Exam 3

one way that functional fixedness and mental set are similar to each other is that a. both emphasize our reliance on bottom-up processing b. both show that we rely too heavily on a strategy that is typically useful c. both show that we tend to emphasize the positive, rather than the negative d. both emphasize our inability to use situated learning effectively

b. both show that we rely too heavily on a strategy that is typically useful

which of the following students' statements represents the best understanding of the concept of schemas? a. rosario: "schemas are typically counterproductive, causing more errors than correct responses." b. dean: "schemas help us anticipate what will happen in a situation." c. angelique: "schemas refer to the order in which events occur, whereas scripts refer to the general characteristics of a situation." d. edgar: "schemas are especially well developed for nonprototypical items."

b. dean: "schemas help us anticipate what will happen in a situation."

lori types her notes on her laptop during her professor's lectures, but she also checks her email and monitors facebook at the same time. although lori insists that she's a good multitasker, steve informs her that she would remember the material better if she closed her email and browser during class. steve's good advice is based on knowledge of a. working memory b. divided attention c. levels of processing d. encoding specificity

b. divided attention

according to john anderson's theories of semantic memory and other aspects of cognitive processes, a. each of the components of cognition operates independently b. every concept in a proposition can be represented by a network of connections c. the term spreading activation refers to our knowledge about facts and things d. each item in semantic memory is listed according to its appropriate graded structure

b. every concept in a proposition can be represented by a network of connections

according to the research on expertise and problem solving, a. expert chess-players are much better than novices at remembering random arrangements of chess pieces b. expert problem-solvers are more likely than novices to emphasize structural features in the representation of a problem c. experts and novices are similar in their usage of means-ends heuristics d. experts are skilled at judging whether a problem will be difficult for novices to solve

b. expert problem-solvers are more likely than novices to emphasize structural features in the representation of a problem

chapter 11 compared how—on some tasks—experts and novices use parallel processing. according to this discussion, a. novices use parallel processing more than experts do b. experts use parallel processing more than novices do c. when researchers have controlled for the kind of problem that is being solved, experts and novices make similar use of parallel processing d. both experts and novices make too much use of parallel processing

b. experts use parallel processing more than novices do

what is the difference between functional fixedness and mental set? a. a mental set is more rigid than functional fixedness b. functional fixedness emphasizes the objects involved in solving the problem, whereas mental set emphasizes the problem solver's strategies c. functional fixedness applies to problem finding, whereas mental set applies to problem solving d. there is no substantial difference; the two terms are identical

b. functional fixedness emphasizes the objects involved in solving the problem, whereas mental set emphasizes the problem solver's strategies

according to the discussion of improving prospective memory, a. external memory aids tend to decrease the accuracy of prospective memory b. it's helpful to figure out a specific reminder that you can place in a relevant location c. the same identical factors influence the accuracy of both retrospective memory and prospective memory d. prospective memory errors are especially likely when people are using focused attention rather than divided attention

b. it's helpful to figure out a specific reminder that you can place in a relevant location

chapter 11 examines the effect of stereotype threat on problem solving. which of the following students provides the most accurate information about stereotype threat? a. kirsten: "when people are in a threatening situation, they try to act in a counter-stereotypical fashion." b. liam: "stereotype threat seems to reduce the capacity of working memory." c. treena: "stereotype threat seems to increase the use of the hill-climbing heuristic." d. scott: "stereotype threat seems to change problem-solving strategies, so that people are more likely to attend to the structural similarities of problems."

b. liam: "stereotype threat seems to reduce the capacity of working memory."

according to the constructive model of memory, a. people construct a hypothesis about what they expect to hear, and this concept guides speech perception b. listeners integrate information from individual sentences in order to construct more complex ideas c. sentences are joined together in memory, though the elements can be easily untangled d. we construct the meaning of a sentence by analyzing the sentence's components

b. listeners integrate information from individual sentences in order to construct more complex ideas

according to the discussion of metacomprehension, a. college students do not need special training in this area, because their metacomprehension is reasonably accurate b. metacomprehension can be improved when students receive feedback about their understanding before they take a test c. good readers and poor readers do not differ in their awareness of reading strategies d. metacomprehension is basically the same as meta-analysis

b. metacomprehension can be improved when students receive feedback about their understanding before they take a test

why should you pay attention to metamemory if you want to improve your memory? a. the guidelines of metamemory suggest that rote rehearsal is the most effective mnemonic device b. metamemory can help you decide which strategies work best for you c. metamemory allows you to process information in a parallel fashion, rather than a serial fashion d. metamemory is the study of memory for people's names, and people report particular difficulty with memory for names

b. metamemory can help you decide which strategies work best for you

the hierarchy technique is an example of a mnemonic device that primarily emphasizes a. mental imagery b. organization c. the self-reference effect d. prospective memory

b. organization

in explaining semantic memory, the parallel distributed processing approach a. argues that we consider an item's attributes one at a time b. points out that we can often identify an object, even if one of the clues to that object's identification is incorrect c. proposes that human memory is more rigid than previous theories have suggested d. emphasizes that the mind works in a linear fashion, moving from a stimulus to a response

b. points out that we can often identify an object, even if one of the clues to that object's identification is incorrect

according to anderson and colleagues, the smallest unit of knowledge that people can judge to be either true or false is called a a. schema b. proposition c. prototype d. exemplar

b. proposition

according to the research on students' distribution of their study time, they tend to a. systematically study the difficult items more than the easy ones b. study the difficult items somewhat more than the easy ones c. devote the same amount of time to both the difficult items and the easy ones d. study the easy ones somewhat more than the difficult ones

b. study the difficult items somewhat more than the easy ones

the category "furniture" is a a. prototype b. superordinate-level category c. basic-level category d. subordinate-level category

b. superordinate-level category

the category "animal" has a graded structure, which means that a. most of the examples are well known to the general public b. the members of that category are not all equally representative of that category c. procedural knowledge is more important than declarative knowledge d. there is a family resemblance among the members of this category

b. the members of that category are not all equally representative of that category

according to the discussion of the narrative technique, a. this technique is effective if you need to learn a single list of items; its effectiveness is reduced when learning multiple lists b. the research suggests that this technique works well as long as you can create the story easily and also recall it easily c. this technique is effective with college students, but not for people with memory impairments d. this method is so effective that it works even if you use a weak story to link together the items

b. the research suggests that this technique works well as long as you can create the story easily and also recall it easily

suppose that you study for your next examination in this course by reviewing each topic and asking how the information might be relevant to the career you want to pursue. your study technique makes use of the a. the encoding-specificity principle b. the self-reference principle c. the pollyanna principle d. the shallow-rehearsal technique

b. the self-reference principle

suppose that people are working on an ongoing task. they are most likely to forget to complete a prospective-memory task if a. they create a mental image of that prospective-memory task b. they are performing the ongoing task automatically c. the ongoing task is relatively easy d. they create some concrete, external reminder of the prospective-memory task

b. they are performing the ongoing task automatically

suppose you have just read over an algebra problem, and you have now created an internal representation of the important information. according to the discussion of problem solving, you have mastered the stage called a. problem finding b. understanding c. heuristic choice d. background knowledge

b. understanding

according to research on desirable difficulties, you should wait at least ___________ between study sessions in order to maximize long-term retention a. 5 minutes b. half an hour c. 2 hours d. 1 day

d. 1 day

in which of the following conditions is your metamemory accuracy likely to be the highest? a. when material is difficult, rather than easy b. when the material is concerned with nonsense words, rather than English phrases c. when learning has been incidental, rather than intentional d. when you wait several minutes before judging whether you'll remember the material

d. when you wait several minutes before judging whether you'll remember the material

suppose that you are in charge of the psychology club's annual picnic, and you need to fill each student's lunch container with a main course (beef, chicken, or vegan), as well as a dessert (lemon or chocolate). the most effective way to represent this information would be to create a. a matrix b. a graph c. symbols d. a diagram

a. a matrix

suppose that you want to make a chart that lists the possible combinations that can be formed with four basic flavors of cake and three basic flavors of frosting. This chart would be called a. a matrix b. a statistical interaction c. a visual image d. the symbol approach

a. a matrix

according to the discussion of schemas in chapter 8, a. a schema applies to your generalized knowledge, such as knowledge about how to register for classes at your college b. a schema can be divided into smaller units of knowledge, called "scripts." c. each person in a particular culture has a schema for an everyday event that is very different from other people's schemas for that event d. in most cases, a schema can be directly converted to an exemplar

a. a schema applies to your generalized knowledge, such as knowledge about how to register for classes at your college

if you are buying concert tickets at a box office, there are certain procedures and interactions that occur in a standard fashion. this sequence of events is known as a. a script b. parallel distributed processing c. family resemblance d. an inference

a. a script

suppose that a friend missed class and asks you to tell him, word for word, about the professor's description of the next assignment. your description captures the basic message, even though none of your sentences are precisely what your professor said. this phenomenon is a good example of a. abstraction b. boundary extension c. change blindness d. a script

a. abstraction

according to the network models of semantic memory, a. activation expands from the node that has been activated, extending outward to other related nodes b. only a small number of nodes are connected with other nodes c. nonprototypes are just as important as prototypes d. each item is compared with a prototype to determine the category to which it belongs

a. activation expands from the node that has been activated, extending outward to other related nodes

research by novick examined whether the meaning of airplane changed for U.S. students around the time of the 2001 terrorist attacks. according to this research, a. airplane became a more prototypical example of a vehicle shortly after the attacks, but it was judged less prototypical about 4 months later b. the number of connection weights for airplane decreased at the time of the attacks, but soon afterwards, the number of connection weights increased c. shortly after the attacks, airplane shifted from being a prototype to becoming an exemplar d. for experts, the meaning of airplane changed significantly; for novices, the meaning remained stable

a. airplane became a more prototypical example of a vehicle shortly after the attacks, but it was judged less prototypical about 4 months later

according to the introduction of the chapter called "general knowledge," an important point is that this knowledge a. allows us to make inferences based on logical interpretations b. is almost always implicit, rather than explicit c. is usually available only to people with expertise in the specified area d. is primarily constructed by combining information in our working memory

a. allows us to make inferences based on logical interpretations

in problem solving, a method that always produces a problem solution (though not necessarily very efficiently) is known as a. an algorithm b. a heuristic c. a matrix d. the hill-climbing heuristic

