of (blank), interfering organic matter, and inhibitors: saliva, blood, and feces can inhibit the actions of disinfectants and even heat

factors that influence the action of antimicrobial agents: - the concentration (dose, intensity) of the agent: UV radiation is most effective at 260 nm; most disinfectants are more active at higher concentrations - the mode of action of the agent: how does it kill or inhibit the microorganism - the presence of solvents, interfering organic matter, and inhibitors: saliva, blood, and feces can inhibit the actions of disinfectants and even heat

factors that influence the action of antimicrobial agents: - the number of (blank): higher load of contaminants takes longer to destroy - the (blank) of the microorganisms in the population: target population is usually a mixture of bacteria, fungi, spores, and viruses with broad spectrum of resistance - (blank) and pH of the environment

factors that influence the action of antimicrobial agents: - the number of microbes: higher load of contaminants takes longer to destroy - the nature of the microorganisms in the population: target population is usually a mixture of bacteria, fungi, spores, and viruses with broad spectrum of resistance - temperature and pH of the environment

filtration: - effective method to remove microbes from air and liquids: > fluid is strained through a filter with openings large enough for the fluid to pass, but too small for (blank) > also used are thin (blank) of cellulose acetate, polycarbonate, and plastics whose pore size is carefully controlled > charcoal, diatomaceous earth, or unglazed (blank) are used > pore size can be controlled to permit true (blank) by trapping viruses or large proteins

filtration: - effective method to remove microbes from air and liquids: > fluid is strained through a filter with openings large enough for the fluid to pass, but too small for microbes > also used are thin membranes of cellulose acetate, polycarbonate, and plastics whose pore size is carefully controlled > charcoal, diatomaceous earth, or unglazed porcelain are used > pore size can be controlled to permit true sterilization by trapping viruses or large proteins

gene cloning: - involves removal of a selected (blank) from an animal, plant, or microorganism and its propagation in a host organism - donor gene must be excised by restriction (blank) and isolated - vector inserts the gene into the (blank) host - cloning host is usually a (blank) or yeast, which can replicate the gene and translate it into the desired (blank) product

gene cloning: - involves removal of a selected gene from an animal, plant, or microorganism and its propagation in a host organism - donor gene must be excised by restriction endonuclease and isolated - vector inserts the gene into the cloning host - cloning host is usually a bacterium or yeast, which can replicate the gene and translate it into the desired protein product

genetic regulation of protein synthesis: - operons: > only found in (blank) and (blank) > consist of a coordinated set of genes regulated as a (blank) unit > (blank) or repressible - (blank) operons: induced by the substrate of the (blank) for which the the structural genes code; only produce the enzyme when the (blank) is present - (blank) operons: (blank) enzymes; turned off by the product synthesized by the (blank)

genetic regulation of protein synthesis: - operons: > only found in bacteria and archaea > consist of a coordinated set of genes regulated as a single unit > inducible or repressible - catabolic operons: induced by the substrate of the enzymes for which the the structural genes code; only produce the enzyme when the substrate is present - repressible operons: anabolic enzymes; turned off by the product synthesized by the enzyme

getting materials and energy: - (blank) respiration: most conserved (common in most species) > a series of reactions that converts glucose to (blank) and allows the cell to recover significant amounts of energy > utilizes (blank), the (blank) cycle, and the (blank) chain (electron transport chain) > relies on free (blank) as the final electron and hydrogen acceptor > characteristic of many (blank), fungi, protozoa, and animals

getting materials and energy: - aerobic respiration: most conserved (common in most species) > a series of reactions that converts glucose to CO2 and allows the cell to recover significant amounts of energy > utilizes glycolysis, the krebs cycle, and the respiratory chain (electron transport chain) > relies on free oxygen as the final electron and hydrogen acceptor > characteristic of many bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and animals

getting materials and energy: - (blank) respiration: cannot be O2 > used by strictly (blank) organisms and those who are not able to metabolize with or without (blank) > involves (blank), the (blank) cycle, and (blank) transport chain > uses NO(3)-, SO(4)2-, CO(3)3- and other oxidized compounds as final electron acceptors

getting materials and energy: - anaerobic respiration: cannot be O2 > used by strictly anaerobic organisms and those who are not able to metabolize with or without oxygen > involves glycolysis, the krebs cycle, and electron transport chain > uses NO(3)-, SO(4)2-, CO(3)3- and other oxidized compounds as final electron acceptors

getting materials and energy: - (blank): acids or alcohols > incomplete (blank) of glucose > (blank) is not required > (blank) compounds are terminal electron acceptors

getting materials and energy: - fermentation: acids or alcohols > incomplete oxidation of glucose > oxygen is not required > organic compounds are terminal electron acceptors

glycolysis: - all three metabolic pathways begin with (blank), which turns glucose into two copies of (blank) acid

glycolysis: - all three metabolic pathways begin with glycolysis, which turns glucose into two copies of pyruvic acid

heat resistance and thermal death: endospores and vegetative cells - (blank) endospores: exhibit greatest (blank); destruction of spores usually requires temperatures above (blank) - (blank) cells: vary in sensitivity to heat; death times vary from 50 degrees celsius for 3 mins to 60 degrees celsius for 60 minutes

heat resistance and thermal death: endospores and vegetative cells - bacterial endospores: exhibit greatest resistance; destruction of spores usually requires temperatures above boiling - vegetative cells: vary in sensitivity to heat; death times vary from 50 degrees celsius for 3 mins to 60 degrees celsius for 60 minutes

helping nature along: - (blank): nutrients that encourage the growth of beneficial microbes in the intestine; (blank) encourages the growth of Bifidobacterium and discourage the growth of potential pathogens - (blank) transplants: used to treat C. diff infection; transfer of feces from a healthy patient via colonoscopy or enema; work is underway to develop a pill containing the species to re-colonize the colon

helping nature along: - prebiotics nutrients that encourage the growth of beneficial microbes in the intestine; fructans encourages the growth of Bifidobacterium and discourage the growth of potential pathogens - fecal transplants: used to treat C. diff infection; transfer of feces from a healthy patient via colonoscopy or enema; work is underway to develop a pill containing the species to re-colonize the colon

helping nature along: - (blank): > preparations of live microorganisms fed to animals and humans to improve intestinal biota > can replace microbes lost during antimicrobial therapy > augment biota already in there > safe and in some cases effective > useful in the management of food allergies

helping nature along: - probiotics: > preparations of live microorganisms fed to animals and humans to improve intestinal biota > can replace microbes lost during antimicrobial therapy > augment biota already in there > safe and in some cases effective > useful in the management of food allergies

