Exam 3 Review
apply the concept of negative correlation to a scenario
Removing something that decrease a wanted behavior so youll get more of the wanted behavior.
A motion picture (a movie) is a series of still frames. This is an example of
stroboscopic motion
semicircular canal
structures in the inner ear that are responsible for the sense of balance.
monocular and binocular cues
Binocular depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes. Monocular depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone
Marlene had an infection that led to deafness in her left ear. Which of the following will be the most likely impact of losing her hearing in her left ear?
She will have trouble locating the source of sounds.
Denise has damaged her auditory nerve and now has difficulty understanding what people are saying. Which of the following descriptions explains how that damage impairs her hearing?
Sound messages fail to be transmitted directly to the brain.
Weber's law concern the relation between which of the following?
Stimulus intensity in relationship to a similar sensation
what is the height, or magnitude, or a sound wave?
amplitude
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
pineal gland
secretes melatonin
Which of the following is the process of detecting environmental stimuli and converting them into signals that can be detected by the nervous system?
sensation
Which of the following concepts refers to the diminished sensitivity to a stimulus that occurs due to constant exposure to that stimulus?
sensory adaptation
What is the motivation we need to detect certain stimuli?
signal detection theory
Receiving message unbeknownst to a consumer prompting them to by a product
subliminal perception
When Sally says the word "seashells", it tastes like lemons. Sally has
synesthesia
Teddy got so angry over the AP Psychology test, that he crushed a soda can by looking at it
telekinesis
Tracey was in pain from an ear infection, which her doctor said was in her inner ear. Which of the following is the most likely location of the infection?
the cochlea
According to the gate control theory of pain, which of the following contains a neurological gate that controls the transmission of pain messages to the brain?
the spinal cord
opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
primary and secondary reinforcer
Primary reinforcers are biological. Food, drink, and pleasure are the principal examples of primary reinforcers. But, most human reinforcers are secondary, or conditioned. Examples include money, grades in schools, and tokens.
Which of the following scenarios is the best example of synesthesia?
Anastasia sees swirls of color when she hears music because stimulation of one sensory pathway leads to the experience of another sensation.
Signal Detection Theory
Assumes that we do not have an absolute threshold. We detect stuff based on our experiences, motivation, expectations, and level of fatigue .
What is the apparent drifting of a tiny, constant shining light?
Autokinetic Illusion
Extinction
Extinction is a decrease in the strength or frequency of a learned response because of no longer pairing the UCS to the CS
wish fulfillment
Freudian belief that many dreams express unconscious desires
REM sleep
Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
Which of the following is the correct order of the eye-to-brain pathway of vision?
Retina, optic nerve, thalamus, occipital lobe
Variable interval
Reward given after varying periods of time Leads to moderately high and stable performance Slow extinction of behavior
Variable Ratio
Reward given for some behaviors Leads to very high performance Very slow extinction of behavior
Fixed ratio
Reward tied to specific number of responses Moderately fast extinction of behavior Leads quickly to very high and stable performance
positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement
-positive rein.: get something good --> increase behavior -negative rein.: take away something bad --> increase behavior. NOTE NEGTIVE DOES NOT DECREASE BEHAVIOR IT REMOVES SOMRTHING TO INCREASE A BEHAVIOR.
hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
distinguish a sample from a population.
A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about. A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from. The size of the sample is always less than the total size of the population.
reflex process
1. sensory receptor 2. sensory neuron 3. integrating center 4. motor neuron 5. effector
thyroid
regulates metabolism
The best example of a biological predisposition to learning is which of the following? (A) After Ted got sick from eating sushi from the deli, he became nauseous whenever he thought of eating sushi. (B) Little Cardi gets in her toy car and imitates the way her mother drives a real car. (C) By using shaping techniques, a researcher can teach a chicken to play tic-tac-toe. (D) Rats can learn to run complex mazes even without food rewards present. (E) After getting kicked by a donkey, Sarah developed a fear of not only donkeys but also horses.
(A) After Ted got sick from eating sushi from the deli, he became nauseous whenever he thought of eating sushi.
