EXAM 2 NOTES

when a bone ceases to grow in length

-epiphyseal line

what are the two types of melanin

-eumelanin -pheomelanin

what does intramembranous ossification form

-forms middle and flat bones on fetus

colles fracture

-fracture on radial bone

hemoglobin

-gobliur proteins inside of RBC's

what are the hormones involved in bone growth

-hGH : human growth hormones -IGFS : insulin like growth factors produced by liver and bone -thyroid hormone -insulin -sex hormones

what is the hair part that penetrates into the dermis

-hair root

what is the hair above the skin

-hair shaft

what are epidermal ridges

-helps increase surface area as well as friction

tan

-increased production of melanin due to UV rays

freckles

-increased production of melanin in patches

what is the process of infancy to adulthood in which the bones growth length wise

-intersitial growth

main difference between intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification

-intramembranous : bone forms directly within mesenchyme -endochondral ossification: forms directly within hyaline cartilage

what is function of an osteocyte

-maintains bone tissues -stuck in a lacunae

what do melanocytes do ?

-make melanin and protect skin cells from UV light

age spots

-melanin that comes from UV rays to protect the skin

what are factors that affect bone growth and remodeling

-minerals -vitamins -hormones

Describe the stratum corneum

-most outer layer of the skin and contains dead cells and proteins

what is the structure of an osteoclast

-multinucleated and have ruffled boarder that are enzymes that help break down things

what needs to be activated to absorb calcium and what is calcium roles

-needs activated calcitriol to absorb calcium -calciums role is muscle contraction and nerve conduction

describe the papillary region

-on top of reticular layer and composed of loose connective tissue that is highly vascular

describe pheomelanin

-one type of melanin used to describe yellow to red

Describe eumelanin

-one type of melanin used to produce brown or black

what layer of the skin would bleed if there is an injury

-only the dermis would bleed if there was an injury because the dermis is vascular and epidermis is avascular

what is bone growth in thickness

-oppositional growth

what are the circles in an osteon

-osteon and inside that is a central cannel that contains blood vessels

Describe the thick skin and their location

-palms , fingertips and soles -contains all layers of the skin

what are the two layers of the dermis

-papillary and reticular

what is keratinization and its function

-process of producing keratin -keratin are tough fibrous proteins to help us protect our skin

what do sebaceous glands do

-produce oil (sebum)

What is the skins role in blood reservoir

-responsible for 8-10% of total blood flow

what are the types of exocrine glands

-sebacous , sudoriferous , ceruminous

Describe the stratum lucid

-second layer of the skin and the CLEAR LAYER before they form into the stratum corneum

what do osteogenic cells do

-stem cells that develop into an osteoblast

what do sudoriferous glands do

-sweat glands -mammary glands are a type of SUDORIFEROUS glands that produce milk

what do langerhans cells do ?

-they are immune cells that participate in phagocytosis which means they protect the skin by eating up pathogens

Describe the stratum granulosum

-third layer of the epidermis -Cells in this level are not very alive and more so packaged in proteins

what do ceruminous glands do

-type of sweat gland found in the ear that helps with protection

what is found inside sweat and how much do we produce a day

-water, sodium , chloride, urea and 600 ml

where is yellow bone marrow contained

medullary cavity

function of skeletal system

movement through muscle pulling bones, store and release calcium, blood cell production and stores fat

does the pectoral girdle articulate with the vertebral column

no explains why the upper limbs have a lot of range of motion

false ribs

not directly attached to the sternum T8-12

what is the hyoid bone attached to

nothing really

what is Temporomandibular joint syndrome

occurs when the mandible is out of socket

what are paranasal sinuses

open spaces in the bone lined with mucus membranes

bone formation is also known as

ossification and osteogenesis

what is the correct steps from osteogenic cells to osteocytes from bone cell lineage

osteogenic cells turn to osteoblast which matures to osteocytes

Excessive loss of calcium weakens the bone

osteoporosis

Largest and only named seasmod bone in the body

patella

Transverse foot arches :

patients with diabetes or other disease they might have a higher arches foot : claw foot Causing difficulty walking

