Exam 3 Chapter 5 and 6 Memory, Thinking, and Intelligence

The two types of interference theory are :

1)proactive interference: The disruptive effect of prior learning on the retrieval of new information Example: Think about changing phone numbers after having a particular number for many years. When asked for your phone number, remembering the old one interferes with retrieving the new one. 2)retroactive interference:The disruptive effect of new learning on the retrieval of old information Example: Think about being at a party with many people you do not know. You meet someone that you want to talk to later, but after meeting her, you are introduced to several other people. Now you cannot remember her name. The names of the people that you met after her are interfering with your retrieval of her name.

What are the two major questions regarding intelligence and intelligence testing?

1. Is intelligence one general ability or is it a set of specific mental abilities? 2. Is intelligence due to genetics or experience?

What is the capacity of short-term memory?

7 with a plus sign over a line chunks

What is mnemonics?

A memory aid

How is a distractor task used to test the duration of short-term memory?

A memory task in which a small amount of information is briefly presented and then the participant is distracted from rehearsing the information from for a variable period of time, after which the participant has to recall the information.

What is a problem?

A situation in which there is a goal, but it is not clear how to reach the goal.

What is "levels-of processing" theory?

A theory of information processing in memory that assumes that semantic processing, especially elaborative semantic processing, leads to better long-term memory.

What is elaborative rehearsal?

A type of rehearsal in short-term memory in which incoming information is related to information from long-term memory to encode it into long-term memory

What is maintenance rehearsal?

A type of rehearsal in short-term memory in which the information is repeated over and over again in order to maintain it.

What is long-term memory?

(LTM) The memory stage in which information is stored for a long period of time (perhaps permanently) and whose capacity is essentially unlimited.

Who developed the first accepted test of intelligence, and was its purpose?

Alfred Binet was the first accepted test of intelligence. The test calculated a child's performance as an intellectual level, or a mental age, that then could be used in diagnosing academic problem.

What are false memories?

An inaccurate memory that feels as real as an accurate memory.

Differentiate between automatic processing and effortless processing, recognizing examples

Automatic processing: Memory processing that occurs subconsciously and does not require attention Example: speaking, walking, assembly-line work, bicycle riding and driving a car down a street Effortless processing:Memory processing that occurs consciously and requires attention. Example: memorizing your notes for your upcoming introduction to psychology exams Repeating a phone number in your head until you can write it down

What is cue-dependent theory?

Cue-dependent theory: A theory of forgetting that proposes that forgetting is due to the unavailability of the retrieval cues necessary to locate the information in long-term memory. Example: Trying to find a particular book in a library without its call number and a map of the library stacks.

Describe and recognize examples of the 4 theories of forgetting: a)encoding failure, b)storage decay, c)interference, including i)proactive and ii) retroactive, and d) cue-dependent

Encoding failure theory: A theory of forgetting that proposes that forgetting is to due to the failure to encode the information into long term memory Example: Two people meet for the first time and have a brief conversation. If one of them is asked several hours later the color of the other person's eyes, he may not remember. Storage decay theory: A theory of forgetting that proposes that forgetting is due to the decay of the biological representation of the information and the periodic usage of the information will help to maintain it in storage. Example:Trying to get a particular book from a library, but finding that its pages have rotted away. Interference theory: A theory of forgetting that proposes that forgetting is due to other information in memory interference and thereby making the to-be-remembered information inaccessible. Example: Boxes of books blocking access to the location where the book is located.

List and define the three essential processes in our memory system.

Encoding:The process of moving information from one memory stage to the next (from sensory memory into short-term memory or from short-term memory to long-term memory) Storage: The process of maintaining information in a memory stage Retrieval:The process of bringing information stored in long-term memory into short-term memory

What is the capacity for long-term memory?

Essentially unlimited

How has research in this area impacted eyewitness testimony and the recall of "repressed" memories of childhood sexuall abuse?

False memories have important implications for use of eyewitness testimony in criminal cases and for the controversy over memories of childhood sexual abuse that have supposedly been repressed but then are "recovered" in adulthood. The Loftus and Palmer research example shows us that eyewitness testimony is subject to error and manipulation by misleading information. Eyewitnesses not only often misidentify innocent people as criminals but they also often do so with the utmost confidence, and jurors tend to heavily weigh an eyewitnesse's confidence when judging their belevability. They may be false memories that have been constructed and may even have been inadvertently implanted by therapist during treatment sessions. An important point for us about sexual abuse is that the research on false memory has provided empirical evidence to support an alternative explanation to the claims for recovered memories, and this will help to sort out the true cases from the false.