Which of the following scenarios best demonstrates the acquisition of a fear of snakes? (A) Randolph's brother frequently startled Randolph whenever he approached a snake, which caused Randolph to develop an intense fear of them. (B) Tim used to be afraid of snakes, but after a number of harmless interactions with them, his fear subsided. (C) Faye's fear of snakes went away when she had a few pleasant encounters with them, but after a period of time, the fear returned. (D) Vivian's long-held fear of snakes only applied to ones that were striped. (E) Chester received a painful bite from a snake years ago, and ever since he has feared not only snakes but also worms and caterpillars.
(A) Randolph's brother frequently startled Randolph whenever he approached a snake, which caused Randolph to develop an intense fear of them.
Gayle's teacher wants to increase effective study habits in her students by using negative reinforcement. Gayle's teacher would most likely enforce this by (A) removing an unpleasant stimulus (B) removing a pleasant stimulus (C) introducing an unpleasant stimulus (D) introducing a pleasant stimulus (E) rewarding successive approximations of effective study habits
(A) removing an unpleasant stimulus
Rogelio has a number of health problems and would like to avoid medication as much as possible. He is considering biofeedback as an alternative form of treatment. Biofeedback would most benefit which of Rogelio's health problems? (A) Obesity, because Rogelio can use the cues from biofeedback to control his eating (B) Arthritis, because Rogelio can use the cues from biofeedback to learn to relax (C) Tension headaches, because Rogelio can use the cues from biofeedback to learn to relax (D) Depression, because Rogelio can use the cues from biofeedback to keep him from having depressive thoughts (E) Indigestion, because Rogelio can use the cues from biofeedback to control his indigestion
(C) Tension headaches, because Rogelio can use the cues from biofeedback to learn to relax
Sebastian wants to earn an "A" in his biology course but finds it difficult to stay motivated to study every night. His teacher recommends that he surround himself with peers who study regularly to increase his studying behavior. Sebastian's teacher made her recommendation based on the learning concept of (A) acquisition (B) classical conditioning (C) modeling (D) generalization (E) discrimination
(C) modeling
Molly is potty training her daughter, Mia. Every time Mia begins to urinate in her diaper, Molly says the word "bathroom" in the hope that Mia will begin to urinate when she hears this word while sitting on the toilet. Molly's efforts most resemble the studies of (A) B. F. Skinner, who studied operant conditioning (B) Edward Tolman, who studied latent learning (C) Sigmund Freud, who studied psychodynamic effect (D) Ivan Pavlov, who studied classical conditioning (E) Stanley Milgram, who studied obedience
(D) Ivan Pavlov, who studied classical conditioning
Which of the following is the best example of social learning? (A) Rita is a passenger in her friend's car every day on the way to work. One day her friend is sick so Rita has to drive herself. She is able to navigate with no problem. (B) Jezabeth was scratched by a cat, so now she is afraid of cats. (C) Delilah was mildly shocked when she tried to remove her smoke detector batteries, so she now flinches whenever she has to change the smoke detector batteries. (D) Sydney starts using the same word choices and vocal inflections as members of the popular group at her school. (E) Jerome gives his dog a treat every time his dog does not jump on guests, and eventually the dog stops jumping on guests even without a treat.
(D) Sydney starts using the same word choices and vocal inflections as members of the popular group at her school.
latent and manifest content of a dream
According to Freud, the latent content of a dream is the hidden psychological meaning of the dream. ... The manifest content is the actual literal subject matter of the dream while the latent content is the underlying meaning of these symbols
afferent and efferent neurons
Afferent (or sensory neurons): carry sensory info from the body to the central nervous system. These neurons bring in info from the environment (such as sound, light, and pressure) to the senses. Efferent: carry info from the central nervous system to the muscles and organs throughout the body to coordinate movement and behavior
Which of the following examples best illustrates the concept of interposition?
Because the chair partially obscured his view of the sofa, Brendan perceived the chair as being closer than the sofa.
What makes our brain group things.