a. an algorithm

working memory is important when people are trying to solve an algebra "word problem" because a. you need to keep the important parts of the problem in your mind while working on the problem b. these problems usually involve objects that have different shapes and sizes, so it's naturally a difficult task c. these problems do not use the phonological loop, so it's especially difficult to discover the solution d. people often miss the obvious solution, and they therefore have to try again

a. you need to keep the important parts of the problem in your mind while working on the problem

according to the principle memory called the total-time hypothesis a. your score on a memory task is related to the amount of time you spend in learning the material b. the total time you spend in learning the material is such an important factor that it overshadows the combined impact of all the other memory strategies c. your score on memory task is positively correlated with the total time you spend in strengthening your brain by using general memory-building exercises d. the total time spent studying will typically decrease in a linear fashion, for each repetition of the list

a. your score on a memory task is related to the amount of time you spend in learning the material`

heidi is taking an online class with timed exams, and heidi complains that the exams are not fair to her because she reads more slowly than the average student. heidi's instructor tells her that reading speed and comprehension are skills that can be improved with practice, and encourages her to overcome this obstacle instead of using it as an excuse. heidi's instructor is encouraging her to adopt a. a fixed mindset b. a growth mindset c. functional fixedness d. creativity

b. a growth mindset

suppose that you want to bring your car to a garage for repairs. this procedure requires you to call for an appointment, drive to the appropriate location, leave your keys, and arrange for a time when you will return for your car. cognitive psychologists call this sequence of actions a. an exemplar b. a script c. a family resemblance d. a graded structure

b. a script

"marie received seven presents at her birthday party. the stuffed elephant was her favorite gift." If you believe that one of the seven presents that marie received was, in fact, a stuffed elephant, you have made a. an attribution error b. an inference c. an episodic mistake d. a script

b. an inference

suppose that researchers want to determine whether young college students have stereotypes about elderly people. an implicit measure of stereotyping would be better than an explicit measure because a. an implicit measure would be less influenced by people's tendency to supply a socially appropriate answer b. the norms are more accurate if they are based on implicit measures c. people's schemas would have greater influence on implicit measures d. the pragmatic view of memory would interfere with an explicit measure

a. an implicit measure would be less influenced by people's tendency to supply a socially appropriate answer

which of the following is an example of a subordinate-level category? a. apple macintosh computer b. computer c. electronic devices d. things you find in an office

a. apple macintosh computer

which of the following students provides the most accurate advice about metacomprehension? a. arianna: "students typically have better metacognition if they read a passage, wait briefly, and then summarize the passage." b. krisanthi: "surprisingly, students who use shallow processing have more accurate metacomprehension than students who use deep processing." c. david: "good readers and poor readers are equally likely to know that they should try to make connections among the concepts they are reading about." d. derek: "good readers and poor readers are equally likely to be aware of helpful reading strategies."

a. arianna: "students typically have better metacognition if they read a passage, wait briefly, and then summarize the passage."

which of the following students provides the best description of semantic memory? a. wei-hang: "Semantic memory allows us to link each concept with an example from episodic memory." b. andy: "semantic memory refers to our organized knowledge about the world." c. alexia: "semantic memory forces us to notice—and exaggerate—the precise details that make one concept different from another." d. yelena: "semantic memory forces us to take each schema that is stored and convert it into a script-like form."

b. andy: "semantic memory refers to our organized knowledge about the world."

which of the following students provides the best comparison between the term "metacognition" and the term "self-knowledge"? a. sue: "metacognition refers to people's beliefs about other people; in contrast, self-knowledge is a broad term that refers to people's beliefs about themselves." b. audrey: "metacognition refers to your knowledge about your cognitive skills; self-knowledge is a general term that includes a wide variety of beliefs about yourself." c. timoteo: "metacognition refers to your study strategies; in contrast, self-knowledge refers to your knowledge about whether you will be able to apply those study strategies." d. sergei: "metacognition refers to your prediction about your past performance; self-knowledge refers to your predictions about your future performance."

b. audrey: "metacognition refers to your knowledge about your cognitive skills; self-knowledge is a general term that includes a wide variety of beliefs about yourself."

according to the discussion of categories, the basic level of reference has special status. this means that a. the basic level is more likely than other levels to show family resemblance b. basic-level names are used more often and they are more informative than the superordinate-level names c. the basic level is the most general label that can be supplied d. basic-level names are prototypes, whereas superordinate- and subordinate-level names are not

b. basic-level names are used more often and they are more informative than the superordinate-level names

in what way is the topic of boundary extension related to the topic of schemas? a. both of them describe a sequence of events that occur in a predictable order b. both refer to situations where we can fill in missing information, either visual information or verbal information c. in both cases, we tend to recall schema-inconsistent information more accurately than schema-consistent information d. in both cases, the exemplar approach to semantic memory is more useful than the prototype approach to semantic memory

b. both refer to situations where we can fill in missing information, either visual information or verbal information

suppose you are sitting in an art class, and you have been instructed to draw from memory the scene you see from a window in your own bedroom. although you cannot actually see the top of a tree through the bedroom window, you still draw the complete tree. the error you have committed is called a. episodic memory b. boundary extension c. change blindness d. a script error

b. boundary extension

which of the following students provides the most accurate comparison between the prototype approach and the exemplar approach? a. tariq: "the prototype approach works well for concepts that are nouns, whereas the exemplar approach works well for concepts that are verbs, especially verbs that show action." b. clifford: "the prototype approach says that concepts are associated with one best example of a category; the exemplar approach says that concepts are associated with many specific examples of a category." c. ekaterina: "at first, researchers emphasized that these two approaches would be very different from each other; now researchers say that they are identical, when focusing on everyday objects and organisms." d. lynne: "the prototype approach emphasizes items that exist in real life; the exemplar approach emphasizes geometric figures that don't exist in real life.

b. clifford: "the prototype approach says that concepts are associated with one best example of a category; the exemplar approach says that concepts are associated with many specific examples of a category."

which of the following is the best example of the hill-climbing heuristic? a. you try to figure out what courses you'll take next semester by obtaining an overview of the initial state; this perspective is similar to the overview from the top of a hill b. you want to become a social worker, so at each choice point, you choose the option that appears to lead most directly toward your goal c. you divide the problem into an orderly series of "hills," each of which must be surmounted before you move forward d. you realize that you must sometimes move backwards (returning to a previous "hill"), in order to move forwards to a solution

b. you want to become a social worker, so at each choice point, you choose the option that appears to lead most directly toward your goal

according to the discussion in chapter 8, the best definition of the word concept is: a. a specific set of objects that belong together b. your mental representation of a category c. the best example of a particular category d. the information in your immediate environment, which contributes to your general knowledge

b. your mental representation of a category

suppose that you believe you can increase your cognitive performance by challenging yourself to work harder and more effectively. according to your textbook, you would have a. a fixed mindset b. overactive bottom-up processing c. a growth mindset d. creativity

c. a growth mindset

which of the following descriptions serves as the best metaphor for the parallel distributed processing approach? a. a drawer with three compartments b. a computer that uses a serial approach. c. a net with many interconnections d. a safe that can be opened by only one combination code

c. a net with many interconnections

suppose that you have just learned that you will have a quiz in about 30 minutes on a set of fairly difficult short essays that you haven't even glanced at. if you are like the students described in the discussion of regulating study strategies, you would a. select the most difficult essays to read first b. select the easiest essays to read first c. select easier essays to read first if you are an expert, but select more difficult essays to read first if you are a novice d. show no systematic pattern in reading the essays

b. select the easiest essays to read first

according to the parallel distributed processing approach to semantic memory, a. concepts are linked together in a chain, and activation can move down that chain while we are thinking about this concept b. several patterns of activation can proceed at the same time c. when we think about a particular concept, the nonprototypes are activated at the exact same time as the prototypes d. each concept is associated with 10-12 stable attributes that do not change

b. several patterns of activation can proceed at the same time

part of chapter 6 examined students' study strategies for easy and difficult material. which of the following students provides the most accurate perspective on that research? a. carlo: "when the memory task is relatively easy, students spend about the same amount of time studying the easiest items and the most difficult items." b. sondra: "when the memory task is relatively easy, students spend the most time on the difficult items; when the memory task is relatively difficult, students spend the most time on the easy items." c. phil: "students study the difficult items more than the easy items when the material is related to their own interests; otherwise, they show no consistent pattern in their study strategies." d. indira: "students' study strategies depend on their motivational level; the most motivated students divide their time equally among the topics, but the less motivated students spend more time on the difficult tasks."

b. sondra: "when the memory task is relatively easy, students spend the most time on the difficult items; when the memory task is relatively difficult, students spend the most time on the easy items."

suppose that you are studying for a vocabulary test, and you want to accurately predict your score in that test. your prediction accuracy would be highest if you a. tested yourself immediately after learning the words b. tested yourself several minutes after learning the words c. estimate how many words you already knew before beginning to study d. figure out—in advance—whether you typically have trouble on vocabulary tests

b. tested yourself several minutes after learning the words

according to the research on scripts, a. the structure of a script is very similar to the structure of a prototype b. scripts do not seem to have a specific chronological structure c. a person's recall is enhanced if a script is identified at the beginning of a description d. experts and novices have similar understanding of a script's structure

c. a person's recall is enhanced if a script is identified at the beginning of a description

how do the prototype approach and the exemplar approach differ from each other? a. the prototype approach emphasizes that all examples of a concept are equally good b. the exemplar approach represents a concept in terms of many specific examples of a concept c. the exemplar approach focuses on the most frequently encountered example of a concept d. the exemplar approach argues that an exemplar is an idealized example, based on all members of a category

b. the exemplar approach represents a concept in terms of many specific examples of a concept

according to the research about the constructive model of memory, a. detailed information enters into our memory in a passive fashion b. we frequently integrate information from several different sources c. we typically pay attention to the exact wording of a verbal message d. we typically over-emphasize family resemblance when deciding which information should be maintained

b. we frequently integrate information from several different sources

people are especially likely to use analogies effectively in problem solving a. when they are well trained in means-ends analysis b. when they have been trained to pay attention to structural similarities c. when they are working on an ill-defined problem d. when they are trying to solve a problem that is unrelated to other problems they have recently solved

b. when they have been trained to pay attention to structural similarities

one feature of the parallel distributed processing approach is called spontaneous generalization. which of the following is an example of this principle? a. you can recall a person's complete name more effectively when given a first name than when given a last name b. you decide, based on people whom you know, that people from the midwest are friendlier than people from new england c. you can find someone's house, even though you were told it was white, rather than pale yellow d. you assign different connection weights to more recently acquired information than to information you acquired long ago

