EXAM 2 NOTES
when a bone ceases to grow in length
-epiphyseal line
what are the two types of melanin
-eumelanin -pheomelanin
what does intramembranous ossification form
-forms middle and flat bones on fetus
colles fracture
-fracture on radial bone
hemoglobin
-gobliur proteins inside of RBC's
what are the hormones involved in bone growth
-hGH : human growth hormones -IGFS : insulin like growth factors produced by liver and bone -thyroid hormone -insulin -sex hormones
what is the hair part that penetrates into the dermis
-hair root
what is the hair above the skin
-hair shaft
what are epidermal ridges
-helps increase surface area as well as friction
tan
-increased production of melanin due to UV rays
freckles
-increased production of melanin in patches
what is the process of infancy to adulthood in which the bones growth length wise
-intersitial growth
main difference between intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification
-intramembranous : bone forms directly within mesenchyme -endochondral ossification: forms directly within hyaline cartilage
what is function of an osteocyte
-maintains bone tissues -stuck in a lacunae
what do melanocytes do ?
-make melanin and protect skin cells from UV light
age spots
-melanin that comes from UV rays to protect the skin
what are factors that affect bone growth and remodeling
-minerals -vitamins -hormones
Describe the stratum corneum
-most outer layer of the skin and contains dead cells and proteins
what is the structure of an osteoclast
-multinucleated and have ruffled boarder that are enzymes that help break down things
what needs to be activated to absorb calcium and what is calcium roles
-needs activated calcitriol to absorb calcium -calciums role is muscle contraction and nerve conduction
describe the papillary region
-on top of reticular layer and composed of loose connective tissue that is highly vascular
describe pheomelanin
-one type of melanin used to describe yellow to red
Describe eumelanin
-one type of melanin used to produce brown or black
what layer of the skin would bleed if there is an injury
-only the dermis would bleed if there was an injury because the dermis is vascular and epidermis is avascular
what is bone growth in thickness
-oppositional growth
what are the circles in an osteon
-osteon and inside that is a central cannel that contains blood vessels
Describe the thick skin and their location
-palms , fingertips and soles -contains all layers of the skin
what are the two layers of the dermis
-papillary and reticular
what is keratinization and its function
-process of producing keratin -keratin are tough fibrous proteins to help us protect our skin
what do sebaceous glands do
-produce oil (sebum)
What is the skins role in blood reservoir
-responsible for 8-10% of total blood flow
what are the types of exocrine glands
-sebacous , sudoriferous , ceruminous
Describe the stratum lucid
-second layer of the skin and the CLEAR LAYER before they form into the stratum corneum
what do osteogenic cells do
-stem cells that develop into an osteoblast
what do sudoriferous glands do
-sweat glands -mammary glands are a type of SUDORIFEROUS glands that produce milk
what do langerhans cells do ?
-they are immune cells that participate in phagocytosis which means they protect the skin by eating up pathogens
Describe the stratum granulosum
-third layer of the epidermis -Cells in this level are not very alive and more so packaged in proteins
what do ceruminous glands do
-type of sweat gland found in the ear that helps with protection
what is found inside sweat and how much do we produce a day
-water, sodium , chloride, urea and 600 ml
where is yellow bone marrow contained
medullary cavity
function of skeletal system
movement through muscle pulling bones, store and release calcium, blood cell production and stores fat
does the pectoral girdle articulate with the vertebral column
no explains why the upper limbs have a lot of range of motion
false ribs
not directly attached to the sternum T8-12
what is the hyoid bone attached to
nothing really
what is Temporomandibular joint syndrome
occurs when the mandible is out of socket
what are paranasal sinuses
open spaces in the bone lined with mucus membranes
bone formation is also known as
ossification and osteogenesis
what is the correct steps from osteogenic cells to osteocytes from bone cell lineage
osteogenic cells turn to osteoblast which matures to osteocytes
Excessive loss of calcium weakens the bone
osteoporosis
Largest and only named seasmod bone in the body
patella
Transverse foot arches :
patients with diabetes or other disease they might have a higher arches foot : claw foot Causing difficulty walking
what does nail matrix do
produce new nail cells
what does articular cartilage do
reduce friction and helps us with movement
osteoclast functions
resorption of bone extracellular matrix BREAKS DOWN BONE TISSUE
what is the ending of the spinal canal :
sacral hiatus
where does the pituitary gland sit
sella turcica
fossa
shallow depression
Differences between cervical , thoracic and lumbar vertebrae
size foramina spinous process transverse process
What are the two types of skin
Thick skin and Thin Skin
what are the three parts of the hand
wrist : carpal bones metacarpals phalanges
difference between eccrine sweat glands and appocrine sweat glands
-eccrine : found around the body -apocrine : glands that are found only in armpit and pelvic region and they do not play a role in thermoregulation
Describe the stratum basale
-5th layer of epidermis and the base layer -Layer that contains the stem cells that undergo cell division which then pushes the new cells to the upper layer which is the stratum spinosum
what helps promote the process of keratinization
-Epidermal growth factors EGF
Describe the stratum spinousum
-Fourth layer in the epidermis -Some cells in this layer can undergo cell division but the cells in this layer typically look spinal looking Contain langerhan cells , melanocytes , merkel cells
What are the functions of Merkel cells?