what does nail matrix do

produce new nail cells

what does articular cartilage do

reduce friction and helps us with movement

osteoclast functions

resorption of bone extracellular matrix BREAKS DOWN BONE TISSUE

what is the ending of the spinal canal :

sacral hiatus

where does the pituitary gland sit

sella turcica

fossa

shallow depression

Differences between cervical , thoracic and lumbar vertebrae

size foramina spinous process transverse process

What are the two types of skin

Thick skin and Thin Skin

what are the three parts of the hand

wrist : carpal bones metacarpals phalanges

difference between eccrine sweat glands and appocrine sweat glands

-eccrine : found around the body -apocrine : glands that are found only in armpit and pelvic region and they do not play a role in thermoregulation

Describe the stratum basale

-5th layer of epidermis and the base layer -Layer that contains the stem cells that undergo cell division which then pushes the new cells to the upper layer which is the stratum spinosum

what helps promote the process of keratinization

-Epidermal growth factors EGF

Describe the stratum spinousum

-Fourth layer in the epidermis -Some cells in this layer can undergo cell division but the cells in this layer typically look spinal looking Contain langerhan cells , melanocytes , merkel cells

What are the functions of Merkel cells?

-Recieves messages through Merkel disc and send the message to our sensory neurons

Describe the thin skin and their location

-Regions with more hair -missing stratum lucidum

Difference between thick and thin skin

-Thin skin is in hairy regions and thick skin in in tougher regions such as palms, fingertips and soles of the feet -Epidermal strat: the stratum lucidium is the thing clear layer of the epidermis and is only present in thick skin not thin skin

describe the subcutaneous layer

-also known as the hypodermic -contains receptors that sense deeper pressure - pacinian corpuscles

what are the minerals involved in bone growth

-calcium and phosphate -makes bone hard

green stick fracture

-common in children -break on one side of the bone because bone is not fully ossified

What is the hypoychium?

-connects skin to fingernails

how is melanin produced

-created by melanocytes -Tyrosone (amino acid) uses tyrosinase (enzyme) to form melanin

describe the reticular region

-deep layer, forming a thick layer of dense connective tissue that constitutes the bulk of the dermis

explain vitiligo

-depigmentation in the skin due to some or complete loss of melanocyte

what are the two major types of surface markings

-depression and openings -processes

Explain albinism

-due to little or no tryosinase which is the enzyme that produces tyrosine into melanin

what makes fingerprints and footprints

-due to oil and sweat glands

healing process of dermis

1. Blood clots will try to form with the help of platelets 2.Monocytes and neutrophils will try to fight pathogens 3. Fibroblast will try to make more collagen fibers 4. Scab will form in the end

describe the process of endochondral ossification

1. Starts with cartilage that comes from mesenchymial cells Chondroblast 2. Chondrocytes make more of themselves and start to calcify 3. Nutrient artery will start formation of primary ossificaiton center Bone tissues replace cartilage : forming spongy bone 4. Medullary cavity starts to develop by breakdown of osteoclast 5. Development of secondary ossification center : at epiphyseal site 6. End result is layers of cartilage at both ends of epihyseal

calcium homeostasis

1. Stimulus causes a drop in calcium levels 2. Receptor in parathyroid gland will detect low calcium levels and rely the message to the parathyroid glands to tell the cells to make more parathyroid hormone 3. Increase release parathyroid hormone increase the release of osteoclast to help breakdown bone tissues (resorption) 4. Causing the calcium to be release from the bone into the blood Helps kidneys retain mroe calcium

What are the five layers of the epidermis from bottom to top ?