Define and recognize examples of the following blocks to problem solving a)fixation b)functional fixedness and c)mental set

Fixation:The inability to create a new interpretation of a problem Example:cognition, learning, and personality Functional fixedness: The inability to see that an object can have a function other than its typical one in solving a problem Example: We need a screwdriver, but one isn't available. We have other things such as coins that could function as a screwdriver, but we may not think about using them in this novel way. Mental set:The tendency to use previously successful problem-solving strategies without considering others that are more appropriate for the current problem example:You typically enter a store by pushing a door open. Every time they come to a door after that, you push the door expecting it to open, even though some doors only open up by pulling.

What are the advantages and disadvantage of each strategy?

For many problems we may not know the algorithm or an algorithm for the problem may not exist. Sometimes you may even know the algorithm for a problem, but you don't use it because its execution would be too time-consuming. Instead you may try some heuristics and they may pay off with a quicker answer or they may lead to no answer or an incorrect one. An algorithm guarantees a correct , but a heuristic makes no guarantee.

How did Galton's perspective differ from that of Binet?

Galton's tests was not good predictors of intelligent thinking. Probably more significant to intelligence testing was Galton's invention of the basic mathematics behind correlational statistics that are used for numerous aspects of testing from assessing genetic contributions to determining a test's validity.

What is the Gambler's fallacy, and how is this related to the representativeness heuristic?

Gambler's fallacy: Incorrectly believing that a chance process is self-correcting in that an event that has not occurred for a while is more likely to occur. People believe that the short sequences should reflect the long-run probabilities. People believe random sequences, whether short or long, should look random. Probability and the law of averages only hold in the long run, not the short run. In addition, the long run is indeed very long--infinity. The representativeness heuristic leads us to forget this. The mind categorizes information automatically. Categorization is just another name for pattern recognition, an automatic process. The brain constantly recognizes (puts into categories) the objects, events,and people in our world. Categorization is one of the brain's basic operational principles, so it shouldn't be surprising that we may judge categorical probabilities in the same way that we recognize patterns.

What was Galton's perspective on intelligence?

He believed in the genetic determination of intelligence and thought he could measure intelligence by measuring various aspects of the human brain and nervous system. Galton assumed that more intelligent people would have more acute senses, greater strength, and faster reactions to stimuli.

Why did he use the meaningless nonsense syllables?

He used meaningless nonsense syllables because he wanted to study pure memory for the list items.

Describe the research of Hermann Ebbinghaus.

Hermann Ebbinghaus conducted the first experimental studies on human memory using the relearning method. His stimulus materials were lists of nonsense syllables, groupings of three letters (consonant-vowel-consonant such as BAV) that are not words or acronyms. He used meaningless nonsense syllables because he wanted to study pure memory for the list items. His familiarity with and knowledge of words and acronyms would have affected his ability to learn and remember the lists. His experimental procedure was very straightforward. He would study a list of nonsense syllables until he could correctly recite the complete list without any hesitations. He then put the list aside and waited some period of time (from 20 minutes up to 31 days) and then relearned the list to the same criterion (one complete recitation without any hesitations)

What is short-term memory?

Information from sensory memory enters consciousness (cognitive processing) Serves as a place to rehearse information

Where do these terms fit into Stern's formula for intelligence quotient (IQ)?

Intelligence quotient: (mental age/chronological age) times 100 When a child's mental age (as assessed by the test) was greater than the child's chronological age (actual age), the child's IQ was greater than 100; when chronological age was greater than mental age, the child's IQ was less than 100.

What are the two general steps in problem solving?

Interpreting the problem and trying to solve the problem

What is the duration of iconic memory?

Less than 1 second

Who then revised this test for use with American schoolchildren, and what did it come to be called?

Lewis Terman revised the intelligence test for the use with American schoolchildren. The revision became known as the Stanford-Binet.

Does this mean that you will not do as well on exams if you study in the library or your dorm room? Why or why not?

Many research studies have shown that long-term memory is better when the physical study and test environment are as similar as possible.

What is mental age and how does this compare with chronical age?

Mental age:The age typically associated with a child's level of test performance. If a child's mental age were less than his or her chronological (actual ) age, the child would need remedial work.