-Recieves messages through Merkel disc and send the message to our sensory neurons
Describe the thin skin and their location
-Regions with more hair -missing stratum lucidum
Difference between thick and thin skin
-Thin skin is in hairy regions and thick skin in in tougher regions such as palms, fingertips and soles of the feet -Epidermal strat: the stratum lucidium is the thing clear layer of the epidermis and is only present in thick skin not thin skin
describe the subcutaneous layer
-also known as the hypodermic -contains receptors that sense deeper pressure - pacinian corpuscles
what are the minerals involved in bone growth
-calcium and phosphate -makes bone hard
green stick fracture
-common in children -break on one side of the bone because bone is not fully ossified
What is the hypoychium?
-connects skin to fingernails
how is melanin produced
-created by melanocytes -Tyrosone (amino acid) uses tyrosinase (enzyme) to form melanin
describe the reticular region
-deep layer, forming a thick layer of dense connective tissue that constitutes the bulk of the dermis
explain vitiligo
-depigmentation in the skin due to some or complete loss of melanocyte
what are the two major types of surface markings
-depression and openings -processes
Explain albinism
-due to little or no tryosinase which is the enzyme that produces tyrosine into melanin
what makes fingerprints and footprints
-due to oil and sweat glands
healing process of dermis
1. Blood clots will try to form with the help of platelets 2.Monocytes and neutrophils will try to fight pathogens 3. Fibroblast will try to make more collagen fibers 4. Scab will form in the end
describe the process of endochondral ossification
1. Starts with cartilage that comes from mesenchymial cells Chondroblast 2. Chondrocytes make more of themselves and start to calcify 3. Nutrient artery will start formation of primary ossificaiton center Bone tissues replace cartilage : forming spongy bone 4. Medullary cavity starts to develop by breakdown of osteoclast 5. Development of secondary ossification center : at epiphyseal site 6. End result is layers of cartilage at both ends of epihyseal
calcium homeostasis
1. Stimulus causes a drop in calcium levels 2. Receptor in parathyroid gland will detect low calcium levels and rely the message to the parathyroid glands to tell the cells to make more parathyroid hormone 3. Increase release parathyroid hormone increase the release of osteoclast to help breakdown bone tissues (resorption) 4. Causing the calcium to be release from the bone into the blood Helps kidneys retain mroe calcium
What are the five layers of the epidermis from bottom to top ?