By Proximity, Continuity, and Closure
classical and operant conditioning
Classical Conditioning The type of learning in which a response naturally elicited by one stimulus becomes to be elicited by a different formally neutral stimulus.(Pavlov and Watson) Operant Conditioning The type of learning in which behaviors are emitted to earn rewards or avoid punishments (B.F. Skinner)
What is the fluid- filled, snail shaped structure in the inner ear?
Cochlea
Dr. Ramen recruited 100 adults to participate in her study. The taste buds of each participant were measured, and the participants tasted a number of foods. She found there was a relationship between the size of a participant's taste buds and the number of foods that a participant could taste. What research method did Dr. Ramen use, and what was she most likely studying?
Correlational; the sensitivity of supertasters
Who researched the concept of feature detectors and cells with specific visual processing?
David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel
descriptive and inferential statistics
Descriptive statistics uses the data to provide descriptions of the population, either through numerical calculations or graphs or tables. Inferential statistics makes inferences and predictions about a population based on a sample of data taken from the population in question.
Which of the following best illustrates the most predictable effect of schemas on perception?
Grant has more difficulty recognizing a penguin as a bird than he does a blue jay.
Damage to which of the following best describes conduction deafness?
Hammer, anvil, and stirrup
experimental group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
control group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
unconditioned response
In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
structure responsible for balance
It is also essential to our sense of balance: the organ of balance (the vestibular system) is found inside the inner ear. It is made up of three semicircular canals and two otolith organs, known as the utricle and the saccule. The semicircular canals and the otolith organs are filled with fluid
Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the opponent-process theory of color vision?
Kayla sees afterimages of opposing colors when she stares at a poster for a long time.
The height/amplitude of wave lengths determines
Loudness. Short waves are softer. High waves are loud sounds.
sound location
Our minds determine where sound is coming from using multiple cues. Two of these cues are (1) which ear the sound hits first, and (2) how loud the sound is when it reaches each ear. For example, if the sound hits your right ear first, it likely originated to the right of your body.
perceiving motion in a series of lights flashing on and off is called
Phi Phenomenon
In a study on taste, what would researchers need to do to test participants' ability to distinguish umami from similar sensations?
Place disks soaked in MSG on the participants' tongues. Then replace those disks with disks that have been soaked in water. Compare the participants' reactions.
Human tactile sense is actually a mix of which of the following distinct skin senses?
Pressure, warmth, cold, pain
What is the stimulation of the senses?
Sensation
Why people perform poorly while multitasking
Studies show that when our brain is constantly switching gears to bounce back and forth between tasks - especially when those tasks are complex and require our active attention - we become less efficient and more likely to make a mistake.
Cornea
The clear tissue that covers the front of the eye
Orville is talking with his friends at a cafeteria table when suddenly he is distracted by hearing his name at a neighboring table. Orville's shift of attention most clearly illustrates which psychological concept?
The cocktail party phenomenon
Which of the following is the best definition for absolute threshold?
The lowest strength of a stimulus that a person can detect 50% of the time
key differences between experimental and correlational research
The major difference between correlational research and experimental research is methodology. In correlational research, the researcher looks for a statistical pattern linking 2 naturally-occurring variables while in experimental research, the researcher introduces a catalyst and monitors its effects on the variables.
dependent variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
A researcher wants to study the human sense of taste over a life span. The researcher has a group of participants taste foods that are salty, bitter, sweet, sour, and umami. Which study would best allow the researcher to test the sensation of taste as people age, and what is the likely outcome?
The researcher follows the same group of people over the course of 40 years. The researcher also measures the number of the people's taste buds throughout the 40 years. The researcher finds that as people grow older, their sense of taste diminishes and their number of taste buds decreases.
Social Cognitive Learning Theory
The type of learning in which behaviors are learned by observing a model. (Albert Bandura)
Be able to identify an example of what a behavioral and positive psychologist would likely study.
They would probably add things and see how kids react to the thing being added.
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Bryan perceived a duck instead of other animals when viewing an ambiguous image because he watched a documentary about ducks the previous night. Which of the following best explains why Bryan perceived a duck?