hemolysins: - (blank): disrupts the cell membrane of red blood cells; this causes the RBC to (blank), which means to burst and release hemoglobin pigment

hemolysins: - hemolysins: disrupts the cell membrane of red blood cells; this causes the RBC to hemolyse, which means to burst and release hemoglobin pigment

high thoughput sequencing: 1.) DNA is obtained, (blank), and fitted with adaptors 2.) sequences are added to a (blank) machine, where they are immobilized using the adaptor sequences and copied via (blank) 3.) the millions of amplified sequences are sequenced inside the machine using various methods 4.) the sequences are aligned using (blank), and entire genomes are revealed

high thoughput sequencing: 1.) DNA is obtained, fragmented, and fitted with adaptors 2.) sequences are added to a PCR machine, where they are immobilized using the adaptor sequences and copied via PCR 3.) the millions of amplified sequences are sequenced inside the machine using various methods 4.) the sequences are aligned using software, and entire genomes are revealed

high, intermediate, and low level germicides: - (blank) are evaluated in terms of their effectiveness in destroying microbes in medical and dental settings: > (blank)-level germicides: kill endospores and can be used as sterilants > (blank)-level germicides: kill fungal, but not bacterial spores, resistant pathogens, and viruses > (blank)-level germicides: eliminate only vegetative bacteria, vegetative fungal cells, and some viruses

high, intermediate, and low level germicides: - germicides are evaluated in terms of their effectiveness in destroying microbes in medical and dental settings: > high-level germicides: kill endospores and can be used as sterilants > intermediate-level germicides: kill fungal, but not bacterial spores, resistant pathogens, and viruses > low-level germicides: eliminate only vegetative bacteria, vegetative fungal cells, and some viruses

horizontal gene transfer in bacteria - any transfer of DNA that results in organisms acquiring new (blank) that did not come from parent organisms - (blank): > small circular pieces of (blank) > contain their own origin of (blank) > (blank) independently > not necessary for (blank) > can carry useful (blank)

horizontal gene transfer in bacteria - any transfer of DNA that results in organisms acquiring new genes that did not come from parent organisms - plasmids: > small circular pieces of DNA > contain their own origin of replication > replicate independently > not necessary for survival > can carry useful traits

how antibiotic resistance happens: 1.) lots of bacteria, a few are drug resistant 2.) antibiotics kill bacteria causing the illness, as well as good bacteria protecting the body from infection 3.) the drug-resistant bacteria are now allowed to grow and take over 4.) some bacteria give their drug-resistance to other bacteria, causing more problems

how antibiotic resistance happens: 1.) lots of bacteria, a few are drug resistant 2.) antibiotics kill bacteria causing the illness, as well as good bacteria protecting the body from infection 3.) the drug-resistant bacteria are now allowed to grow and take over 4.) some bacteria give their drug-resistance to other bacteria, causing more problems

human microbiome project: - (blank) cells: 21,000 protein-encoding genes - (blank): 8 million protein-encoding genes - (blank) million viruses per gram of human feces (most are [blank]) - the makeup of one's (blank) biota can influence overall health

human microbiome project: - human cells: 21,000 protein-encoding genes - microbiota: 8 million protein-encoding genes - 100 million viruses per gram of human feces (most are bacteriophages) - the makeup of one's intestinal biota can influence overall health

identifying the agent: - identification of infectious agents should begin as soon as possible: > should occur before (blank) drugs are given, before their numbers are reduced > direct examination of body fluids, sputum, or stool samples is a rapid method for detection

identifying the agent: - identification of infectious agents should begin as soon as possible: > should occur before antimicrobial drugs are given, before their numbers are reduced > direct examination of body fluids, sputum, or stool samples is a rapid method for detection

metabolic pathways: - often occur in a (blank) series or pathway, with each step catalyzed by an (blank) - product of one reaction is often the reactant ([blank]) for the next, forming a linear chain or reaction - some have a (blank) form, in which the starting molecule is regenerated to initiate another turn of the cycle

metabolic pathways: - often occur in a multistep series or pathway, with each step catalyzed by an enzyme - product of one reaction is often the reactant (substrate) for the next, forming a linear chain or reaction - some have a cyclic form, in which the starting molecule is regenerated to initiate another turn of the cycle

metabolism: - (blank): pertains to ALL chemical reactions and physical workings of the cell - (blank): any process that results in synthesis of cell molecules and structures; a building and bond-making process that forms (blank) macromolecules from (blank) ones; requires the input of (blank) - (blank): breaks the bones of (blank) molecules into (blank) molecules; releases (blank)

metabolism: - metabolism: pertains to ALL chemical reactions and physical workings of the cell - anabolism: any process that results in synthesis of cell molecules and structures; a building and bond-making process that forms larger macromolecules from smaller ones; requires the input of energy - catabolism: breaks the bonds of larger molecules into smaller molecules; releases energy

microbial susceptibility to heat: - (blank) cells of endospore formers are just as susceptible to heat as (blank) cells of non-endospore formers - pathogens are neither more nor less susceptible than (blank) - fungi, bacteria, and worms (blank) are similar in their sensitivity to heat - some viruses are resistant to heat; tolerance extends from 55*C for 2-5 mins to 60*C for 600 mins

microbial susceptibility to heat: - (blank) cells of endospore formers are just as susceptible to heat as (blank) cells of non-endospore formers - pathogens are neither more nor less susceptible than (blank) - fungi, bacteria, and worms (blank) are similar in their sensitivity to heat - some viruses are resistant to heat; tolerance extends from 55*C for 2-5 mins to 60*C for 600 mins

mode of action and relative effectiveness of dry heat: - (blank) heat: not as effective as moist heat > (blank) the cell, removing water necessary for metabolic reactions > (blank) proteins > (blank) the stability of some protein conformations, requiring higher temperatures > at very high temperatures, (blank) cells, burning them to ashes

mode of action and relative effectiveness of dry heat: - dry heat: not as effective as moist heat > dehydrates the cell, removing water necessary for metabolic reactions > denatures proteins > increases the stability of some protein conformations, requiring higher temperatures > at very high temperatures, oxidizes cells, burning them to ashes

mode of action and relative effectiveness of moist heat: - (blank) heat: (i.e. steam/boiling): > operates at (blank) temperatures and shorter exposure times to achieve the same effectiveness as dry heat > microbicidal effect is the coagulation and (blank) of proteins

mode of action and relative effectiveness of moist heat: - moist heat: (i.e. steam/boiling): > operates at lower temperatures and shorter exposure times to achieve the same effectiveness as dry heat > microbicidal effect is the coagulation and denaturation of proteins