b. you decide, based on people whom you know, that people from the midwest are friendlier than people from new england

if you have just heard the word vegetable, you can quickly make judgments about the word carrot; in contrast, your judgments about the word mushroom take much longer. according to the prototype approach, this observation shows that a. family resemblance is stronger for prototypes than for nonprototypes b. prototypes are items that have the smallest number of connection weights c. after priming, people respond faster to prototypes than to nonprototypes d. basic-level categories are judged more quickly than superordinate-level categories

c. after priming, people respond faster to prototypes than to nonprototypes

amelia speaks french and english fluently. connor speaks only english. according to research, a. amelia and connor should experience the tip-of-the-tongue effect equally frequently b. onnor should experience the tip-of-the-tongue effect more frequently than amelia c. amelia should experience the tip-of-the-tongue effect more frequently than connor d. amelia should never experience the tip-of-the-tongue effect

c. amelia should experience the tip-of-the-tongue effect more frequently than connor

jane is given an anagram to solve: DFROJ in attempting to solve the anagram, jane takes out a sheet of paper and methodically begins to write down every possible combination of these five letters: DFRJO, DFJOR, DFJRO, DFORJ, and so forth jane's strategy would be described as a. a heuristic b. means-end analysis c. an algorithm d. working backwards

c. an algorithm

if you solve a problem by using the solution strategy from an earlier problem, which of the following problem-solving strategies are you using? a. the general problem solver b. means-ends analysis c. analogy d. backward search

c. analogy

in problem solving, heuristics a. are relatively unsophisticated strategies b. are bound to produce a solution, if you apply them rigorously c. are strategies that examine only some of the alternatives d. are seldom as useful as algorithms

c. are strategies that examine only some of the alternatives

according to baddeley's approach to working memory, the central executive plays a role when students are studying for an exam a. because it is important in source-monitoring tasks b. because it helps individuals who have ADHD, so that they can actually suppress competing answers c. because it helps people plan how they will divide their time during studying d. because it strengthens and expands the limits of the phonological loop

c. because it helps people plan how they will divide their time during studying

the narrative technique a. is effective only for improving working memory b. is effective only for items presented at the beginning of a list c. can produce recall that is approximately six times the recall produced in a control group d. requires you to combine the first letter of each word in a list that you need to remember

c. can produce recall that is approximately six times the recall produced in a control group

anatoly has been playing chess since early childhood, and is described as an expert player. his cousin viktor has only recently begun to play the game, and describes himself as a novice. We would expect anatoly to outperform viktor on tests of his memory for a. general knowledge and trivia. b. random configurations of chess pieces on a board c. chess positions from actual chess games d. knowledge about the history of chess

c. chess positions from actual chess games

what can we conclude about the use of imagery to improve memory? a. imagery seems to be involved only in retrieval, rather than in encoding b. in general, people recall only 10% more if the instructions emphasize imagery, instead of simple repetition c. compared to repetition instructions, imagery instructions produce much better recall d. imagery is helpful on recognition tasks, but not on recall tasks

c. compared to repetition instructions, imagery instructions produce much better recall.

which of the following students provides the best definition of the term mnemonics? a. alfredo: "mnemonics is the use of imagery to assist our memory." b. julia: "mnemonics is the use of external memory aids to improve our memory." c. cynthia: "mnemonics refers to using a strategy to improve our memory." d. jaime: "mnemonics is any memory trick that actually improves our prospective memory."

c. cynthia: "mnemonics refers to using a strategy to improve our memory."

which of the following students has the best understanding about how to apply the distributed-practice effect? a. shannon: "your memory is better if you associate each item in a list with a specific geographic location, but your mental image must leave sufficient space between these locations." b. akiko: "it's best to repeat one item over and over for at least a minute, then rest, and then continue this pattern with subsequent items." c. derrick: "it's best to take breaks between your study sessions, so that your learning trials are spread across time." d. joaquim: "when you want to learn a list of word pairs, put a blank space next to each item, and then fill in the blank with another member of each word pair."

c. derrick: "it's best to take breaks between your study sessions, so that your learning trials are spread across time."

which of the following students provides the most accurate statement about the research on schemas and integration in memory? a. miguel: "background knowledge is especially likely to influence recall if people are tested immediately after learning." b. sam: "in reality, schemas are not likely to operate during memory integration; they are much more likely to operate during memory selection." c. empresly: "schemas do not always operate during memory integration, but they are more likely when you have too much to remember at the same time." d. teresinha: "schemas only operate during integration when the material is abstract, rather than concrete."

c. empresly: "schemas do not always operate during memory integration, but they are more likely when you have too much to remember at the same time."

sean is studying for his philosophy final exam. he knows that the test will be all essays, and he knows that the professor often asks students to compare two philosophical approaches. as a part of his studying, he writes several practice essays in which he compares some philosophical approaches. sean's study method makes use of the cognitive principle called a. implicit memory b. the hierarchy technique c. encoding specificity d. method of loci

c. encoding specificity

roediger and karpicke's 2006 study of the testing effect indicated that taking memory tests improves retention as compared to extra studying a. at short retention intervals but not long ones b. only at retention intervals of 1 week or longer c. even when students receive no feedback on the accuracy of their test results d. only when the format of the first test matches the format of the final test

c. even when students receive no feedback on the accuracy of their test results

imagine that a group of male college students is about to take a test of their ability to "read" other people's body language. the students are divided into three groups. group A is not told anything about how males and females tend to perform on this test. group B is told that males tend to outperform females on this test. group C is told that females tend to outperform males on this test. based on research regarding stereotype threat, we would expect that a. all three groups will perform similarly on the test b. group C will perform best, followed by group A and then group B c. group B will perform best, followed by group A and then group C d. both group B and group C will outperform group A

c. group B will perform best, followed by group A and then group C

which of the following circumstances is most likely to encourage the successful use of analogies in problem solving? a. requiring people to use a mental set b. having people study the source problem very carefully, rather than simply trying to solve it c. having people try to solve several problems that are structurally similar, before they see the target problem d. encouraging people to compare at least two problems that have different structural features

c. having people try to solve several problems that are structurally similar, before they see the target problem

anita wants a high-paying career after college. after graduation, she must choose between a job with a moderate salary but a good chance for advancement, and a job with a much higher salary but less chance for long-term advancement. if anita chooses the higher salary now, she is probably using the heuristic known as a. mean-end analysis b. working backwords c. hill-climbing d. computer simulation

c. hill-climbing

research on the idea of "family resemblance" has demonstrated that a. in a family resemblance category, there must be at least one attribute that is shared by all examples of that concept b. a prototype is equivalent to a family resemblance category c. in a family resemblance category, each example has at least one attribute in common with some other example of the concept d. family resemblance categories are artificial, and they are found more often in the laboratory than in real life

c. in a family resemblance category, each example has at least one attribute in common with some other example of the concept

when people are solving a problem such as the elves and goblins problem in your textbook, they generally avoid a. using bottom-up processing b. dividing a problem into subproblems c. increasing the difference between the current state and the goal state d. using the means-ends approach to solve the problem

c. increasing the difference between the current state and the goal state

how is the tip-of-the-tongue experience relevant to metacognition? a. people can provide accurate introspections about the way their semantic memory is organized b. people are more accurate in supplying a similar-sounding word than a similar-meaning word c. when people report a tip-of-the-tongue state, they accurately assess that they are close to identifying the missing word d. people can accurately describe the process by which they recover a word that was previously on the tip of their tongue

c. when people report a tip-of-the-tongue state, they accurately assess that they are close to identifying the missing word

suppose that you belong to an organization that plans to sponsor a speaker for next semester. at the planning meeting, the group members begin by dividing the project into four components: choosing the speaker, making arrangements for the speaker's travel, fundraising, and publicity. this arrangement is closest to the problem-solving strategy called a. the situated cognition approach b. the hill climbing heuristic c. the means-ends heuristic d. the analogy approach

c. the means-ends heuristic

suppose that you hear that dr. angela smith is a clinical psychologist who uses schema therapy. you would expect that she is likely to work with clients by a. figuring out some helpful new schemas that can replace harmful schemas that they had learned in the past b. asking them to listen to a series of words, each time supplying a word that is consistent with a schema c. trying to classify each person's psychological disorder according to a carefully developed set of schemas d. encouraging them to classify a series of ambiguous images

a. figuring out some helpful new schemas that can replace harmful schemas that they had learned in the past

in which of the following areas are expert problem-solvers and novice problem-solvers likely to be most similar? a. general memory skills b. memory for concepts that are relevant to the problem c. schemas that are relevant to the problem d. the representation of the problem

a. general memory skills

people tend to recall the events in a script more accurately if a. they have not personally experienced the events described in the script b. the script is first generalized into a schema c. the script is identified at the beginning of the description d. the script is not a prototype

c. the script is identified at the beginning of the description

in chapter 8, how is the term "situated cognition approach" related to the concept of "knowledge?" a. we use the situated cognition approach when we need to think about graded structures b. the situated cognition approach is a central part of the parallel distributed processing approach c. the situated cognition approach proposes that cues from our immediate environment help us to code a concept d. the situated cognition approach helps us to distinguish between categories and concepts

c. the situated cognition approach proposes that cues from our immediate environment help us to code a concept

suppose that several high school algebra teachers are trying to encourage their students to use analogies more appropriately when they try to solve word problems. the teachers should instruct students a. to make an educated guess about the answer before trying to solve it b. to make a matrix that shows the surface similarities between a current problem and a previous problem c. to sort a number of problems into categories, based on structural similarities d. to use the hill-climbing heuristic

c. to sort a number of problems into categories, based on structural similarities

according to your textbook, cognition is the acquisition, storage, transformation, and use of knowledge. compared to more basic cognitive processes such as working memory, problem solving makes more use of which of those four processes? a. acquisition of knowledge b. storage of knowledge c. transformation of knowledge d. use of knowledge

c. transformation of knowledge

which of the following students provides the best summary of the situated-cognition approach? a. pearlie: "people typically cannot solve a problem unless they picture themselves situated at the goal state." b. laurie: "visual imagery is especially helpful because it encourages problem solvers to vividly picture themselves in the situation." c. vladimir: "psychologists who study problem solving should emphasize how people can solve everyday problems in the real world, rather than in an artificial setting." d. samuel: "psychologists can understand problem solving better if they try playing the role of a research participant who is faced with a representative problem."

c. vladimir: "psychologists who study problem solving should emphasize how people can solve everyday problems in the real world, rather than in an artificial setting."