Define and recognize examples of the following mnemonics: a) method of loci, b) peg-word system, c)first-letter technique, d)spacing effect (distributed practice) and e) overlearning.

Method of loci: A mnemonic in which sequential pieces of information to be remembered are encoded by associating them with sequential locations in a very familiar room or place and then the pieces of information are retrieved by mentally going around the room (place) and retrieving the piece at each location Example: Here's how it would work if you wanted to remember the following shopping list: Shaving cream Peaches Hot dogs Ketchup Ice cream As you visualize your house, imagine spraying shaving cream all over the front door. Don't just imagine the word "shaving cream." Really see it as you depress the nozzle and spray the foam all over the front door. Try to imagine the smell of shaving cream, as well. Now open the door, enter the hall, and imagine a giant peach rolling down the steps in the front hall and heading right for you. Now walk into the living room, and visualize a six-foot tall hot dog in a bun wearing a cowboy hat and lounging by the fireplace. Enter the dining hall and picture a bottle of ketchup, dressed in an old-fashioned maid's uniform, setting the table. Finally, go to the kitchen and picture a gallon of ice cream, melting as it slaves over a hot stove. Peg-word system: A mnemonic in which the items in a list to be remembered are associated with the sequential items in a memorized jingle and then the lists is retrieved by going through the jingle and retrieving the associated items. Example: The first item on the list would be associated visually in a mental image with a bun. If the word to be remembered were "dog" then you might construct an image with bun. Then, as you go through the peg words, you retrieve the associated image, so you can retrieve the list. First-letter technique: you compose a word, acronym, or sentence from the first letters of the words you want to remember Example: ROY G. BIV-- Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet Spacing (distributed study) effect: learning is greater when studying is spread out over time instead of studying in the same amount of time in a single session Example: Let's say you have freshly learned something: In method 1 (massed repetition) you repeat it immediately ten times in a row. Do you think it helped you to remember it longer? Probably not. In method 2 (spaced repetition) you make the first repetition after say 1 hour, the second after 5 hours, the third after 1 day, the fourth after 3 days, and so on until finally the tenth repetition after about eight months. All experimental findings conclude that method 2 is much more effective. Although you spent exactly the same amount of time for the repetitions in both cases it is very likely that you will have forgotten the piece of information with method 1 after about 1-2 days, whereas using method 2 (spaced repetition) you will still know it after almost a year. Overlearning:continuing to study material past the point of initial learning, improves memory Example: A basketball player doesn't go home when he has achieved a nearly perfect record on his free throws; he will spend hours on the court practicing the same shot over and over, so when he is in front of a crowd, he is able to perform the same task without distraction.

Can your brain get "full" meaning there there is no room for information in long-term memory?

No long-term memory allows storage of information for a long period of time (perhaps permanently), and its capacity is essentially unlimited.

How do these phenomena distort memory?

Our memories for events are distorted by exposure to misinformation. The resulting false memories seem like real memories.

On what three levels do we process information?

Physical, acoustic, and semantic

Define and recognize examples of the three ways retrieval is measured: a)recall b)recognition, and c)relearning

Recall: A measure of long-term memory retrieval that requires the reproduction of the information with essentially no retrieval cues. Example: Most students would rather take a multiple choice test which utilizes recognition memory , than an essay test , which employs recall memory. Recognition: A measure of long-term memory retrieval that only requires the identification of the information in the presence of retrieval cues Example: multiple choice and matching tests Relearning:The savings method of measuring long-term memory retrieval in which the measure is the amount of time saved when learning information for the second time Example: Studying for a comprehensive final examination in a course. You must relearn the material. It will take you less time to relearn it, but how much less depends upon how well you learned it the first time.

Which measure of retrieval did he Hermann Ebbinghaus in his studies?

Relearning method

The two main heuristics used to judge the probability (likelihood) of an event are a)the representativeness heuristic and b)the availability heuristic. Define each of these, and be able to recognize examples.

Representativeness heuristic:A heuristic for judging the probability of membership in category by how well an object resembles (is representative of ) that category (the more representative, the more probable). example:If I meet three people from a company and they are all aggressive, I will assume that the company has an aggressive culture and that most other people from the firm will also be aggressive. Availability heuristic: A heuristic for judging the probability of an event by how available examples of the event are in memory (the more available, the more probable). Example: People who read more case studies of successful businesses may judge the probability of running a successful business to be greater.