modes of action of antimicrobial agents: - (blank) have a range of cellular targets: > (blank) selective agents tend to be effective against the widest range of microbes (i.e. heat and radiation) > (blank) agents target only a single cellular component (i.e. drugs) - cellular targets of physical and chemical agents: > (blank) wall > (blank) membrane > cellular synthetic processes (i.e. [blank] and [blank]) > proteins ([blank])

modes of action of antimicrobial agents: - antimicrobials have a range of cellular targets: > least selective agents tend to be effective against the widest range of microbes (i.e. heat and radiation) > selective agents target only a single cellular component (i.e. drugs) - cellular targets of physical and chemical agents: > cell wall > cytoplasmic membrane > cellular synthetic processes (i.e. DNA and RNA) > proteins (enzymes)

most common healthcare associated infections: (most common to least common) - pneumonia - surgical site infections - gastrointestinal diseases - UTIs - bloodstream infections

most common healthcare associated infections: - pneumonia - surgical site infections - gastrointestinal diseases - UTIs - bloodstream infections

mutations: changes in the genetic code - genetic change is the driving force of (blank) - (blank) change to the nucleotide sequence in genome is a mutation: > most noticeable when a genotypic change leads to a change in (blank) > can involve the (blank) of base pairs, the (blank) of base pairs, or (blank) in order of base pairs

mutations: changes in the genetic code - genetic change is the driving force of evolution - any change to the nucleotide sequence in genome is a mutation: > most noticeable when a genotypic change leads to a change in phenotype > can involve the loss of base pairs, the addition of base pairs, or rearrangement in order of base pairs

nature of the double helix: - (blank) arrangement: one side of the helix runs in (blank) direction of the other - one side runs from (blank) to (blank) and the other side runs (blank) to (blank)

nature of the double helix: - anti-parallel arrangement: one side of the helix runs in opposite direction of the other - one side runs from 5' to 3' and the other side runs 3' to 5'

new approaches to antimicrobial therapy: - (blank): system found in bacteria that can cause very specific cuts in genes; may treat antibiotic resistant infections, together with an antibiotic - drugs from non-cultivable bacteria: 99% of all (blank) are non-cultivable; scientists are developing new ways to grow and harvest their antimicrobial substances

new approaches to antimicrobial therapy: - CRISPR: system found in bacteria that can cause very specific cuts in genes; may treat antibiotic resistant infections, together with an antibiotic - drugs from non-cultivable bacteria: 99% of all microbes are non-cultivable; scientists are developing new ways to grow and harvest their antimicrobial substances

new approaches to antimicrobial therapy: - using (blank) interference strategies (RNAi): small pieces of RNA that regulate the expression of genes and are used to shut down metabolism of pathogens; drug trials have begun in treating hepatitis C and respiratory syncytial virus - mimicking defense (blank): peptides of 20-50 aa are secreted as part of the mammalian innate immune system; bacteria also produce defense (blank) called bacteriocins and lantibiotics; insert into membranes and target other structures in cells

new approaches to antimicrobial therapy: - using RNA interference strategies (RNAi): small pieces of RNA that regulate the expression of genes and are used to shut down metabolism of pathogens; drug trials have begun in treating hepatitis C and respiratory syncytial virus - mimicking defense peptides: peptides of 20-50 aa are secreted as part of the mammalian innate immune system; bacteria also produce defense peptides called bacteriocins and lantibiotics; insert into membranes and target other structures in cells

origins of antimicrobial drugs: - (blank) are natural metabolic products of bacteria and fungi: produced to inhibit the growth of competing (blank) in the same habitat (antagonism) - greatest numbers derived by: (blank) in the genera Streptomyces and Bacillus and (blank) in the genera Penicillium and Cephalosporium

origins of antimicrobial drugs: - antibiotics are natural metabolic products of bacteria and fungi: produced to inhibit the growth of competing microbes in the same habitat (antagonism) - greatest numbers derived by: bacteria in the genera Streptomyces and Bacillus and mold in the genera Penicillium and Cephalosporium

osmotic pressure: - adding large amounts of salt or sugar to foods creates a (blank) environment for bacteria, causing (blank) - pickling, smoking, and drying foods have been used for centuries to preserve foods - osmotic pressure is (blank) a sterilizing technique - gram (blank) are better equipped to handle osmotic pressure than gram (blank)

osmotic pressure: - adding large amounts of salt or sugar to foods creates a hypertonic environment for bacteria, causing plasmolysis - pickling, smoking, and drying foods have been used for centuries to preserve foods - osmotic pressure is never a sterilizing technique - gram positive are better equipped to handle osmotic pressure than gram negative

other antimicrobials: - fungal treatments: (blank) - antimalarials: (blank) and (blank) - other protozoal drugs: (blank) - antihelminthic: (blank)

other antimicrobials: - fungal treatments: ketoconazole - antimalarials: quinine and artemisinin - other protozoal drugs: metronidazole - antihelminthic: ivermectin

other enzymes used in biotech: - (blank): necessary to (blank) the sticky ends together; used in the final splicing of genes into plasmids and chromosomes - (blank) transcriptase (RT): has a role in the (blank) of the AIDS virus; used to convert (blank) into DNA to make (blank) - (blank) DNA (cDNA): made from mRNA, tRNA, and (blank); used to synthesize eukaryotic genes from mRNA transcripts and is free from (blank)

other enzymes used in biotech: - ligases: necessary to seal the sticky ends together; used in the final splicing of genes into plasmids and chromosomes - reverse transcriptase (RT): has a role in the replication of the AIDS virus; used to convert RNA into DNA to make cDNA - complementary DNA (cDNA): made from mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA; used to synthesize eukaryotic genes from mRNA transcripts and is free from introns

other factors affecting the germicidal activity of chemicals: - length of (blank): most compounds require adequate contract time to allow the chemical to penetrate and act on microbes present - composition of material being treated: > smooth, solid objects are more reliably disinfected than those with pores or pockets that can trap soil > large amounts of organic material can hinder penetration > adequate cleaning of instruments and other reusable materials must precede the use of a germicide or sterilant

other factors affecting the germicidal activity of chemicals: - length of exposure: most compounds require adequate contract time to allow the chemical to penetrate and act on microbes present - composition of material being treated: > smooth, solid objects are more reliably disinfected than those with pores or pockets that can trap soil > large amounts of organic material can hinder penetration > adequate cleaning of instruments and other reusable materials must precede the use of a germicide or sterilant

oxidation and reduction: - (blank): loss of electrons; when a compound loses electrons it is (blank) - (blank): gain of electrons; when a compound gains electrons it is (blank) - (blank)-(blank) (redox) reactions are common in the cell and are indispensable to the required energy transformations