1. Stratum Corneum 2. Stratum Lucidum 3. Stratum Granulosum 4. Stratum Spinosum 5. Stratum Basale
what situation calls for bone formation
1. initial Formation of bone in an embryo and fetus 2. Growth of bones from infancy to adulthood 3. Remodeling of bone 4. Repair of fractures
how many frontal bones are there
14
what forms the sacrum
5 fused bones
Types of bones :
5 main classifications Long bones (humerus) Short bones (trapezoid , wrist bones) Flat bones (sternum) Irregular bones (vertebra) seasmoid bones (patella) Sutural bones Also known as wormian bones Located between sutures of certain cranial bones
how many cranial bones are there
8
ischium
: bottom region of hip bones -hip bones
kyphosis
: hunch back : due to poor posture or rickets
Longitudinal foot arches
: if the longitudinal weakens it can result into flatfoot Causing a flat foot arch
depression and openings
Allow passages of blood vessels and nerves attachment ligaments and tendons Form regions of joints
how are anesthetic injections given
Anesthetic injections are given through the sacral hiatus canal and inorder to find the sacral hiatus they must find the sacral corccyx
what happens in a bone in hot temperature
Bone in hot temperate will get rid of proteins ( collagen) but not mineral salts causing the bone to be brittle
Difference between bone cell lineage to white blood cell lineage in bone tissues
Bone cell lineage : OSTEOGENIC CELLS, OSTEOBLAST and OSTEOCYTE WHITE BLOOD CELL LINEAGE: osteoblast
transverse process difference between the different types of vertebrae
C; small T: fairly large L: large and blunt
what is shaped like a roosters cock and allows the brain to be split into left and right regions
Cristina galli
what two things allows the head to nod do
Dens which is the same as the odontoid process which allows the articulation between c1 and c2
Describe the different types of burns
First degree- affect epidermis second degree-affects dermis third degree -affects hypodermic (subcutaneous layer)
acromioclavicular joint
Flatter Towards the outwards
what is the foot made up of
Foot is made up of tarsals , metarsals and phalanges
where does the spinal cord run through
Formen Magnum
where does the sciatic nerve go through
Greater sciatic notch:
rickets
Happens when calcium salts are not deposited properly or deficiency of vitamin D As a result it causes the bones to be soft The soft bones are unable to maintain the weight which causes the bowing TREATMENT: vitamin D, calcium
what does C2 has that C1 does not
Has spinous process and vertebral foramen
Purpose of Haversian system
Haversian canals are microscopic tubes or tunnels in cortical bone that house nerve fibers and a few capillaries. This allows bone to get oxygen and nutrition without being highly vascular. These canals also communicate with bone cells using special connections, or canaliculi.
hyoid bone
Hyoid bone : antisocial bone Does not articulate with other bones Held together by ligaments and muscles
pectoral gridle
Includes clavicle and scapula
functions of parasol sinuses
Increase surface area of nasal mucosa : moisten and cleanse dry air Reduce weight of bone Resonate teh sound of our voice Infection or inflammation of the musca can change our breaths
what allows the jugular veins to go through
Jugular foramen
what forms the vertebral arch
Lamina and pedicle
where are mature osteocytes found and how do they communicate
Mature osteocytes are stuck inside of the lacuna Communicate through little canals : canliculi
basic structure of bone from top to bottom
Metaphysis Diaphysis Metaphysis Distal epihysis : point of bone away from the attachment point
sternoclavilcuar joint
More rounded : towards the medil
arrestor pili muscle
Normally slanted and holds onto hair root but once there is a stimulation, the arrector pili muscle is going to pull on hair causing the hair to stand up : goosebump
what causes blisters in a second degree burn
Normally the epidermis and dermis are tightly together but during a second degree burn , they separate causing an inability to hold on to fluids in between cells
what articulates with our first cervical vertebrae allowing us to nod our heads
Occipital condyle
what are the small holes of the ethmoid bone that allows persons to smell particles
Olfactory foramina
difference between palatine bone and palatine process
Palatine process is different from palatine bone because the palatine bone is apart of the maxilla
what hormones are responsible for calcium regulation
Parathyroid hormone: Synthesised when calcium levels are low Calcitriol (active form of vitamin D) Calcitonin Synthesised from thyroid glands : when calcium is too high they are released
describe intramembranous ossification process
Process 1. Mesenchymal cells grow into osteoblast Osteoblast secretes these collagen fibers (steel) 2. Calcification : Deposit calcium and other mineral salts 3. Formation of trabeculae : forms spongy bone 4. Development of periosteum
processess
Projections that are protruding out that forms joints Serves as attachment points for our connective tissues such as ligaments and tendons
what is the shape of the clavicle bone
S
Why does each osteon have an Haversian system
So the osteocytes are able to get nutrients from eachother , the volkmans canal helps with blood vessel transporting and excreting nutrients
how does the skeletal system store fat
Stores triglercides in the yellow bone marrow Stores energy as fuel
What is calcitonin?