one of the major ideas behind the parallel distributed processing approach to memory is that a. if one piece of information is missing, we cannot continue to perform the task b. our memory for individuals is stored in terms of a hierarchy, from the most general to the most specific information c. we can show spontaneous generalization, figuring out information about a group of people, based on information about the individual members of that group d. general knowledge is stored in sensory memory and working memory, rather than in long-term memory

c. we can show spontaneous generalization, figuring out information about a group of people, based on information about the individual members of that group

suppose your friend ellen has lost the back to her earring. she looks around her room, picks up a pencil, removes the eraser, and uses the eraser as a substitute for the missing part. according to the chapter on problem solving, ellen a. has solved an ill-defined problem b. is too heavily guided by mental set c. has focused on the initial state d. has overcome functional fixedness

d. has overcome functional fixedness

which of the following research topics on problem solving would have the lowest ecological validity? a. how people plan their route through a hardware store, so that they can locate the items as quickly as possible b. how diners in a restaurant figure out how to divide a bill fairly among themselves c. how parents of preschoolers plan a birthday party d. how students in a geometry class use information from previous problems to solve the current problem

d. how students in a geometry class use information from previous problems to solve the current problem

the discussion of insight in problem solving pointed out that a. gestalt psychologists emphasized the importance of insight in solving problems b. behaviorist psychologists were especially interested in the kinds of problems that require insight c. when people solve insight problems, their confidence builds gradually as they work on the solution to a problem d. people solve noninsight problems more quickly when they realize that their basic assumptions are not appropriate

a. gestalt psychologists emphasized the importance of insight in solving problems

suppose you are thinking about a male student whom you met during your first year of college. you can recall that he knew your high school english teacher, that he didn't like his roommate, that he was average height and weight, and he wore glasses—but you cannot remember his name. this situation is an example of a. graceful degradation b. spontaneous generalization c. serial processing d. default assignment

a. graceful degradation

suppose you meet someone, and you can recall both her face and her name, but you cannot recall exactly where you first met her. in terms of parallel distributed processing, this phenomenon would be called a. graceful degradation b. reassignment of connection weights c. spontaneous generalization d. a default assignment

a. graceful degradation

which of the following concepts is most closely associated with the term schema? a. heuristic b. nonprototype c. serial processing d. exemplar

a. heuristic

according to your textbook, anderson's ACT-R theory a. is broader in scope than the prototype approach or the exemplar approach b. points out that higher mental processes require insight and the reorganization of large bodies of information c. emphasizes that procedural knowledge is roughly comparable to semantic memory d. argues that semantic memory is basically organized into a series of hierarchies

a. is broader in scope than the prototype approach or the exemplar approach

dwaine has just completed a high school course in algebra. however, when he needs to solve a problem that uses basic algebra, he finds that he does not know how to apply his knowledge. cognitive psychologists would argue that dwaine a. is having trouble because of the situated-cognition issue b. should apply the matrix method, because it is especially useful for algebra problems c. is probably using an inappropriate algorithm d. should try parallel processing

a. is having trouble because of the situated-cognition issue

suppose that you meet a student named jane frostig, and you try to recall her last name by imagining that she has chocolate frosting spread across her forehead. which mnemonic method would this represent? a. keyword method b. method of loci c. chunking method d. source monitoring

a. keyword method

which of the following is not an example of a mnemonic technique that emphasizes organization? a. keyword method b. hierarchy c. first-letter technique d. narrative technique

a. keyword method

suppose that a friend is having difficulty in introductory psychology, so you decide to give her some memory tips. If you decide to emphasize metamemory, you would be likely to a. make her think more about the factors that influence her memory b. emphasize that, in the ideal situation, memory is schematic c. inform her that the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is more a myth than a reality d. emphasize shallow processing for working memory and deep processing for long-term memory

a. make her think more about the factors that influence her memory

the parallel distributed processing approach would be most closely affiliated with which of the following approaches to semantic memory? a. network models b. the prototype approach c. the exemplar approach d. the schema approach

a. network models

psychologists have conducted research on implicit measures of gender stereotyping. this research shows that people typically respond in a stereotyped fashion a. on a measure of event-related potential and on the Implicit Association Test b. on a measure of event-related potential, but not on the Implicit Association Test c. on the Implicit Association Test, but not on a measure of event-related potential d. on neither a measure of event-related potential nor on the Implicit Association Test

a. on a measure of event-related potential and on the Implicit Association Test

a major problem with the hill-climbing heuristic is that a. people choose the most direct route at every choice point, even though an indirect route may be better in the long run b. people are inefficient in dividing the problem into the appropriate subproblems c. people typically show functional fixedness d. people are too likely to move backwards, rather than forwards

a. people choose the most direct route at every choice point, even though an indirect route may be better in the long run

a major problem with using the analogy approach to problem solving is that a. people pay too little attention to structural features b. people pay too little attention to surface features c. people select an inappropriate matrix to represent their understanding of the problem d. people perform an exhaustive search, which is a time-consuming approach to problem solving

a. people pay too little attention to structural features

according to research on memory for interrelated sentences, a. people recall hearing many sentences that were never actually presented b. people's verbatim memory is generally close to perfect c. people often believe that they have heard a sentence before, even if the meaning of that sentence is very different from the original d. several minutes after the material has been presented, people usually cannot remember the general meaning of that material

a. people recall hearing many sentences that were never actually presented

the tip-of-the-tongue experience is related to metacognition because a. people think about whether they are likely to remember the target word, and this estimate is one kind of metacognitive task b. people are highly accurate in both their tip-of-the-tongue estimates and their metacognition estimates c. people consistently underestimate their accuracy on both tip-of-the-tongue tasks and other metacognitive tasks d. people first give a general estimate of their accuracy, and then they systematically make adjustments to that estimate

a. people think about whether they are likely to remember the target word, and this estimate is one kind of metacognitive task

in the parallel distributed processing approach, the concept called "spontaneous generalization" means that a. the connection weights determine the level of activation that is passed between the nodes in a network b. we make generalizations, based on a fairly large number of exemplars c. we can use individual cases to draw conclusions about some general information d. experts store information in nodes, whereas novices store them in individual neurons

c. we can use individual cases to draw conclusions about some general information

which of the following would be an example of functional fixedness? a. wanting to use a rope to tie your car trunk closed and failing to realize that you could use a coat-hanger for the task b. thinking that you must solve an algebra problem the same way you solved the previous problem in the book c. beginning at the end of an analogy problem and working backwards toward the initial state d. failing to concentrate on the surface structure of a problem

a. wanting to use a rope to tie your car trunk closed and failing to realize that you could use a coat-hanger for the task

according to the discussion of the parallel distributed processing approach to memory, the term default assignment means that a. we can figure out missing information about someone or something, based on information about similar people or things b. the item in the neural network that receives the greatest amount of stimulation receives the default assignment c. when our information about something is defective or faulty, we seldom experience an activated network d.we can use attributes (such as an object's shape) to locate

a. we can figure out missing information about someone or something, based on information about similar people or things

the prototype approach to semantic memory works especially well in which of the following conditions? a. when applied to a group of items that have no single characteristic in common b. when explaining how we store details about each individual example of a category c. when accounting for why experts and nonexperts differ with respect to their use of subordinate-level categories d. when pointing out why people believe that some categories have clear-cut boundaries, rather than fuzzy boundaries

a. when applied to a group of items that have no single characteristic in common

absentminded behavior is especially likely to occur a. when you must remember to do something that is not part of your customary routine b. when you are in an unfamiliar setting c. when you are trying to performing a task especially carefully d. when you are performing a retrospective-memory task

a. when you must remember to do something that is not part of your customary routine

researchers have conducted many studies about how students allocate their time, when studying for an exam. in general, these studies show that a. without time pressure, students spend more time studying difficult material b. without time pressure, students spend more time studying easy material c. with time pressure, students spend more time studying difficult material d. with time pressure, students tend to study randomly, without using strategies about which items to focus on

a. without time pressure, students spend more time studying difficult material

heather complains that her professor's powerpoint slides are crowded with details and that she can't copy what is on the slides while listening to the lecture and taking notes on what is being said. heather's complain has to do with the limits of her a. working memory b. divided attention c. levels of processing d. encoding specificity

a. working memory

which of the following students provides the best description for how john anderson's model of semantic memory accounts for our long-term learning? a. xianming: "by practicing, we can strengthen the links between two concepts." b. joan: "working memory has a capacity that is potentially unlimited; learning basically increases the capacity of working memory." c. tashica: "if many links are activated at the same time, each of these links is greatly strengthened—even more than if only one link is activated." d. dan: "through learning, our exemplars become increasingly strengthened."

a. xianming: "by practicing, we can strengthen the links between two concepts."

imagine that you are currently trying to solve a problem. which of the following statements about attention would be relevant to your situation? a. you may experience divided attention because of distracting ideas b. if it is a real-world problem, divided attention is not likely to present a problem c. if it is a real-world problem, the appropriate part of the problem—the part that requires attention—should be obvious d. although attention is important in problem solving, good problem solvers and poor problem solvers do not differ in their ability to pay attention to specific inconsistencies

a. you may experience divided attention because of distracting ideas

according to the prototype approach to semantic memory, a. every item that meets the specified requirements of a category belongs to that category b. a prototype is an example of the category that is neither the best example, nor the worst example c. we judge whether an item is similar to the prototype in order to decide whether it belongs to a category d. nonprototypes are items that do not belong to any category

c. we judge whether an item is similar to the prototype in order to decide whether it belongs to a category

which of the following statements about the parallel distributed processing approach is correct? a. when one unit is stimulated, all the units that are connected with it are simultaneously inhibited b. when one unit is stimulated, all the other units are automatically given a default assignment c. when one unit reaches an appropriate activation level, it can either inhibit or excite other units to which it is connected d. at any given time, numerous serial operations are proceeding at the same time through several portions of the cortex

c. when one unit reaches an appropriate activation level, it can either inhibit or excite other units to which it is connected

according to the introduction to the chapter on problem solving, a. the most useful problem-solving strategy is called the trial-and-error method b. people are likely to take a more passive approach when solving problems than when working on most other cognitive tasks c. people typically solve a problem by visualizing the goal state and ignoring the initial state d. people typically use problem-solving strategies that can produce a solution fairly quickly

d. people typically use problem-solving strategies that can produce a solution fairly quickly