oxidation and reduction: - oxidation: loss of electrons; when a compound loses electrons it is oxidized - reduction: gain of electrons; when a compound gains electrons it is reduced - oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions are common in the cell and are indispensable to the required energy transformations

patterns of transmission in communicable diseases: - (blank): transmission is from patient to offspring via the ovum, sperm, placenta, or milk - (blank): disease is spread through population from one infected individual to another > (blank) (contact) transmission > (blank) transmission: fomite ([blank] object) or (blank) (which is natural, nonliving material like air, water, soil, and food) > (blank) transmission: are living organisms that can transmit infectious pathogens between humans, or from animals to humans

patterns of transmission in communicable diseases: - vertical: transmission is from patient to offspring via the ovum, sperm, placenta, or milk - horizontal: disease is spread through population from one infected individual to another > direct (contact) transmission > indirect transmission: fomite (inanimate object) or vehicle (natural, nonliving material like air, water, soil, and food) > vector transmission: are living organisms that can transmit infectious pathogens between humans, or from animals to humans

polymerase chain reaction: - (blank): DNA strands 15 to 30 bases long that serve as landmarks where DNA amplification should begin - DNA (blank) from the thermophilic bacteria: > (blank) polymerase isolated from thermus aquaticus > remain active at elevated temperatures used in (blank) - (blank) cycler: automatically performs the cyclic temperature changes required for (blank)

polymerase chain reaction: - primers: DNA strands 15 to 30 bases long that serve as landmarks where DNA amplification should begin - DNA polymerases from the thermophilic bacteria: > TAQ polymerase isolated from thermus aquaticus > remain active at elevated temperatures used in PCR - thermal cycler: automatically performs the cyclic temperature changes required for PCR

polymerase chain reaction: - rapidly (blank) the amount of DNA in a sample without the need for making cultures or carrying out complex purification techniques - sensitive enough to detect cancer from a single cell or diagnose an infection from a single gene (blank) - rapid enough to replicate target DNA from a few copies to (blank) of copies in a few hours

polymerase chain reaction: - rapidly increases the amount of DNA in a sample without the need for making cultures or carrying out complex purification techniques - sensitive enough to detect cancer from a single cell or diagnose an infection from a single gene copy - rapid enough to replicate target DNA from a few copies to billions of copies in a few hours

principal compounds in the electron transport chain: - NADH (blank) - (blank)-proteins - (blank): which contain a tightly bound (blank) ion in their center that is actively involved in accepting electrons and donating them to the next (blank) in the series

principal compounds in the electron transport chain: - NADH dehydrogenase - flavoproteins - cytochromes: which contain a tightly bound metal ion in their center that is actively involved in accepting electrons and donating them to the next carrier in the series

principles: - the introduction of modern drugs to control infections was a medical revolution in the (blank) > it was actually discovered in the '20s but wasn't commercially available until 40s due to syntheses difficulty - today doctor's are worried that we are dangerously close to a post-antibiotic era, where the drugs we have will no longer be effective

principles: - the introduction of modern drugs to control infections was a medical revolution in the 1940s > it was actually discovered in the '20s but wasn't commercially available until 40s due to syntheses difficulty - today doctor's are worried that we are dangerously close to a post-antibiotic era, where the drugs we have will no longer be effective

products of fermentation in microorganisms: - alcoholic beverages: (blank) and (blank) - solvents: acetone and (blank) - organic acids: lactic acid, vitamins, antibiotics, hormones, and (blank) acid - large-scale industry uses these to make a lot of these products

products of fermentation in microorganisms: - alcoholic beverages: ethanol and CO2 - solvents: acetone and butanol - organic acids: lactic acid, vitamins, antibiotics, hormones, and acetic acid - large-scale industry uses these to make a lot of these products

quantity of microbes in the inoculating dose: - (blank) dose (ID): > the (blank) number of microbes necessary to cause an infection to proceed > ID for tuberculosis is about (blank) cells > ID for cholera is about (blank) cells

quantity of microbes in the inoculating dose: - infectious dose (ID): > the minimum number of microbes necessary to cause an infection to proceed > ID for tuberculosis is about 10 cells > ID for cholera is about 1 million cells

radiation: - energy emitted from atomic activities and dispersed at high velocity through matter or space (i.e. gamma rays, x-rays, UV light)

radiation: - energy emitted from atomic activities and dispersed at high velocity through matter or space (i.e. gamma rays, x-rays, UV light)

(blank) DNA technology: - primary intent is to deliberately remove genetic material from one organism and combine it with that of a different organism - bacteria can be genetically engineered to mass produce: hormones, enzymes, and vaccines

recombinant DNA technology: - primary intent is to deliberately remove genetic material from one organism and combine it with that of a different organism - bacteria can be genetically engineered to mass produce: hormones, enzymes, and vaccines

regulation of enzyme action: - activity of enzymes influenced by the cell's (blank): natural temperature, pH, osmotic pressure, etc. - (blank): > weak bonds that maintain the native shape of the (blank) are broken > this causes distortion of the (blank)'s shape > prevents the (blank) from attaching to the active site - (blank) is irreversible

regulation of enzyme action: - activity of enzymes influenced by the cell's environment: natural temperature, pH, osmotic pressure, etc. - denaturation: > weak bonds that maintain the native shape of the apoenzyme are broken > this causes distortion of the enzyme's shape > prevents the substrate from attaching to the active site - denaturation is irreversible

resistance through horizontal transfer: - (blank) (R) factors: plasmids containing antibiotic resistance genes - can be transferred through (blank), transformation, or transduction - (blank) enclosed with drug resistance are naturally present in microbes before they have been exposed to an antibiotic

resistance through horizontal transfer: - resistance (R) factors: plasmids containing antibiotic resistance genes - can be transferred through conjugation, transformation, or transduction - plasmids enclosed with drug resistance are naturally present in microbes before they have been exposed to an antibiotic

signs and symptoms of inflammation: - (blank) of inflammation: fever, pain, soreness, swelling - (blank) of inflammation: edema (accumulation of fluid in tissues), granulomas and abscesses, lymphadenitis (swollen lymph nodes)

signs and symptoms of inflammation: - symptoms of inflammation: fever, pain, soreness, swelling - signs of inflammation: edema (accumulation of fluid in tissues), granulomas and abscesses, lymphadenitis (swollen lymph nodes)

signs of infection in the blood: - signs of infection: 1.) (blank): increase in white blood cell levels 2.) (blank): decrease in white blood cell levels 3.) (blank): a general state in which microorganisms are multiplying in the blood and are present in large numbers 4.) (blank) or (blank): bacteria or viruses are present in the blood but not by multiplying - -emia: means in the (blank)