What are schemas, and how do they facilitate memory?

Schemas: Frameworks for our knowledge about people, objects, events, and actions that allow us to organize and interpret information about our world. Example: Consider the schemas for eating out in a restaurant. First, a host or hostess seats you and gives you a menu. Then the waitperson gets you a drink order, brings your drinks, and then takes your meal order. Your food arrives, you eat it, the waitperson brings the bill. You pay it, leave a tip, and go.

Which level is the best for long-term memory?

Semantic

What are source misattribution and the misinformation effect, and how do these phenomena distort memory?

Source misattribution: Attributing a memory to the wrong source, resulting in a false memory. Example: Maybe you dream something and then later misremember that it actually happened. Misinformation effect:The distortion of a memory by exposure to misleading information example:Loftus and John Palmer showed participants a film of a traffic accident and then later tested their memory for the accident. The test included misleading information for some of the participants. Some participants were asked, "How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" and others were asked, "How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?"

Describe and recognize examples of the following theories of intelligence: a)Spearman's "g" factor b)Thurstone's "seven" c)Cattell and Horn's fluid vs. crystallized intelligence, d)Gardener's multiple (eight and counting) intelligences, e)Sternberg's triad of intelligence, and f)Stanovich's "dysrationalia." Spearman's "g" factor:

Spearman's "g" factor: Your ability to reason,problem solve, decide, learn and act successfully in the pursuit of your valued goals example:Student's grades tend to be positively correlated, even across seemingly unrelated subjects (that is a student who receives As in biology probably also gets As and Bs in other classes). Thurstone's "seven": There are 7 primary mental abilities--verbal comprehension, number facility, spacial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, associative memory, and reasoning. Cattell and Horn's fluid vs. crystallized intelligence: Gardener's multiple (eight and counting) intelligences: Sternberg's triad of intelligence: Stanovich's "dysrationalia":

Describe the following affect encoding/retrieval: a)state-dependent memory, b)mood-dependent memory, and c)mood-congruent memory

State-dependent memory:Long-term memory retrieval is best when a person's physiological state at the time of encoding and retrieval of the information is the same. Example: People under the influence of alcohol at the time of encoding would recall best if under the influence at the time of retrieval. Mood-dependent memory:Long-term memory retrieval is best when a person's mood state at the time of encoding and retrieval of the information is the same. example:I like going to the movies . I'm feeling good this evening. I know--I'll go to the movies! Mood-congruence effect:Tendency to retrieve experiences and information that are congruent with a person's current mood Example:if you see someone that makes you extremely happy, you will remember happy times with them.

Is this formula still used to compute scores on intelligence tests? Why or why not?

The IQ formula is no longer used to compute a person's intelligence test score on the Stanford-Binet. It is confounded measure because a year's growth doesn't have a constant meaning from year to year for mental ability. Mental growth levels off, but age keeps increasing.

How was Wechsler's test different from the original Stanford-Binet test?

The Stanford-Binet wasn't well suited for his purposes, because it only provided a single measure of abilities related to academic performance (IQ). The IQ formula was especially irrelevant for adults because, at some point mental age levels off but chronological age keeps increasing. Based on the Stanford-Binet, a person's IQ would automatically go down with age regardless of one's mental abilities. Terman standardized the original Stanford-Binet on American children of various ages.

Retrieval of memories is a reconstructive process-- What does this mean?

The act of remembering is an act of reconstruction. Memory does not work like a tape recorder or a video recorder. Retrieval is not like playback. Our memories are far from exact replicas of past events. If you read a newspaper this morning, do you remember the stories that you read in the paper word for word? We usually encode the gist or main theme of the story along with some of the story's highlights. Then, we retrieve the information from our memory, we construct a memory of the story using the theme and the highlights.

What is a "chunk" with regard to memory?

The capacity limit in short-term memory is in terms of chunks. If the chunks are larger for a particular type of material (words vs. letters), we remember more information but not more chunks.

What is intelligence?

The capacity to acquire and apply knowledge. The ability to benefit from past experience, act purposeful, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

What does Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve demonstrate?

The forgetting curve in this figure shows that the greatest amount of forgetting occurs rather quickly then tapers off. In Ebbinghaus's cause, after about 2 days, little more forgetting occured.

What is the encoding specifically principle?