which of the following is the best example of a single proposition? a. actor alan rickman portrayed "snape" in the harry potter movies b. author dean koontz has written many best-selling suspense novels c. the chicago cubs baseball team play in ivy-covered wrigley field d. peter dinklage is an actor

d. peter dinklage is an actor

which of the following statements is correct about the current research on the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon? a. monolingual adults and bilingual adults are equally likely to report this phenomenon b. people are fairly accurate in guessing the number of syllables in the target word, but they are less accurate in guessing the target word's first letter c. the phenomenon seems to be limited to the english language d. research in languages that have grammatical gender shows that people can typically identify the gender of the target word

d. research in languages that have grammatical gender shows that people can typically identify the gender of the target word

the well-organized knowledge that you have about the world is called a. declarative memory b. implicit memory c. explicit memory d. semantic memory

d. semantic memory

in order to understand a problem, you need to understand the underlying meaning. this basic core of a problem is called its a. mental set b. goal state c. surface features d. structural features

d. structural features

the category "bartlett pear" is a a. episodic-memory category b. superordinate-level category c. basic-level category d. subordinate-level category

d. subordinate-level category

which of the approaches to semantic memory emphasizes that our memory stores many specific members of a category? a. the prototype approach b. the schema approach c. the parallel distributed processing approach d. the exemplar approach

d. the exemplar approach

mandi is studying for her biopsychology exam by creating a diagram for the parts of the human nervous system. her diagram shows two basic divisions, the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system; each of these systems is further divided and then subdivided. mandi is using a. the method of loci b. the spacing effect c. the keyword method d. the hierarchy technique

d. the hierarchy technique

think about the various approaches to general knowledge, as discussed in chapter 8. which of these approaches is most closely related to the concept of boundary extension? a. the prototype approach b. the exemplar approach c. the parallel distributed processing (PDP) approach d. the schema approach

d. the schema approach

suppose that you and a friend have been discussing cognitive psychology. you are more likely to respond quickly to the concept "semantic memory" than if you had been discussing basketball. this would be an example of a. the false alarm effect b. the network effect c. the prototype effect d. the semantic priming effect

d. the semantic priming effect

in the parallel distributed processing approach, learning basically involves a. graceful degradation b. spontaneous inhibition of default assignments c. spontaneous generalization to new nodes in the network d. the strengthening of connections among relevant nodes

d. the strengthening of connections among relevant nodes

your textbook discussed a metamemory study that asked students to estimate their total score on a test that they had just taken. the comparison between the students' actual score and their estimated score showed that a. the students consistently overestimated how well they had performed b. the students consistently underestimated how well they had performed c. the students with the lowest actual scores provided the most accurate estimated scores d. the students with the highest actual scores provided the most accurate estimated scores

d. the students with the highest actual scores provided the most accurate estimated scores

people are especially likely to remember schema-inconsistent material when a. this material is ordinary and routine b. this material flows naturally from the earlier material c. this material is not relevant for people's lives d. this material is surprising

d. this material is surprising

which of the following students provides the most accurate basic information about problem solving? a. damon: "problem solving is a very sophisticated cognitive activity, which most adults do not use in their daily activities." b. nicholas: "problem solving emphasizes the acquisition and storage of information, but it seldom focuses on the transformation of knowledge: c. gracie: "people are more likely to be creative if the problem includes several obstacles." d. tiffany: "in problem solving, you need to reach a goal, but the solution is not an obvious one."

d. tiffany: "in problem solving, you need to reach a goal, but the solution is not an obvious one."

suppose that some research participants are asked to remember a story. furthermore, this story contains some particularly vivid and surprising material that is not consistent with a standard schema. the participants would be most likely a. to show spreading activation to schema-inconsistent material b. to emphasize prototypical information c. to prefer scripts to schemas d. to recall the schema-inconsistent material

d. to recall the schema-inconsistent material

if you had one important message about memory improvement that you could convey to a friend, what should it be? a. the total amount of time you spend practicing the items is more important than the study techniques that you use b. interactive images are more effective than non-interactive images c. use the first-letter mnemonic whenever possible d. try to think about your memory strategies, plan how to study, and monitor whether you understand material

d. try to think about your memory strategies, plan how to study, and monitor whether you understand material

according to the introduction to the section on problem understanding, a. understanding occurs when we have evolved an external representation for an internal problem b. a primary criterion for understanding is the ability to represent the problem in matrix form c. attention is necessary for problem solution, but it is not essential for problem understanding d. understanding requires a close correspondence between the situation you need to understand and your own internal representation

d. understanding requires a close correspondence between the situation you need to understand and your own internal representation

according to the research on visual images and problem solving, a. when people solve a problem using imagery, they rarely supplement an image with verbal material b. visual images are typically more rational than verbal methods of representing the problem c. visual imagery often prevents people from solving a problem creatively d. visual images often allow problem solvers to select nontraditional solutions for problems

d. visual images often allow problem solvers to select nontraditional solutions for problems

in functional fixedness, a. if an object has one particular function, we realize that the object can also be used in other capacities b. we realize that a problem can be solved most efficiently by the hill-climbing heuristic c. we rely too heavily on bottom-up processing d. we assign a particular use to an object, and that use tends to remain stable

d. we assign a particular use to an object, and that use tends to remain stable

in a means-ends analysis, a. the matrix approach is most useful b. we disregard some aspects of the problem in order to make the problem simpler c. we solve a problem by emphasizing embodied cognition d. we divide the problem into a number of subproblems

d. we divide the problem into a number of subproblems

the exemplar approach to semantic memory proposes that a. exemplars are stored at the basic level; nonexemplars are stored at the subordinate level b. an exemplar is an idealized example of a category, derived by taking an average of the members of that category c. experts make better use of exemplars, whereas novices make better use of prototypes d. we store a number of examples for each concept; to classify a new stimulus, we compare it with this set of examples

d. we store a number of examples for each concept; to classify a new stimulus, we compare it with this set of examples

chapter 11 discusses the effects of ethnic and gender stereotypes on a test that measures math problem-solving ability. this research shows that a. asian women perform relatively well if their ethnicity is emphasized before they begin the math test b. asian women perform relatively well if their gender is emphasized before they begin the math test c. european american women are not aware of stereotypes, and so they perform better than asian women d. there were no ethnic or gender differences in this study, showing that stereotypes in these two areas are no longer relevant in math problem solving

a. asian women perform relatively well if their ethnicity is emphasized before they begin the math test

suppose that you have an assignment to write a review of the literature on a topic in cognitive psychology. if you used means-ends analysis, you would begin by a. breaking the problem into parts (e.g., select a topic, locate resources, etc.) and then solve each part b. creating a matrix consisting of possible problems and possible solutions c. searching systematically through all possible alternatives (e.g., all possible topics on perception, all possible topics on memory, etc.) until you have found a solution d. trying to think of occasions on which you faced a similar problem (e.g., writing a paper in a child development course) and use that information to help you solve the present problem

a. breaking the problem into parts (e.g., select a topic, locate resources, etc.) and then solve each part

which of the following students provides the most accurate summary of the research on metacomprehension accuracy among college students? a. cheryl: "students' metacomprehension accuracy and their reading comprehension scores are significantly correlated." b. jacques: "students tend to underestimate their scores on a reading comprehension test." c. ed: "students are much more confident about the comprehension questions they answered correctly, compared with those they answered incorrectly." d. hannelore: "unfortunately, students' metacomprehension accuracy does not improve when they get feedback about their ability to assess their reading comprehension."

a. cheryl: "students' metacomprehension accuracy and their reading comprehension scores are significantly correlated."

colin has high reading comprehension abilities, as measured by his scores on the verbal SAT. stefan has only average reading comprehension. both connor and stefan read a series of unfamiliar text passages, and then answer reading comprehension questions about the passages. for the items for which connor and stefan both express an average certainty rating of 75%, you would expect that a. connor would get about 75% of those items correct b. stefan would get about 75% of those items correct c. both connor and stefan would be overconfident about their scores d. both connor and stefan would be underconfident about their scores

a. connor would get about 75% of those items correct

suppose that you attend a lecture in which a psychologist says, "memory is created by gathering together and integrating information from a variety of sources. after a memory has been formed, we cannot accurately recall the source of each memory component." this speaker would be most likely to endorse the ______________ view of memory. a. constructive b. boundary-extension c. exemplar d. pragmatic

a. constructive

suppose that a researcher conducts a study on schemas. the results demonstrate that the participants blended information together from several sentences, rather than remembering the exact wording of each sentence. these results would support the a. constructive model of memory b. exemplar view of concepts c. family-resemblance approach to concepts d. pragmatic view of memory

a. constructive model of memory

which of the following students provides the best definition for the term thinking? a. denise: "thinking means that you go further than the material you were given, in order to reach a goal." b. wilfredo: "thinking means that you use parallel processing in order to consider many unrelated things at the same time." c. lyssu: "thinking requires you to use divided attention in order to contemplate all the obstacles relevant to the task." d. anne: "thinking primarily emphasizes the acquisition and storage of knowledge."

a. denise: "thinking means that you go further than the material you were given, in order to reach a goal."

according to the research on the use of diagrams in problem solving, a. diagrams are often helpful because they can convey information in a clear way b. a hierarchical tree diagram is a list of steps that must be followed in solving a problem c. the most effective way to use diagrams is to construct a matrix representing all possible combinations of options d. people seldom solve problems by using diagrams, because verbal representations are much more appealing

a. diagrams are often helpful because they can convey information in a clear way

according to the discussion of prospective and retrospective memory, a. distinctive encoding improves performance on both kinds of memory tasks b. the research on retrospective memory is typically higher in ecological validity than is the research on prospective memory c. a delay period has a stronger effect on retrospective memory than on prospective memory d. retrospective-memory tasks typically activate the frontal lobe of the brain, but prospective-memory tasks do not

a. distinctive encoding improves performance on both kinds of memory tasks

which of the following students provides the best definition of the term "inference," in connection with the discussion of semantic memory in chapter 8? a. don: "an inference refers to those conclusions and logical implications that people make, even when they were never directly stated in the original stimulus." b. javier: "an inference is the grammatical structure of a sentence, in both written and spoken language." c. polina: "an inference occurs when one speaker stops talking, and another begins to speak." d. lindsey: "an inference is basically an alternate term for the word validity."

a. don: "an inference refers to those conclusions and logical implications that people make, even when they were never directly stated in the original stimulus."