1. Stratum Corneum 2. Stratum Lucidum 3. Stratum Granulosum 4. Stratum Spinosum 5. Stratum Basale

what situation calls for bone formation

1. initial Formation of bone in an embryo and fetus 2. Growth of bones from infancy to adulthood 3. Remodeling of bone 4. Repair of fractures

how many frontal bones are there

14

what forms the sacrum

5 fused bones

Types of bones :

5 main classifications Long bones (humerus) Short bones (trapezoid , wrist bones) Flat bones (sternum) Irregular bones (vertebra) seasmoid bones (patella) Sutural bones Also known as wormian bones Located between sutures of certain cranial bones

how many cranial bones are there

8

ischium

: bottom region of hip bones -hip bones

kyphosis

: hunch back : due to poor posture or rickets

Longitudinal foot arches

: if the longitudinal weakens it can result into flatfoot Causing a flat foot arch

depression and openings

Allow passages of blood vessels and nerves attachment ligaments and tendons Form regions of joints

how are anesthetic injections given

Anesthetic injections are given through the sacral hiatus canal and inorder to find the sacral hiatus they must find the sacral corccyx

what happens in a bone in hot temperature

Bone in hot temperate will get rid of proteins ( collagen) but not mineral salts causing the bone to be brittle

Difference between bone cell lineage to white blood cell lineage in bone tissues

Bone cell lineage : OSTEOGENIC CELLS, OSTEOBLAST and OSTEOCYTE WHITE BLOOD CELL LINEAGE: osteoblast

transverse process difference between the different types of vertebrae

C; small T: fairly large L: large and blunt

what is shaped like a roosters cock and allows the brain to be split into left and right regions

Cristina galli

what two things allows the head to nod do

Dens which is the same as the odontoid process which allows the articulation between c1 and c2

Describe the different types of burns

First degree- affect epidermis second degree-affects dermis third degree -affects hypodermic (subcutaneous layer)

acromioclavicular joint

Flatter Towards the outwards

what is the foot made up of

Foot is made up of tarsals , metarsals and phalanges

where does the spinal cord run through

Formen Magnum

where does the sciatic nerve go through

Greater sciatic notch:

rickets

Happens when calcium salts are not deposited properly or deficiency of vitamin D As a result it causes the bones to be soft The soft bones are unable to maintain the weight which causes the bowing TREATMENT: vitamin D, calcium

what does C2 has that C1 does not

Has spinous process and vertebral foramen

Purpose of Haversian system

Haversian canals are microscopic tubes or tunnels in cortical bone that house nerve fibers and a few capillaries. This allows bone to get oxygen and nutrition without being highly vascular. These canals also communicate with bone cells using special connections, or canaliculi.

hyoid bone

Hyoid bone : antisocial bone Does not articulate with other bones Held together by ligaments and muscles

pectoral gridle

Includes clavicle and scapula

functions of parasol sinuses

Increase surface area of nasal mucosa : moisten and cleanse dry air Reduce weight of bone Resonate teh sound of our voice Infection or inflammation of the musca can change our breaths

what allows the jugular veins to go through

Jugular foramen

what forms the vertebral arch

Lamina and pedicle

where are mature osteocytes found and how do they communicate

Mature osteocytes are stuck inside of the lacuna Communicate through little canals : canliculi

basic structure of bone from top to bottom

Metaphysis Diaphysis Metaphysis Distal epihysis : point of bone away from the attachment point

sternoclavilcuar joint

More rounded : towards the medil

arrestor pili muscle

Normally slanted and holds onto hair root but once there is a stimulation, the arrector pili muscle is going to pull on hair causing the hair to stand up : goosebump

what causes blisters in a second degree burn

Normally the epidermis and dermis are tightly together but during a second degree burn , they separate causing an inability to hold on to fluids in between cells

what articulates with our first cervical vertebrae allowing us to nod our heads

Occipital condyle

what are the small holes of the ethmoid bone that allows persons to smell particles

Olfactory foramina

difference between palatine bone and palatine process

Palatine process is different from palatine bone because the palatine bone is apart of the maxilla

what hormones are responsible for calcium regulation

Parathyroid hormone: Synthesised when calcium levels are low Calcitriol (active form of vitamin D) Calcitonin Synthesised from thyroid glands : when calcium is too high they are released

describe intramembranous ossification process

Process 1. Mesenchymal cells grow into osteoblast Osteoblast secretes these collagen fibers (steel) 2. Calcification : Deposit calcium and other mineral salts 3. Formation of trabeculae : forms spongy bone 4. Development of periosteum

processess

Projections that are protruding out that forms joints Serves as attachment points for our connective tissues such as ligaments and tendons

what is the shape of the clavicle bone

S

Why does each osteon have an Haversian system

So the osteocytes are able to get nutrients from eachother , the volkmans canal helps with blood vessel transporting and excreting nutrients

how does the skeletal system store fat

Stores triglercides in the yellow bone marrow Stores energy as fuel

What is calcitonin?