signs of infection in the blood: - signs of infection: 1.) leukocytosis: increase in white blood cell levels 2.) leukopenia: decrease in white blood cell levels 3.) septicemia: a general state in which microorganisms are multiplying in the blood and are present in large numbers 4.) bacteremia or viremia: bacteria or viruses are present in the blood but not by multiplying - -emia: means in the blood

spectrum of activity: - (blank)-spectrum drugs: effective against more than one group of bacteria ([blank] antibiotics) - (blank)-spectrum drugs: target a specific group (i.e. polymyxin) - penicillins: originally penicillin was (blank)-spectrum and susceptible to microbial counterattacks; molecule has been altered and improved over the years; later penicillins overcome the limitations of the original molecule

spectrum of activity: - broad-spectrum drugs: effective against more than one group of bacteria (tetracycline antibiotics) - narrow-spectrum drugs: target a specific group (i.e. polymyxin) - penicillins: originally penicillin was narrow-spectrum and susceptible to microbial counterattacks; molecule has been altered and improved over the years; later penicillins overcome the limitations of the original molecule

step four: causing disease - (blank) factors are simply adaptations a microbe uses to establish itself in a host - three ways that microorganisms cause damage to their host: 1.) directly through the action of (blank) or toxins 2.) indirectly by inducing the host's defenses to respond excessively or inappropriately (COVID19) 3.) (blank) changes made to host cells by microbes

step four: causing disease - virulence factors are simply adaptations a microbe uses to establish itself in a host - three ways that microorganisms cause damage to their host: 1.) directly through the action of enzymes or toxins 2.) indirectly by inducing the host's defenses to respond excessively or inappropriately (COVID19) 3.) epigenetic changes made to host cells by microbes

step one: becoming established (portals of entry) - (blank) of entry: have to get in to cause disease (i.e. nose, eyes, mouth, etc..) > (blank): from outside of the body > (blank): already existing on or in the body

step one: becoming established (portals of entry) - portal of entry: have to get in to cause disease (i.e. nose, eyes, mouth, etc..) > exogenous: from outside of the body > endogenous: already existing on or in the body

step three: becoming established (surviving host defenses) - (blank): cells that engulf and destroy host pathogens by means of enzymes and antimicrobial chemicals - (blank) factors used by some pathogens to avoid phagocytes: (blank) which kill phagocytes outright, slime layer or capsule make it difficult for the phagocyte to engulf the pathogen, some bacteria survive inside the phagocyte

step three: becoming established (surviving host defenses) - phagocytes: cells that engulf and destroy host pathogens by means of enzymes and antimicrobial chemicals - virulence factors used by some pathogens to avoid phagocytes: leukocidins which kill phagocytes outright, slime layer or capsule make it difficult for the phagocyte to engulf the pathogen, some bacteria survive inside the phagocyte

step two: becoming established (attaching to host cells) - bacterial, fungal, and protozoal pathogens: (blank), surface proteins, adhesive slimes, or capsules - viruses: (blank) (lock and key) - parasitic (blank): fastened by suckers, hooks, and barbs

step two: becoming established (attaching to host cells) - bacterial, fungal, and protozoal pathogens: fimbriae, surface proteins, adhesive slimes, or capsules - viruses: receptors (lock and key) - parasitic worms: fastened by suckers, hooks, and barbs

(blank): process that destroys or removes all viable microorganisms (including viruses). The term (blank) should be used only in the strictest sense to refer to materials that have been subjected to the process of (blank) (there is no such thing as slightly [blank]). Generally reserved for inanimate objects as it would be impractical or dangerous to sterilize parts of the human body. Common uses: surgical instruments, syringes, commercially packaged foods.

sterilization: process that destroys or removes all viable microorganisms (including viruses). The term sterile should be used only in the strictest sense to refer to materials that have been subjected to the process of sterilization (there is no such thing as slightly sterile). Generally reserved for inanimate objects as it would be impractical or dangerous to sterilize parts of the human body. Common uses: surgical instruments, syringes, commercially packaged foods.

superinfections: - (blank) microbes that were once small in number overgrow when normal resident biota are destroyed by (blank)-spectrum antimicrobials - urinary tract infection caused by E. coli treated with antibiotics can lead to (blank) infection - antibiotic-associated (blank): (#1 problem in healthcare setting) > antibiotics kills off normal biota of the colon > overgrowth of (blank) difficile invades the intestinal lining and releases toxins that cause diarrhea, fever, and abdominal pain

superinfections: - superinfection microbes that were once small in number overgrow when normal resident biota are destroyed by broad-spectrum antimicrobials - urinary tract infection caused by E. coli treated with antibiotics can lead to yeast infection - antibiotic-associated colitis: (#1 problem in healthcare setting) > antibiotics kills off normal biota of the colon > overgrowth of Clostridium difficile invades the intestinal lining and releases toxins that cause diarrhea, fever, and abdominal pain

the electron transport chain: - released energy from electron carriers in the electron transport chain is channeled through (blank) (blank) - oxidative (blank): the coupling of ATP > each NADH that enters the electron transport chain can give rise to (blank) ATPs > electrons from FADH2 enter the electron transport chain at a later point and have less energy to release so only (blank) ATPs result

the electron transport chain: - released energy from electron carriers in the electron transport chain is channeled through ATP synthase - oxidative phosphorylation: the coupling of ATP > each NADH that enters the electron transport chain can give rise to 3 ATPs > electrons from FADH2 enter the electron transport chain at a later point and have less energy to release so only 2 ATPs result

synthetic biology: - creating new biological molecules and organisms from scratch in 2010: Craig (blank) created a self-replicating bacterial cell from the four nucleotides of (blank); this breakthrough of major proportions; it was the first time a living replicating cell had been synthesized from (blank) - will revolutionize medical science through: creating of precise chemicals to replace those missing in disease, assembly of customized immune components, construction of biological molecules that can target cancerous cells or pathogenic microbes

synthetic biology: - creating new biological molecules and organisms from scratch in 2010: Craig Venter created a self-replicating bacterial cell from the four nucleotides of DNA; this breakthrough of major proportions; it was the first time a living replicating cell had been synthesized from chemicals - will revolutionize medical science through: creating of precise chemicals to replace those missing in disease, assembly of customized immune components, construction of biological molecules that can target cancerous cells or pathogenic microbes

techniques of epidemiologists: - identify (blank) agents - track (blank) such as exercising and smoking - collect clues on the causative agent, pathology, sources, and modes of (blank) - track the numbers and distribution of cases of disease in a community