Synthesised from thyroid glands : when calcium is too high they are released
Floating ribs
T11-T12 -do not have articulate costal cartilage
why is green stick fracture so common in kids
THEIR BONES ARE NOT FULLY STRONG YET: STILL LOTS OF COLLAGEN
what forms the ankle joint
Tibia and fibula articulate with the talus bones
what are the vitamins involved in bone growth
Vitamins D and C
what makes up the zygomatic arch which is also called the cheekbone
Zygomatic process and temporal process
Tuberostiy
a large bony promience that is not articular
What is calcitriol?
active form of vitamin D
pott fracture
ankle fracture on one specific side -on distal end of fibula
what is included inside of the dermis
blood vessels, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair follicle and hair root
what does C1 lack
body and spinous process
What do osteoblast do
builds bone extraceullar matrix -make collagen fibers
strongest tarsal bones
calcaneus
what are soft bones called and what are they due to
called rickets and due to lack of vitamin D
Healing process of epidermis
cells will migrate toward eachother until they reach other : contact inhibition
size difference between the different types of vertebrae
cervical : small thoracic: large lumbar : largest
foramina difference between the different types of vertebrae
cervical: one vertebral and two transverse thoracic: one vertebral lumbar : one vertebral
pelvic brim
circle in pelvic
true pelvic
circle in the middle of the pelvic Contains urinary bladder and female reproductive organs
what allows the attachments of the ribs
costal facets
what is connected to the C2
dens of axis
what is the dermis composed of
dense irregular connective tissue containing collagen and elastic
calcification
deposition of calcium to bone tissue to harden them
What are true ribs
directly attached to sternum T1-T7
what are intervertebral disc
disc between each vertebrae
what type of cells are inside the mastoid process
ear cells that can get inflamed
which part of the bone can bone grow
epiphyseal plate
what happens before the ages of 18-21
epiphyseal will grow
false pelvis
everything outside of that hole
what is another name for skin glands
exocrine cells
role of protein (collagen)
fibers provide flexibility and tensile strength
Acetabulum
formed by the joining of all three bones : head of femur sits here
comminuted fracture
fracture broken to pieces
what forms the coccyx
from 4 fused bones
olacrenon
funny bone
how does the skeletal system help with blood cell production
hemopoiesis / hematopoiesis : blood cell production in red bone marrow
foramen
hole -pleural : formina
What specific place in the sella turcicia does the pitutiary gland sit in ?
hypophyseal fossa
what makes up the hip bones
ilium, ischium, and pubis that fuse together by the age of 23
where is red bone marrow found
in the holes of the trabeclae
what is not apart of the ethmoid bone
inferior nasal concha
what are the two types of initial bone formation
intramembranous ossification endochondral ossification
What is the epidermis composed of?
keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
what is the keystone bone in the cranial system
keystone bone in cranial system because it articulates with every other bone
what bones collects tears
lacrimal bone
condyle
large and round process
tibia vs fibula
largest bone in the lower limb and bears all the weight In articulation with the femur
what do keratinocytes do ?
make fibrous proteins and compose most of epidermis
what happens with dead skin cells ?
skin cells start at the base and move their way up and as they reach the outside world they become dead cells with dead proteins inside
tubercle
small rounded projection
where are red bone marrow contained
spongy bone
difference between compact and spongy bone
spongy bone does not contain osteon or Haversian system
how does the skeletal system help with calcium balance
stores and release calcium based on calcium blood levels
radial tuberosity
tendons of bicep brachi will attach here
spongy bone is also known as
trabecular bone
meatus
tube like canal
What is the main idea of the dermis
vascular region that contains blood vessels and nerves
trochanter
very large projections
what is bone composed of
water + organic proteins (collagen)+ mineral salts
tibial tuberosity
where tendon goes through
glenoind cavity
where the head of your upper arm fits right in Faces the outside