The principle that the environmental cues (both internal and external) present at the time information is encoded into long-term memory serve as the best retrieval cues for the information

What is thinking?

The processing of information to solve problems and make judgments and decisions.

What is sensory memory?

The set of sensory registers, one for each of our senses, that serve as holding places for incoming sensory information until it can be attended to interpreted, and encoded into short-term and memory.

What is the self-reference effect, and how does this improve encoding/retrieval?

The superior long-term memory for information related to oneself at time of encoding into long-term memory. It is easier to remember information that you have related to yourself.

Describe Atkinson and Shiffrin's three-stage model of memory, recognizing the three different components of the model: sensory memory, short-term memory , and long-term memory

The three stage model of our memory system has guided much of the research on memory since the late 1960s. Diagrams depicting this memory model typically use a series of boxes to show the flow chart for 3 stage memory model. The information in each register that we attend to goes on to be recognized and enters the second stage of memory, short-term memory, which is comparable to our present awareness. Top-down processing (using information stored in long-term memory) guides this encoding of sensory input from sensory memory into short-term memory. In general, information enters from the physical environment through our senses into sensory memory and flows from sensory memory to short-term memory and then back to short term memory when we need to use it.

What is Iconic memory?

The visual sensory registers that holds an exact copy of the incoming visual input but only for a brief period of time, less than 1 second.

What is the duration of short-term memory?

Up to 30 seconds without rehearsals

Why is short-term memory also referred to as "working memory?"

We also bring information from long-term memory back into short-term memory to use it to facilitate rehearsal, solve problems, reason, and make decisions; thus short-term memory is thought of as working memory.

Describe Wechsler's contributions to intelligence testing.

Wechsler developed his own test, the Wechsler Bellevue Scale. This test became known as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and is appropriate for ages 16 and older. Wechsler also developed the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children which was for children ages 6 to 16. Both tests provide finer analyses of a person's abilities by providing test scores for a battery of not only verbal tests but also non verbal performance tests.

Which level is the worst long-term memory?

acoustic

Define and recognize examples of solution strategies involving a)algorithms and b)heuristics.

algorithms:A step-by-step problem-solving procedure that guarantees a correct answer to a problem example:When we solve a math problem with long division, we are using algorithm. If we execute the steps correctly, we will get the correct answer. Heuristics:A problem-solving strategy that seems reasonable given one's past experience with solving problems, especially similar problems, but does not guarantee a correct answer to a problem. Example:When walking down the street, you see a piano tied to a rope above the sidewalk. Without a break in stride , you would likely chose to walk around that area instead of directly underneath the piano. Your intuition would tell you that walking under the piano could be dangerous, so you make a snap judgment to walk around the danger zone. You would probably not stop and assess the entire situation or calculate the probability of the piano falling on you or your chances of survival if that happened. You would use a heuristic to make the decision quickly and without using much mental effort.

Define the following types of long-term memories a) explicit (declarative) memory, including b) sematic and c) episodic memory, and implicit (nondeclarative) memory, including e) procedural memory, f) conditioning memory, and Be able to recognize these types of long-term memory in examples.

explicit(declarative) memory: Long-term memory for factual knowledge and personal experiences. This type of memory requires a consciousness effort to remember and entials making declarations about the information remembered. example:What if someone asked you, "Who was the first president of the United States?" You would retrieve the answer from your long-term memory and consciously declare, "George Washington." Semantic memory:Explicit memory for factual knowledge. Example: Remembering that George Washington was the first president of the United States. Episodic memory:Explicit memory for personal experience Example: Remembering your first kiss Implicit (nondeclarative) memory: Long-term memory for procedural tasks, classical conditioning, and primary effects. This type of memory does not require conscious awareness or the need to make declarations about the information remembered. Example: You remember how to drive a car and you do so without consciously recalling and describing what you are doing as you drive. Procedural memory:Implicit memory for cognitive and motor tasks that have a physical procedural aspect to them Example: driving a car, typing, or hitting a tennis ball Conditioning memory:automatic conditioned response Example:fobius such as little albert

What is infantile/child amnesia? Why does this occur?

infantile/child amnesia: Our inability as adults to remember events that occurred in our lives before about 3 years ago We cannot remember our experiences during this period because the hippocampus, which is crucial to the formation of episodic explicit long-term memories, is not yet fully developed.

What is the capacity of sensory memory?

large

Which level is the second best long-term memory?

physical