techniques of epidemiologists: - identify causative agents - track behaviors such as exercising and smoking - collect clues on the causative agent, pathology, sources, and modes of transmission - track the numbers and distribution of cases of disease in a community

testing for drug susceptibility: - testing is necessary for the following organisms: staphylococcus species, neisseria gonorrhoeae, enterococcus faecalis, aerobic gram-negative intestinal bacilli (because they all have a history of being [blank] bacteria) - testing for (blank) or (blank) infections is difficult and unnecessary

testing for drug susceptibility: - testing is necessary for the following organisms: staphylococcus species, neisseria gonorrhoeae, enterococcus faecalis, aerobic gram-negative intestinal bacilli (because they all have a history of being resistant bacteria) - testing for fungal or protozoal infections is difficult and unnecessary

the DNA code: - (blank): basic unit of DNA structure which is made up of 3 components: 1.) (blank) group 2.) (blank) (sugar) 3.) (blank) base - nucleotides covalently bond to each other in a (blank)-(blank) linkage that becomes the backbone of each strand: each strand is to the number 5' carbon and one is to the 3' carbon

the DNA code: - nucleotide: basic unit of DNA structure which is made up of 3 components: 1.) phosphate group 2.) deoxyribose (sugar) 3.) nitrogenous base - nucleotides covalently bond to each other in a sugar-phosphate linkage that becomes the backbone of each strand: each strand is to the number 5' carbon and one is to the 3' carbon

the DNA code: - pairing of bases is dictated by the formation of (blank) bonds between bases: - (blank) always pairs with (blank) (weaker bond) - (blank) always pairs with (blank) (stronger bond) - always have a (blank) ring structure bound to a (blank) ring structure

the DNA code: - pairing of bases is dictated by the formation of hydrogen bonds between bases: - adenine (A) always pairs with thymine (T) (weaker bond) - guanine (G) always pairs with cytosine (C)(stronger bond) - always have a 2 ring structure bound to a 1 ring structure

the antimicrobial drug dilemma: - in the past, antimicrobials seen as "cure-all" for infections such as the common cold and acne - physicians have used a "shotgun" approach using (blank)-spectrum antimicrobial therapy for minor infections - tons of excess antimicrobial drugs in the U.S are exported to countries where controls are not as strict

the antimicrobial drug dilemma: - in the past, antimicrobials seen as "cure-all" for infections such as the common cold and acne - physicians have used a "shotgun" approach using broad-spectrum antimicrobial therapy for minor infections - tons of excess antimicrobial drugs in the U.S are exported to countries where controls are not as strict

the effects of cold: - principal benefit of cold treatment is to (blank) growth of cultures and microbes in food during processing and storage - cold merely (blank) the activities of most microbes - most microbes are not adversely affected by gradual cooling, long-term refrigeration, or deep freezing - temperatures from -70*C to -135*C can preserve cultures of bacteria, viruses, and fungi for long periods

the effects of cold: - principal benefit of cold treatment is to slow growth of cultures and microbes in food during processing and storage - cold merely retards the activities of most microbes - most microbes are not adversely affected by gradual cooling, long-term refrigeration, or deep freezing - temperatures from -70*C to -135*C can preserve cultures of bacteria, viruses, and fungi for long periods

the effects of desiccation and lyophilization: - (blank): drying out > vegetative cells directly exposed to normal room temperature gradually become (blank) > some microbes are killed by (blank); many others are not killed and some are even preserved - (blank): freeze drying > combination of freezing and drying > method of preserving microorganisms in a viable state for many years > pure cultures are frozen instantaneously and exposed to a vacuum that removes water, avoiding the formation of ice crystals

the effects of desiccation and lyophilization: - desiccation: drying out > vegetative cells directly exposed to normal room temperature gradually become dehydrated > some microbes are killed by desiccation; many others are not killed and some are even preserved - lyophilization: freeze drying > combination of freezing and drying > method of preserving microorganisms in a viable state for many years > pure cultures are frozen instantaneously and exposed to a vacuum that removes water, avoiding the formation of ice crystals

the human microbiome: - human microbiome: > the sum (blank) of all microbes found on and in a normal human > critically important to the health and functioning of its (blank) organism

the human microbiome: - human microbiome: > the sum total of all microbes found on and in a normal human > critically important to the health and functioning of its host organism

the lactose operon: - best understood cell system for explaining control through genetic (blank) - three features of the lac operon: 1.) (blank): composed of the gene that codes for a protein capable of repressing the operon (a [blank]) - control locus: 2.) (blank): recognized by RNA polymerase 3.) (blank): on/off switch - structural locus made up of three genes coding for different enzymes needed to (blank) lactose

the lactose operon: - best understood cell system for explaining control through genetic induction - three features of the lac operon: 1.) regulator: composed of the gene that codes for a protein capable of repressing the operon (a repressor) - control locus: 2.) promoter: recognized by RNA polymerase 3.) operator: on/off switch - structural locus made up of three genes coding for different enzymes needed to catabolize lactose

the master genetic code: - (blank): groups of three nucleotides that dictate which amino acid is added to the growing peptide chain > 64 different (blank) codes and 20 (blank) acids > some amino acids represented by several codons; this (blank) allows for insertion of correct amino acids, even when mistakes occur in the DNA sequence - (blank): only the first (blank) nucleotides are required to encode the correct amino acid, and the (blank) nucleotide does not change its sense; permits some variation or (blank) without altering the message

the master genetic code: - codon: groups of three nucleotides that dictate which amino acid is added to the growing peptide chain > 64 different triplet codes and 20 amino acids > some amino acids represented by several codons; this redundancy allows for insertion of correct amino acids, even when mistakes occur in the DNA sequence - wobble: only the first two nucleotides are required to encode the correct amino acid, and the third nucleotide does not change its sense; permits some variation or mutation without altering the message

the nature of genetic material: - 3 categories of genes: 1.) (blank) genes: code for proteins 2.) genes that code for (blank) machinery used in protein production (1 gene for 1 protein) 3.) (blank) genes: control gene expression - (blank): the sum of all gene types ; an organism's distinctive genetic makeup - (blank): the expression of certain traits (structures or functions)

the nature of genetic material: - 3 categories of genes: 1.) structural genes: code for proteins 2.) genes that code for RNA machinery used in protein production (1 gene for 1 protein) 3.) regulatory genes: control gene expression - genotype: the sum of all gene types; an organism's distinctive genetic makeup - phenotype: the expression of certain traits (structures or functions)