Synthesised from thyroid glands : when calcium is too high they are released

Floating ribs

T11-T12 -do not have articulate costal cartilage

why is green stick fracture so common in kids

THEIR BONES ARE NOT FULLY STRONG YET: STILL LOTS OF COLLAGEN

what forms the ankle joint

Tibia and fibula articulate with the talus bones

what are the vitamins involved in bone growth

Vitamins D and C

what makes up the zygomatic arch which is also called the cheekbone

Zygomatic process and temporal process

Tuberostiy

a large bony promience that is not articular

What is calcitriol?

active form of vitamin D

pott fracture

ankle fracture on one specific side -on distal end of fibula

what is included inside of the dermis

blood vessels, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair follicle and hair root

what does C1 lack

body and spinous process

What do osteoblast do

builds bone extraceullar matrix -make collagen fibers

strongest tarsal bones

calcaneus

what are soft bones called and what are they due to

called rickets and due to lack of vitamin D

Healing process of epidermis

cells will migrate toward eachother until they reach other : contact inhibition

size difference between the different types of vertebrae

cervical : small thoracic: large lumbar : largest

foramina difference between the different types of vertebrae

cervical: one vertebral and two transverse thoracic: one vertebral lumbar : one vertebral

pelvic brim

circle in pelvic

true pelvic

circle in the middle of the pelvic Contains urinary bladder and female reproductive organs

what allows the attachments of the ribs

costal facets

what is connected to the C2

dens of axis

what is the dermis composed of

dense irregular connective tissue containing collagen and elastic

calcification

deposition of calcium to bone tissue to harden them

What are true ribs

directly attached to sternum T1-T7

what are intervertebral disc

disc between each vertebrae

what type of cells are inside the mastoid process

ear cells that can get inflamed

which part of the bone can bone grow

epiphyseal plate

what happens before the ages of 18-21

epiphyseal will grow

false pelvis

everything outside of that hole

what is another name for skin glands

exocrine cells

role of protein (collagen)

fibers provide flexibility and tensile strength

Acetabulum

formed by the joining of all three bones : head of femur sits here

comminuted fracture

fracture broken to pieces

what forms the coccyx

from 4 fused bones

olacrenon

funny bone

how does the skeletal system help with blood cell production

hemopoiesis / hematopoiesis : blood cell production in red bone marrow

foramen

hole -pleural : formina

What specific place in the sella turcicia does the pitutiary gland sit in ?

hypophyseal fossa

what makes up the hip bones

ilium, ischium, and pubis that fuse together by the age of 23

where is red bone marrow found

in the holes of the trabeclae

what is not apart of the ethmoid bone

inferior nasal concha

what are the two types of initial bone formation

intramembranous ossification endochondral ossification

What is the epidermis composed of?

keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

what is the keystone bone in the cranial system

keystone bone in cranial system because it articulates with every other bone

what bones collects tears

lacrimal bone

condyle

large and round process

tibia vs fibula

largest bone in the lower limb and bears all the weight In articulation with the femur

what do keratinocytes do ?

make fibrous proteins and compose most of epidermis

what happens with dead skin cells ?

skin cells start at the base and move their way up and as they reach the outside world they become dead cells with dead proteins inside

tubercle

small rounded projection

where are red bone marrow contained

spongy bone

difference between compact and spongy bone

spongy bone does not contain osteon or Haversian system

how does the skeletal system help with calcium balance

stores and release calcium based on calcium blood levels

radial tuberosity

tendons of bicep brachi will attach here

spongy bone is also known as

trabecular bone

meatus

tube like canal

What is the main idea of the dermis

vascular region that contains blood vessels and nerves

trochanter

very large projections

what is bone composed of

water + organic proteins (collagen)+ mineral salts

tibial tuberosity

where tendon goes through

glenoind cavity

where the head of your upper arm fits right in Faces the outside