your friend jerome has lost his contact lens in his room. he begins searching in one corner and methodically moves from right to left and then back from left to right, examining every square inch. what strategy is he using? a. exhaustive search b. parallel processing c. heuristic search d. functional fixedness

a. exhaustive search

according to the research on mental sets, a. mental set is an overreliance on bottom-up processing b. mental set is especially helpful when you are trying to solve a problem creatively c. people may produce inferior problem solutions if they are shown examples of possible solutions before they try to solve the problem d. mental sets neither help nor hinder problem solving

c. people may produce inferior problem solutions if they are shown examples of possible solutions before they try to solve the problem

the pragmatic view of memory proposes that a. people typically pay attention to the gist of a story; however, if they realize that exact wording is important, they are likely to emphasize verbatim recall b. people are more concerned with the politeness of a message than with its grammatical structure or the specific meaning in that message c. people realize that researchers are going to be testing verbatim recall, so they pay much more attention to the specific words than they do in real-life situations d. we tend to remember schema-inconsistent material more accurately than schema-consistent material

a. people typically pay attention to the gist of a story; however, if they realize that exact wording is important, they are likely to emphasize verbatim recall

prospective memory errors are especially likely to occur when you are simultaneously a. performing a task automatically in a familiar setting b. performing a task effortfully in a familiar setting c. performing a task automatically in an unfamiliar setting d. performing a task effortfully in an unfamiliar setting

a. performing a task automatically in a familiar setting

which of the following students provides the best summary of why a person's confidence is important to the topic of memory strategies and metacognition? a. sli: "in general, people are overconfident that they will remember material accurately." b. megan: "ironically, people are overconfident about eyewitness testimony and underconfident about material they learn in an academic setting." c. george: "people are especially likely to be overconfident if they have studied material by using the self-reference technique." d. xavier: "people are generally overconfident when they use memory strategies and underconfident when they use metacognition."

a. sli: "in general, people are overconfident that they will remember material accurately."

part of the section on metamemory examined how students regulate their study strategies. if you are typical of the college students discussed in that section—and the task is relatively easy—you would be likely to a. spend somewhat more time on the more difficult material, but not as much time as it deserves b. fail to review the material you already know c. show no relationship between study time and the difficulty of the material d. spend roughly three times as long on difficult topics as on the topics you already know

a. spend somewhat more time on the more difficult material, but not as much time as it deserves

when people try to solve problems, which feature of the problem should they emphasize the most? a. structural features b. surface features c. schematic features d. algorithms

a. structural features

suppose that you have solved a problem by letting the letter x represent one unknown and by letting the letter y represent another unknown. which problem-solving method have you used? a. symbols b. imagery c. matrix d. graph

a. symbols

psychologists who support the situated-cognition approach to problem solving would be most likely to emphasize a. that people often learn to solve a problem in a specific context, and then they cannot transfer it to other situations b. how people reach creative solutions, rather than obvious solutions c. that people can easily transfer their knowledge from one problem to another similar problem d. how people typically divide their attention among several competing components of the initial state

a. that people often learn to solve a problem in a specific context, and then they cannot transfer it to other situations

suppose that a friend tells you a phone number that you need to dial, as soon as you are done talking. you don't have a pencil, so you remember it by grouping it into two sections, one with three digits, and one with four digits. the method you have used is called a. the chunking method b. the method of loci c. the keyword method d. the narrative technique

a. the chunking method

suppose that you are a counselor at a summer camp, and you want to learn the children's names. you decide to rehearse the names during each mealtime for 3 days. this would be an example of a technique called a. the distributed-practice effect b. external memory aids c. source monitoring d. elaboration

a. the distributed-practice effect

in the name parallel distributed processing approach, the word distributed refers to a. the distribution of information across many locations in the brain b. the distribution of attention while processing memorable material c. spontaneous generalization, or remembering material that was not initially learned d. the simultaneous processing of several ideas

a. the distribution of information across many locations in the brain

suppose that you have always prepared a casserole in a certain fashion. then you buy a food processor. it would be most efficient to prepare the ingredients in a new order, but you follow your old, familiar order. the strategy that you are using is a. the hill-climbing heuristic b. a mental set c. parallel processing d. divergent production

a. the hill-climbing heuristic

chapter 7 discussed a study by hartwig and dunlosky, who assessed whether college students' study techniques were correlated with their college grades. this research showed that a. there was a strong correlation between the measures of "study techniques" and grades in college b. the study was flawed, because of the research was acknowledged to have a serious problem with the issue that "correlation is not necessarily causation." c. surprisingly, there was no correlation between any of the variables d. there was actually a negative correlation between study techniques and grades in college, probably because the students with the lowest grades actually exaggerated the amount of time spent studying

a. there was a strong correlation between the measures of "study techniques" and grades in college

in computer simulation, the computer is programmed a. to perform a task the same way that a human would b. to perform a task that matches the minimum performance of a human problem solver c. to use algorithms, but not heuristics d. to solve a problem as efficiently as possible

a. to perform a task the same way that a human would

according to the discussion of visual imagery during problem solving, a. visual images can be nontraditional, so they are sometimes more helpful than symbols and other methods of representing a problem b. surprisingly, people who are high in visual-imagery abilities are no more likely than other people to use imagery effectively during problem solving c. visual imagery is helpful only if problem solvers are initially instructed to visualize a familiar object d. a disadvantage to visual imagery is that it can only be used if you have a clear idea about the solution to the problem

a. visual images can be nontraditional, so they are sometimes more helpful than symbols and other methods of representing a problem

suppose that you belong to an organization in which an average of only 8 out of 12 people attend meetings on a regular basis. which of the following ideas best illustrates the way of overcoming a mental set when solving this problem of low attendance? a. try to think of all the previous techniques the group has used, and vote to decide which technique to use this time b. encourage everyone to try to figure out a new way to solve the problem, avoiding the solutions that the group members had previously tried c. emphasize the importance of functional fixedness when trying to solve the problem d. use the hill-climbing heuristic to make sure that the group members choose the most direct route, each time they make a decision

b. encourage everyone to try to figure out a new way to solve the problem, avoiding the solutions that the group members had previously tried

which of the following research questions would have the highest ecological validity? a. does instruction in the use of a matrix decrease the amount of time needed to solve logic puzzles? b. how do people determine how many rolls of wallpaper to use when planning to wallpaper a bedroom? c. how does time pressure affect people's ability to solve algebra problems? d. does culture affect people's likelihood of solving the buddhist monk problem successfully?

b. how do people determine how many rolls of wallpaper to use when planning to wallpaper a bedroom?

according to the discussion of problem-solving expertise in chapter 11, a. expertise is typically defined in terms of problem-solving speed, rather than problem-solving accuracy b. in some fields, expertise is not strongly correlated with the number of years of experience c. true experts can acquire their expertise without extensive practice because they truly seem to be "born" with their skills d. experts tend to have an especially well-developed working memory for general information, not just in their area of expertise

b. in some fields, expertise is not strongly correlated with the number of years of experience

the concept called "feeling of knowing" a. describes how confident you are that you provided the right answer on a test b. is an estimate of the likelihood that you will recognize the correct answer to a question c. is more closely related to retrospective memory than to metamemory d. is not significantly correlated with the amount of partial information we can retrieve

b. is an estimate of the likelihood that you will recognize the correct answer to a question

according to the research on the keyword method, this technique a. is no longer considered to be a useful mnemonic b. is often helpful for learning people's names c. is actually less effective when people use distributed practice, rather than learning the material all at once d. works only for abstract nouns, rather than concrete nouns

b. is often helpful for learning people's names

which of the following provides the best example of semantic memory? a. knowing what you ate for breakfast today b. knowing the definition of the word "concept" c. knowing where you went for dinner on your last birthday d. knowing how old you were when you first visited disney world

b. knowing the definition of the word "concept"

the exemplar approach to concepts suggests that our categories are based on a. the most typical items b. less typical items as well as highly typical items c. family resemblance d. the pattern of connections between the members of a category

b. less typical items as well as highly typical items

which of the following students provides the best summary of the relationship between expertise and top-down/bottom-up processing? a. carrie: "expert problem solvers tend to emphasize top-down processing because this framework provides the best overview of the problem." b. maría elena: "expert problem solvers use their knowledge (top-down processing), but they also attend to the unique features of the problem (bottom-up processing)." c. raoul: "the basic problem is that experts consistently overuse bottom-up processing, and they ignore top-down processing." d. herbie: "experts make too much use of bottom-up processing; novices make too much use of top-down processing."

b. maría elena: "expert problem solvers use their knowledge (top-down processing), but they also attend to the unique features of the problem (bottom-up processing)."

evelyn notices that a screw on her bicycle is loose, and she doesn't have a screwdriver with her. so she searches through her pocket and finds a dime, which is the appropriate thickness to tighten the screw. evelyn has demonstrated a. overcoming a mental set b. overcoming functional fixedness c. overcoming a heuristic d. a fixed mindset

b. overcoming functional fixedness

according to the introductory discussion about schemas in chapter 8, a. behaviorists frequently used the term "schema" in their theories b. piaget applied the concept of schemas to infants c. outside the area of cognitive psychology, other psychologists rarely discuss the concept of schemas d. sigmund freud was the first to incorporate the concept of a schema into a psychological theory

b. piaget applied the concept of schemas to infants

research on problem isomorphs has demonstrated that a. in general, novices are better than experts in identifying problem isomorphs b. problem solving often requires peeling away the superficial features of a problem, in order to discover problem isomorphs c. most problem solvers can easily detect problem isomorphs d. unsituated learning produces a greater number of correct solutions than does situated learning

b. problem solving often requires peeling away the superficial features of a problem, in order to discover problem isomorphs

according to your textbook, retrospective memory a. means that some new information interferes with some old information b. refers to some information that you learned in the past c. means that you use some mnemonic devices to improve your memory d. refers to your ability to predict how well you will do on a memory test

b. refers to some information that you learned in the past

what can we conclude about the role of schemas in memory? a. in general, schemas seldom operate in memory during adulthood b. schemas often operate; however, we sometimes remember material that is not consistent with a schema c. when people have normally functioning memory processes, schemas consistently operate in memory d. schemas operate consistently in our everyday experiences, though we find little evidence for them in the laboratory

b. schemas often operate; however, we sometimes remember material that is not consistent with a schema

suppose that you need to remember to pick up a book at the library after your examination today. this kind of memory task is an example of a. retrospective memory b. implicit memory c. prospective memory d. organizational mnemonics

c. prospective memory

in the classic research on inferences, sir frederick bartlett told british students a native american story. in this research, the students a. had especially vivid memory for the details that did not match British folk tales b. had surprisingly strong verbatim memory for most of the information in the story c. initially omitted some details that did not match British folk tales, and they omitted even more of these unusual details several days afterwards d.had poor recall initially for most components of the story, but they recalled the details better several days afterwards

c. initially omitted some details that did not match British folk tales, and they omitted even more of these unusual details several days afterwards

according to the discussion of problem-solving approaches, the hill-climbing heuristic a. can only be used when you represent the problem in terms of visual imagery b. is one of the most sophisticated problem-solving heuristics c. is often used if you do not have information on how to reach your goal, so you select the best option at each choice point d. is especially helpful when a problem requires you to move backwards in order to eventually move forwards

c. is often used if you do not have information on how to reach your goal, so you select the best option at each choice point

what is the current status of the parallel distributed processing approach? a. it was popular when the atkinson-shiffrin model was judged to be too rigid, but it is no longer prominent b. research shows that it has no neurological support c. it has been applied to many cognitive processes, but it fails to acknowledge that some cognitive processes use serial processing d. it is so limited in scope that it probably will not remain popular for long

c. it has been applied to many cognitive processes, but it fails to acknowledge that some cognitive processes use serial processing

which of the following students provides the most accurate information about expertise during problem solving? a. lisa: "experts are better at estimating how long it would take nonexperts to solve a problem." b. pernelle: "experts are more likely to use a mental set." c. jack: "experts are more likely to use their top-down processing effectively." d. sabino: "experts are more likely to use serial processing."