the nature of genetic material: - (blank): distinct cellular structure composed of a neatly packaged DNA molecule - (blank) chromosomes: DNA wound around (blank) proteins; located in (blank), (blank) (in pairs) or (blank) (23 single chromosomes located in sex cells); have a linear appearance - (blank) chromosomes: no nucleus so DNA/RNA is a anywhere in cell; (blank), two, or three circular chromosomes

the nature of genetic material: - chromosome: distinct cellular structure composed of a neatly packaged DNA molecule - eukaryotic chromosomes: DNA wound around histone proteins; located in nucleus, diploid (in pairs) or haploid (23 single chromosomes located in sex cells); have a linear appearance - bacterial chromosomes: no nucleus so DNA/RNA is a anywhere in cell; one, two, or three circular chromosomes

the nature of genetic material: - (blank): total sum of genetic material of an organism > most of the (blank) exists in forms of (blank) > some appear as (blank) or in certain organelles of eukaryotes (i.e. [blank] and [blank]) > (blank) of cells composed entirely of DNA > (blank) of viruses can contain either DNA or (blank)

the nature of genetic material: - genome: total sum of genetic material of an organism > most of the genome exists in forms of chromosomes > some appear as plasmids or in certain organelles of eukaryotes (i.e. mitochondria and chloroplasts) > genome of cells composed entirely of DNA > genome of viruses can contain either DNA or RNA

the new "-omics" - (blank): systematic study of an organism's genes and their functions - (blank): study of an organism's complement of proteins and functions mediated by the proteins - (blank): study of all the genomes in a particular ecological niche - (blank): study of the complete complement of (blank) chemicals present in the cell at any given time; provides a snapshot of the physiological state of the cell and the end products of its (blank)

the new "-omics" - genomics: systematic study of an organism's genes and their functions - proteomics: study of an organism's complement of proteins and functions mediated by the proteins - metagenomics: study of all the genomes in a particular ecological niche - metabolomics: study of the complete complement of small chemicals present in the cell at any given time; provides a snapshot of the physiological state of the cell and the end products of its metabolism

thermal death measurements: - (blank) death (blank) (TDT): shortest length of time required to kill all test microbes at a specified temperature - (blank) death (blank) (TDP): the lowest temperature required to kill all microbes in a sample in 10 minutes - think food safety and production

thermal death measurements: - thermal death time (TDT): shortest length of time required to kill all test microbes at a specified temperature - thermal death point (TDP): the lowest temperature required to kill all microbes in a sample in 10 minutes - think food safety and production

threats: - (blank) threats: clostridium difficile, carbapenum-resistant enterobacteriaceae (CRE), and drug resistant neisseria gonorrhoeae - (blank) threats: multidrug resistant acinetobacter, drug resistant campylobacter, fluconazole resistant candida - (blank) threats: vancomycin-resistant staphylococcus aureus, erythromycin-resistant group A streptococcus, and clindamycin resistant group B streptococcus

threats: - urgent threats: clostridium difficile, carbapenum-resistant enterobacteriaceae (CRE), and drug resistant neisseria gonorrhoeae - serious threats: multidrug resistant acinetobacter, drug resistant campylobacter, fluconazole resistant candida - concerning threats: vancomycin-resistant staphylococcus aureus, erythromycin-resistant group A streptococcus, and clindamycin resistant group B streptococcus

toxicity to organs: - drugs can adversely affect the following organs: a.) (blank) - hepatotoxic b.) (blank) - nephrotoxic c.) gastrointestinal tract d.) cardiovascular system and blood-forming tissue - (blank) e.) (blank) system (neurotoxic) f.) respiratory tract g.) skin h.) bones and teeth

toxicity to organs: - drugs can adversely affect the following organs: a.) liver - hepatotoxic b.) kidneys - nephrotoxic c.) gastrointestinal tract d.) cardiovascular system and blood-forming tissue - hemotoxic e.) nervous system (neurotoxic) f.) respiratory tract g.) skin h.) bones and teeth

tracking diseases in the population: - (blank) or notifiable diseases: certain diseases must be reported to authorities; others are reported on a voluntary basis - network of individuals and agencies at the local, district, state, national. and international levels keeps track of infectious diseases

tracking diseases in the population: - reportable or notifiable diseases: certain diseases must be reported to authorities; others are reported on a voluntary basis - network of individuals and agencies at the local, district, state, national. and international levels keeps track of infectious diseases

transcription has 3 stages: 1.) (blank): is the beginning of transcription. It occurs when the enzyme (blank) polymerase binds to a region of a gene called the (blank). This signals the DNA to unwind so the enzyme can ''read'' the bases in one of the DNA strands. The enzyme is now ready to make a strand of mRNA with a complementary sequence of bases. 2.) (blank): is the addition of nucleotides to the (blank) strand. RNA (blank) reads the unwound DNA strand and builds the mRNA molecule, using complementary base pairs. There is a brief time during this process when the newly formed RNA is bound to the unwound DNA. During this process, an adenine (A) in the DNA binds to an uracil (U) in the RNA. 3.) (blank): is the ending of transcription, and occurs when RNA polymerase crosses a (blank) (termination) sequence in the gene. The mRNA strand is complete, and it detaches from DNA.

transcription has 3 stages: 1.) initiation: is the beginning of transcription. It occurs when the enzyme RNA polymerase binds to a region of a gene called the promoter. This signals the DNA to unwind so the enzyme can ''read'' the bases in one of the DNA strands. The enzyme is now ready to make a strand of mRNA with a complementary sequence of bases. 2.) elongation: is the addition of nucleotides to the mRNA strand. RNA polymerase reads the unwound DNA strand and builds the mRNA molecule, using complementary base pairs. There is a brief time during this process when the newly formed RNA is bound to the unwound DNA. During this process, an adenine (A) in the DNA binds to an uracil (U) in the RNA. 3.) termination: is the ending of transcription, and occurs when RNA polymerase crosses a stop (termination) sequence in the gene. The mRNA strand is complete, and it detaches from DNA.

transformation: capturing DNA from solution - a chromosome released by (blank) cell breaks into fragments small enough to be accepted by a recipient cell - (blank): > nonspecific acceptance by a bacterial cell of small fragments (blank) from the environment > facilitated by DNA-binding proteins on (blank) wall > (blank): cells that are capable of accepting genetic material

transformation: capturing DNA from solution - a chromosome released by lysed cell breaks into fragments small enough to be accepted by a recipient cell - transformation: > nonspecific acceptance by a bacterial cell of small fragments DNA from the environment > facilitated by DNA-binding proteins on cell wall > competent: cells that are capable of accepting genetic material

transformation: capturing DNA from solution - requires no special (blank); donor and recipient cells do not have to be in direct contact - useful for certain types of (blank) DNA technology: > foreign genes from a completely unrelated organism are inserted into a (blank) > (blank) is introduced into a competent bacterial cell through transformation > can be carried out in a test (blank) - (blank): similar process carried out in eukaryotic cells to form genetically modified yeasts, plants, and mice

transformation: capturing DNA from solution - requires no special appendages; donor and recipient cells do not have to be in direct contact - useful for certain types of recombinant DNA technology: > foreign genes from a completely unrelated organism are inserted into a plasmid > plasmid is introduced into a competent bacterial cell through transformation > can be carried out in a test tube - transfection: similar process carried out in eukaryotic cells to form genetically modified yeasts, plants, and mice

transmission of infectious agents: - (blank): a disease in which an infected host can transmit the infectious agent to another host - (blank): a disease that is highly communicable, especially through direct contact - influenza and measles are highly (blank); hansen's disease (leprosy) is only weakly (blank)

transmission of infectious agents: - communicable: a disease in which an infected host can transmit the infectious agent to another host - contagious: a disease that is highly communicable, especially through direct contact - influenza and measles are highly contagious; hansen's disease (leprosy) is only weakly communicable

tube dilution test: - more sensitive and quantitative than the (blank) bauer test - (blank) is diluted serially in tubes of both - each tube is inoculated with a small uniform sample of pure (blank), incubated, and examined - (blank) inhibitory (blank) (MIC): the smallest concentration of drug that inhibits growth; is useful for determining the smallest effective dosage and providing a comparative index against other (blank)

tube dilution test: - more sensitive and quantitative than the kirby bauer test - antimicrobial is diluted serially in tubes of both - each tube is inoculated with a small uniform sample of pure culture, incubated, and examined - minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC): the smallest concentration of drug that inhibits growth; is useful for determining the smallest effective dosage and providing a comparative index against other antimicrobials

unique challenges in the chemotherapeutic treatment of viruses: - infectious agent relies on a (blank) cell for the vast majority of its metabolic functions - disrupting viral (blank) requires disruption of cellular metabolism of host - very few great antivirals exist

unique challenges in the chemotherapeutic treatment of viruses: - infectious agent relies on a host cell for the vast majority of its metabolic functions - disrupting viral metabolism requires disruption of cellular metabolism of host - very few great antivirals exist

uses of filtration: - used to prepare liquids that cannot withstand heat such as (blank), blood products, (blank), drugs, IV fluids, enzymes, and media - alternative method for decontaminating (blank) and beer without altering their flavor - important step in water (blank) - unable to remove soluble molecules ([blank]) that can cause disease - high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters are used in hospital rooms and sterile rooms

uses of filtration: - used to prepare liquids that cannot withstand heat such as serums, blood products, vaccines, drugs, IV fluids, enzymes, and media - alternative method for decontaminating milk and beer without altering their flavor - important step in water purification - unable to remove soluble molecules (toxins) that can cause disease - high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters are used in hospital rooms and sterile rooms

using bacteriophages: - UCSD has a new phage therapy research center: IPATH (innovative phage applications and therapeutics); researches the use of (blank) found in a variety of unsavory places to treat resistant infections - eastern european countries use mixtures of (blank) as medicine, but these drugs have never been approved for use in the West

using bacteriophages: - UCSD has a new phage therapy research center: IPATH (innovative phage applications and therapeutics); researches the use of bacteriophages found in a variety of unsavory places to treat resistant infections - eastern european countries use mixtures of bacteriophages as medicine, but these drugs have never been approved for use in the West

using genetic techniques to treat disease: - (blank) therapy: replacing a faulty gene responsible for disease with a gene from a healthy organism - (blank): allows scientists to cut an organism's DNA where they want to

using genetic techniques to treat disease: - gene therapy: replacing a faulty gene responsible for disease with a gene from a healthy organism - CRISPR: allows scientists to cut an organism's DNA where they want to

warning signals of disease: - (blank): objective evidence of disease as noted by an observer (i.e. vomiting) - (blank): subjective evidence of disease as sensed by the patient

warning signals of disease: - sign: objective evidence of disease as noted by an observer (i.e. vomiting) - symptom: subjective evidence of disease as sensed by the patient (i.e. nausea)

what is required to carry out PCR: - a (blank) - a (blank) - DNA polymerase ([blank]) - (blank) cycler

what is required to carry out PCR: - a sample - a primer - DNA polymerase (TAQ) - thermal cycler

when colonization leads to disease: - (blank): an organism's potential to cause disease > (blank) pathogens: capable of causing disease in healthy persons > (blank) pathogens: cause disease when the host's defenses are compromised or when the pathogens become established in a part of the body that is not natural to them - (blank): relative severity of a disease caused by a particular microbe; degree of (blank)

when colonization leads to disease: - pathogenicity: an organism's potential to cause disease > true pathogens: capable of causing disease in healthy persons > opportunistic pathogens: cause disease when the host's defenses are compromised or when the pathogens become established in a part of the body that is not natural to them - virulence: relative severity of a disease caused by a particular microbe; degree of pathogenicity

which are more resistant? enveloped viruses or bacterial endospores?

which are more resistant? enveloped viruses or bacterial endospores? bacterial endospores

wild type vs. mutant strain - (blank) type: a microorganism that exhibits a natural, non-mutated characteristic - (blank) strain: shows variance in one or more of the following a.) (blank) (appearance) b.) (blank) control mechanisms c.) (blank) to chemicals d.) (blank) preference e.) any type of (blank) function

wild type vs. mutant strain - wild type: a microorganism that exhibits a natural, non-mutated characteristic - mutant strain: shows variance in one or more of the following a.) morphology (appearance) b.) genetic control mechanisms c.) resistance to chemicals d.) temperature preference e.) any type of enzymatic function

working with DNA in the laboratory: - (blank) endonucleases: a.) (blank) capable of recognizing foreign DNA and breaking the phosphodiester bonds between adjacent nucleotides on both strands of (blank) b.) protects bacteria against incompatible DNA of (blank) or (blank) c.) allows biotechnologists to (blank) DNA at desired sites d.) necessary for (blank) DNA technology e.) recognize and clips at (blank)

working with DNA in the laboratory: - restriction endonucleases: a.) enzymes capable of recognizing foreign DNA and breaking the phosphodiester bonds between adjacent nucleotides on both strands of DNA b.) protects bacteria against incompatible DNA of bacteriophages or plasmids c.) allows biotechnologists to cleave DNA at desired sites d.) necessary for recombinant DNA technology e.) recognize and clips at palindrome