c. jack: "experts are more likely to use their top-down processing effectively."

suppose that you learned to make peanut-butter-and-jelly sandwiches by spreading peanut butter on one piece of bread, jelly on the other, and then placing the two pieces together. you are now making sandwiches for a crowd, and you use this same strategy. however, it would be more efficient to first spread peanut butter on half the pieces, and then spread jelly on the other half. your inefficient problem solving illustrates the concept called a. parallel processing b. insight c. mental set d. problem isomorphs

c. mental set

harrison knows that he will typically perform better in an exam if he reads the textbook chapters in the early afternoon and if he reviews the material by trying to explain it in his own words. harrison is demonstrating a. levels of processing. b. mnemonics. c. metacognition. d. the keyword method.

c. metacognition

as you read this question, you may be asking yourself whether you understand it. if so, you are engaging in a. meta-analysis b. metamemory c. metacomprehension d. source monitoring

c. metacomprehension

research on means-ends analysis in problem solving has shown that a. people tend to move through the various states in problem solving at a fairly steady rate b. most people realize that they often must move temporarily away from the goal in order to reach the correct problem solution c. most people are reluctant to move temporarily away from the goal in order to reach the correct problem solution d. the means-ends approach is roughly equivalent to the analogy approach

c. most people are reluctant to move temporarily away from the goal in order to reach the correct problem solution

deep processing increases distinctiveness, which can be especially important in learning a. formulas b. complex theories c. names d. the order of discoveries

c. names

elaine memorized the lakes of the great lakes by using the word HOMES (huron, ontario, michigan, erie, superior). elaine has used the a. keyword method b. narrative technique c. first-letter technique d. hierarchy method

c. narrative technique

a basic principle that lies at the core of the parallel distributed processing approach is that a. we cannot remember information unless it has been recently processed b. the longer something remains in memory, the more likely it is to be forgotten c. neuron-like units are connected with each other by a system of networks d. material that we acquired intentionally will be retained better than material acquired by incidental learning

c. neuron-like units are connected with each other by a system of networks

heather and tom want to bake some blueberry muffins, but they do not have a muffin tin. so heather takes some soda cans out of the recycling bin, tom cuts the top 2 inches off of each can, and they use the bottoms of the cans to bake their muffins. tom and heather have demonstrated a. a fixed mindset b. use of an algorithm c. overcoming functional fixedness d. the means-end analysis heuristic

c. overcoming functional fixedness

chapter 8 described a study in which participants stayed briefly in an office. later, their recall showed that a. when people have a schema for a scene, their recall is typically accurate b. people with little expertise on a topic are likely to have particularly clear-cut schemas for that topic c. people are likely to recall objects and events that are consistent with the schema d. schemas usually reduce our memory accuracy

c. people are likely to recall objects and events that are consistent with the schema

chapter 6 discusses the accuracy of people's metamemory for pairs of words on an item-by-item basis. this research suggests that a. people are not very accurate in guessing which pairs of words they are likely to recall at a later time b. people clearly underestimate their ability to recall pairs of words at a later time c. people are more accurate when predicting on an "item-by-item" basis as compared to an overall score basis d. people have fairly accurate metamemory when the stimuli are pairs of words

c. people are more accurate when predicting on an "item-by-item" basis as compared to an overall score basis

in problem solving, the term obstacles refers to a. the situation at the beginning of problem solving b. the method by which people understand the problem c. restrictions that are encountered in problem solving d.the portion of a problem that you initially examine during problem solving

c. restrictions that are encountered in problem solving

which of the following students' summaries about metacognition and problem solving is the most accurate? a. delmer: "our metacognitions are typically more accurate for insight problems than for noninsight problems." b. midori: "students are not able to predict how well they are doing on a wide variety of problem-solving tasks." c. saundra: "on insight problems, our confidence increases suddenly; on noninsight problems, our confidence builds up gradually." d. steve: "students typically have a feeling that they know the solution when they are several steps away from solving a problem—whether the problem is an insight problem or a noninsight problem."

c. saundra: "on insight problems, our confidence increases suddenly; on noninsight problems, our confidence builds up gradually."

you walk into a movie theater lobby and are surprised to see a rack of clothing on sale in a corner. your surprise is due to your _____ about movie theater lobbies. a. exemplars b. parallel processes c. schema d. tip-of-the-tongue effect

c. schema

which of the following statements presents the most accurate view of how schemas operate in memory? a. schemas can only operate in the initial selection of material to encode; they do not affect the integration process b. schemas are so powerful that we never remember information that is inconsistent with our schemas c. schemas are particularly influential in the remembering of visual scenes d. we store all memories in abstract fashion, losing the details of the exact words of the original presentation

c. schemas are particularly influential in the remembering of visual scenes

which of the following students has the most accurate information about the research on levels of categorization? a. stacy: "we use family-resemblance names in order to identify objects." b. midori: "members of superordinate-level concepts are especially likely to produce the priming effect." c. scott: "brain imaging research shows that the prefrontal cortex is activated when people judge superordinate terms; it is less active with basic-level terms." d. rasa: "experts and novices both use basic-level terms more than subordinate-level terms."

c. scott: "brain imaging research shows that the prefrontal cortex is activated when people judge superordinate terms; it is less active with basic-level terms."

the computer simulation called general problem solver a. solves problems in the most efficient fashion possible b. solves problems using the analogy method c. solves problems using means-ends analysis d. alternates between forward searches and backward searches in problem solving

c. solves problems using means-ends analysis

which concept can help to explain stereotyping? a. exemplars b. priming c. spontaneous generalization d. connection weights

c. spontaneous generalization

suppose that ramón is a latino college student who is taking a course in engineering. he is about to take the first exam in this course. he looks around the room and notices that he appears to be the only latino student in the class. ramón is likely to experience a. functional fixedness b. bottom-up processing c. stereotype threat d. intrinsic motivation

c. stereotype threat

What can we conclude about college students' accuracy on measures of metacomprehension? a. students' metacomprehension is generally as accurate as their metamemory for learning pairs of english words b. metacomprehension is about as accurate for reading comprehension as for other items on the verbal portion of the SAT c. students are only slightly more confident about the items they answered correctly than the items they answered incorrectly d. there is no relationship between students' confidence about whether they answered an item correctly and their actual accuracy

c. students are only slightly more confident about the items they answered correctly than the items they answered incorrectly

chapter 6 discussed college students' metamemory about factors affecting memory accuracy. according to this discussion, a. students with ADHD consistently overestimate their memory accuracy, compared with students without ADHD b. students are usually accurate in predicting how many hours they should study in order to get a good score in an exam c. students usually believe that simple rehearsal is an effective way to study for an exam d. students are aware that the research shows that you remember words better if they are printed in a large font size, rather than a small font size

c. students usually believe that simple rehearsal is an effective way to study for an exam

which of the following students provides the best definition of the term "ecological validity"? a. emily: "ecological validity means that you are testing hypotheses that assess people's concern about the environment." b. patrick: "ecological validity refers to research in which you assess two different dependent variables." c. tessa: "ecological validity means that there is a high similarity between the situation where the study is being conducted, and the situation in "real life" where the results will be applied." d. theodora: "ecological validity means that you take two dependent variables, determine whether they are correlated with each other, and then see whether they are correlated with the independent variable."

c. tessa: "ecological validity means that there is a high similarity between the situation where the study is being conducted, and the situation in "real life" where the results will be applied."

chapter 8 discusses the term "graded structure" in connection with the prototype theory of semantic memory. the best example of this term is a. the observation that we frequently make spontaneous generalizations b. the structure of our knowledge during the tip-of-the-tongue effect c. the arrangement of words in a specific category, from most prototypical to least prototypical d. the fact that the terms "concept" and "category" are related but somewhat different from each other

c. the arrangement of words in a specific category, from most prototypical to least prototypical

chapter 8 discussed in some detail the research by heit and barsalou about students' understanding of the concept "animal." If this research could be generalized to the concept "fruit," you would expect to find that a. experts considered prototypical fruits to be oranges and apples, whereas novices considered those fruits to be nonprototypical b. the less common fruits would be more likely to show spontaneous generalization c. the concept "fruit" includes some uncommon fruits as well as some prototypes d. spreading activation is the most useful mechanism for understanding the meaning of "fruit."

c. the concept "fruit" includes some uncommon fruits as well as some prototypes

you would expect a matrix to be a useful problem solving representation when a. the problem is very abstract b. the problem is relatively simple c. the information is stable, not changing over time d. you need to represent visual information

c. the information is stable, not changing over time

suppose that you are trying to solve the problem of assembling a new bookcase that you have just bought, using a sheet of instructions as a guide. according to the discussion of problem understanding, a. you must use heuristics in order to understand a problem b. a problem will have a coherent representation, as long as you have used your background knowledge about your previous experiences with assembling items c. you need to mentally represent the problem, and this representation must be consistent with the assembly instructions d. the major component of this phase of problem solving is the decision to use symbols and visual images to represent the various steps that are illustrated in the assembly instructions

c. you need to mentally represent the problem, and this representation must be consistent with the assembly instructions

chapter 8 discusses how schemas can influence the way you integrate information on a memory task. which of the following situations would be most likely to encourage schema-consistent integration? a. no other simultaneous task, with recall tested immediately afterwards b. another simultaneous task, with recall tested immediately afterwards c. no other simultaneous task, with a delay prior to recall d. another simultaneous task, with a delay prior to recall

d. another simultaneous task, with a delay prior to recall

when we compare network models with the prototype approach, we find that network models a. place more emphasis on a graded structure b. are better in describing how prototypical items are processed c. make better use of the sentence verification technique d. are more likely to emphasize how different members of a category are related to one another

d. are more likely to emphasize how different members of a category are related to one another

according to the discussion in chapter 8, john anderson's ACT-R theory a. focuses on discovering how experts and novices categorize new objects b. explains how working memory processes semantic information; however, ACT-R theory is not currently concerned with the way this information is stored in long-term memory c. proposes that each concept in semantic memory can be described in terms of a list of characteristics that its members must possess d. attempts to explain processes such as language, reasoning and decision making—in addition to semantic memory

d. attempts to explain processes such as language, reasoning and decision making—in addition to semantic memory

which of the following students provides the most accurate description of the way that boundary extension might operate in eyewitness testimony? a. daniel: "each time the eyewitness retells the story, the boundary becomes increasingly well defined." b. nora: "in reality monitoring, eyewitnesses have difficulty establishing the boundary between events that actually happened and events that they simply imagined." c. dora maría: "a lawyer can carefully manipulate the questions, so that eyewitnesses remember the inferences, rather than events that actually happened." d. augusto: "eyewitnesses may believe that they saw a person's entire face, when part of the face was actually blocked from view."

d. augusto: "eyewitnesses may believe that they saw a person's entire face, when part of the face was actually blocked from view."

the parallel distributed processing approach to memory accounts for the way people make default assignments. if you were to make a default assignment about a woman you do not know very well, you might a. assume that she is guilty of a crime, even if she is not b. insist that you heard information about her, even if you did not c. forget relevant information that you actually heard about her d. believe that she is fairly sophisticated, because she comes from a large city

d. believe that she is fairly sophisticated, because she comes from a large city

imagine that you are taking an art history course. you're thinking about a painting that you liked, especially because the artist captured a woman's facial expression very skillfully. you remember that you saw this woman's entire face, but then you check the painting. actually, part of her face is hidden from view. what concept in the description of schemas is most similar to this incident? a. the pragmatic approach b. a script c. an implicit-memory task d. boundary extension

d. boundary extension

the parallel distributed processing approach a. is not consistent with the neurological properties of the brain b. is especially strong in explaining how we solve problems c. provides a comprehensive explanation for our ability to remember earlier material, even though that material was replaced by more recent information d. emphasizes the growth in the strength of connections among items during the process of learning

d. emphasizes the growth in the strength of connections among items during the process of learning

suppose that you are studying for a biopsychology examination, and you decide to try asking yourself questions about WHY various structures in the central nervous system operate the way they do. according to the discussion of memory strategies, your technique would a. enhance encoding specificity b. promote simple rehearsal c. lead to divided attention d. encourage a deep level of processing

d. encourage a deep level of processing

which of the following definitions for the term "foresight bias" is most accurate? a. a foresight bias occurs when the researchers try to anticipate—in advance—the problems with a study b. foresight bias occurs when researchers examine the dependent variables to see whether they will be high in external validity c. foresight bias occurs when people judge their mastery of some material that they have been studying, although they have been using an inappropriate mnemonic device d. foresight bias occurs when people are too confident that they will do well in a future exam, based on the estimates they make while studying the material

d. foresight bias occurs when people are too confident that they will do well in a future exam, based on the estimates they make while studying the material

suppose that you hear a lecture about memory improvement, and the speaker says "we must remember the value of desirable difficulties." the speaker is likely to emphasize that a. academic tests must be difficult enough to differentiate between the students who deserve A's and the students who deserve lower grades b. professors who want to assess their academic programs must be sure that the courses are sufficiently difficult c. students' motivation will be higher if they are allowed to select the appropriate level of difficulty for the material in a course they are taking d. if students test themselves several minutes after learning some material, they will make more errors, which will encourage them to spend more time studying

d. if students test themselves several minutes after learning some material, they will make more errors, which will encourage them to spend more time studying

according to the parallel distributed processing model of semantic memory, how does spontaneous generalization differ from default assignment? a. in spontaneous generalization, we make a more conscious effort to draw inferences b. in spontaneous generalization, we can only account for conditioning (e.g., classical conditioning), whereas default assignment is a more sophisticated process c. spontaneous generalization takes place in long-term memory; default assignment takes place in working memory d. in spontaneous generalization, we draw a conclusion about an entire category; in default assignment, we draw a conclusion about one member of a category

d. in spontaneous generalization, we draw a conclusion about an entire category; in default assignment, we draw a conclusion about one member of a category

which of the following students provides the most accurate information about the prototype approach to semantic memory? a. elisabeth: "people store an abstract representation of each basic-level category." b. lester: "the prototype approach applies only to inanimate objects." c. horatio: "the data on the semantic-priming effect are not consistent with the prototype approach." d. joni: "superordinate terms tend to activate different regions of the cortex from the regions activated by basic-level terms."

d. joni: "superordinate terms tend to activate different regions of the cortex from the regions activated by basic-level terms."

the research on practice and memory improvement demonstrates that a. for most people, one exposure to the material is sufficient unless that material is extremely difficult b. several reviews of the same material -- without taking breaks in between -- is especially effective c. in general, we have little evidence for the total time hypothesis d. learning is more effective if learning trials are spread out over time, rather than if you study without a break

d. learning is more effective if learning trials are spread out over time, rather than if you study without a break

if an important component of your television set is defective, the television will not operate, even if all the other parts are in good working order. according to the parallel distributed processing approach, a. memory is similar; for instance, if the short-term store is not working, an item will not be recalled b. memory is similar; for instance, a defect in one component spreads to other components c. memory is different; for instance, the functioning parts help to heal the defective part d. memory is different; for instance, memory can often operate, even if some of the input is inappropriate

d. memory is different; for instance, memory can often operate, even if some of the input is inappropriate

which of the following students provides the best explanation for stereotype threat during problem solving? a. alper: "stereotype threat can usually be traced to overactive bottom-up processing." b. kristi: "stereotype threat is basically caused by a growth mindset." c. kevin: "stereotype threat typically occurs because people use parallel processing, rather problem-solving heuristics." d. nita: "stereotype threat seems to cause a reduction in working memory, due to factors such as high arousal."

d. nita: "stereotype threat seems to cause a reduction in working memory, due to factors such as high arousal."

according to the discussion of insight problems and noninsight problems, a. insight requires a sudden solution to a problem, without awareness that the problem has been successfully solved b. people solve insight problems more gradually than noninsight problems c. noninsight problems require more creativity than insight problems d. noninsight problems are typically solved in a systematic, one-step-at-a-time fashion

d. noninsight problems are typically solved in a systematic, one-step-at-a-time fashion

according to research on the testing effect, a. although testing can improve recall, it is not as helpful as spending the same amount of time studying b. testing consistently improves recall, no matter whether the retention interval is short or long c. this effect operates only when students receive feedback on their test scores d. one explanation is that test-taking creates desirable difficulties

d. one explanation is that test-taking creates desirable difficulties

the term metacognition refers to a. an especially deep level of processing—even deeper than the self-reference effect b. the perspective that memory improvement must be comprehensive, instead of targeting just one memory strategy c. remembering to do something in the future d. our knowledge and control of our cognitive processes

d. our knowledge and control of our cognitive processes

the term semantic memory can be defined as a. events that happened in one's own life b. information that can be associated with a certain date in the past c. knowledge in one's own area of expertise d. our well-organized knowledge about the world

d. our well-organized knowledge about the world

an important potential problem with using symbols to represent a problem is that a. people typically use at least twice as many symbols as they need b. people usually construct a hierarchical tree diagram, even though they intended to use symbols c. people insert the symbols into the wrong matrix d. people have trouble translating words into the appropriate symbols

d. people have trouble translating words into the appropriate symbols

researchers have conducted studies about memory for inferences related to gender stereotypes. according to tests that assess explicit memory, a. people actually remember a greater percentage of items that are the opposite of the common gender stereotype b. people take the pragmatic approach in processing the material, and they recall the exact wording of the original material c. in the current era, people apparently no longer hold gender stereotypes d. people tend to recall gender-stereotyped material somewhat better than nonstereotyped material

d. people tend to recall gender-stereotyped material somewhat better than nonstereotyped material

which of the following research topics would be most interesting to a psychologist who favors the situated-cognitive approach? a. when working on a geometry problem, do people solve the problem more quickly if they are shown a diagram, in addition to the verbal form of the problem? b. on a problem requiring a matrix solution, are people faster at solving problems if they have already tried several easier versions of the problem? c. on a math problem requiring symbols, does the amount of irrelevant information influence the accuracy of the solution to the problem? d. what kind of strategies do college students use when trying to solve the problem of getting a ride to their hometown for a vacation?

d. what kind of strategies do college students use when trying to solve the problem of getting a ride to their hometown for a vacation?

the exemplar approach to semantic memory is especially relevant a. when you want to emphasize how various concepts are related to each other b. when the categories are very fluid and not very clearly defined c. when all of the items are low-frequency nouns d. when a category has a relatively small number of members

d. when a category has a relatively small number of members

absentminded behavior is most likely to occur a. when you are performing a very important behavior b. when you are performing a source-monitoring task c. when you are performing a routine activity, but you are thinking about the separate steps involved in the action d. when a prospective-memory task requires you to interrupt a routine activity

d. when a prospective-memory task requires you to interrupt a routine activity

according to research on the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, a. when an item is on the tip of your tongue, you will seldom be able to recover it b. your mental dictionary is arranged in alphabetical order c. you can identify similar-sounding words, but you cannot accurately guess the number of syllables in the target word d. you can typically provide a similar-sounding word, which matches the target word reasonably closely

d. you can typically provide a similar-sounding word, which matches the target word reasonably closely

why is the embodied cognition approach important when people are trying to solve certain kinds of problems? a. if they examine their immediate environment, the answer is often obvious b. this approach often produces a strong visual image c. the problem solver is less likely to use analogies d. your gestures often encourage you to express abstract thoughts and terms

d. your gestures often encourage you to express abstract thoughts and terms