Top-down processing, because his perception of the duck was influenced by past experience.
What Causes Color Blindness?
Usually, genes inherited from your parents cause faulty photopigments -- molecules that detect color in the cone-shaped cells, or "cones," in your retina. But sometimes color blindness is not because of your genes, but rather because of: Physical or chemical damage to the eye.
Which partial reinforcement schedule is the most resistant to extinction?
Variable Ratio
Blind Spot
Visual information travels along the optic nerve in the eye before it begins its journey to the brain for processing. There is a certain spot on the optic nerve that does not have any receptor cells (the area where the optic nerve leaves the eye), and, as a result, can't receive information. The result is the blind spot.
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses. The cochlea is the sense organ that translates sound into nerve impulses to be sent to the brain. ... Vibrations in the fluid cause tiny hair cells in the fluid inside the cochlea to vibrate and generate nerve impulses that then travel to the brain.
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
Iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
operational definition
a statement of the procedures used to define research variables
insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
Double-Blind Procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
What monocular cue sees objects in the distance as hazy and blurred?
ariel perspective
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
information processing
dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories
The idea that one's social environment can have an impact on pairn interpretation
biopsychosocial
reliability and validity
consistency; accuracy
Transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
Habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
binocular cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes
Kimmie stood on the sidewalk rather than crossing the street because she saw that the approaching car was quite close to her. Which of the following concepts is best illustrated in this example?
depth perception
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
Pitch is determined by
frequency. Long waves = Lower frequency=low pitch. Short waves = Higher frequency = high pitch
idea that large fibers can prevent pain impulses from reaching the brain is
gate- control theory
sensorineural hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness
conduction hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
Netural stimulus (NS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
mirror neuron
neuron that fires when we perform certain actions and when we observe others performing those actions; neural basis for imitation and observational learning
vicarious reinforcement
observing someone else receive a reward or punishment
What is the patch of nasal membrane tissue that houses receptor cells for smell
olfactory epithelium
taste buds are contained in the tongue's
papillae
When we think we are touching something hot when we are touching something warm and cook is
paradoxical heat
Supertasters
people with heightened sensitivity to all tastes and mouth sensations
Helena did not recognize her English teacher when she unexpectedly saw him while traveling in Paris, even though she knew him well back in the classroom. The fact that Helena can recognize her teacher back home more easily than in Paris best demonstrates what concept?
perceptual set
pitch theories
place theory: sounds of different frequencies stimulate different places along the basilar membrane and (b) pitch is coded by the place of maximal stimulation. frequency theory: pitch is coded by the rate at which action potentials are generated by auditory neurons within the basilar membrane of the ear.
What is the difference between an image cast on each eye as they focus on the same object?
retinal disparity
Cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
Which of the following is the correct neural impulse pathway through the retina?
rods & cones, bipolar cells, ganglion cells, optic nerve
wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.
activation synthesis
the idea that dreams are the result of the cerebral cortex interpreting and organizing random flashes of brain activity, originating in the lower brain structures, especially the pons
retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time
abosulte threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
Fequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time. (Long wavelengths have lower frequency and short wavelengths have higher frequency.)
negative afterimages are explained by
the opponent- process theory
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
kinesthetic sense
the sense of body position and movement of body parts relative to each other
gate-control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.
lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
ossicles
three tiny bones in the middle ear. transmit sound vibrations from the tympanic membrane (eardrum) to the oval window of the inner ear. The ossicles allow efficient transmission of sound from air to the fluid-filled cochlea.
independent variable
variable that is manipulated
pheromones are sensed by receptors in the
vomeronasal organ
In which scenario does sunblock serve as a conditioned stimulus? (A) Ernesto received a free lifetime supply of sunblock when he won a trivia contest. (B) Sophia broke out in a painful rash when she spread sunscreen on her skin because she is allergic to an ingredient in it. (C) Helen pictures sunblock on her mantle to help her remember to buy some at the store. (D) Lowell feels relaxed when he smells sunblock because it reminds him of his vacations at the beach. (E) Sarah avoids sunblock because people compliment her on her tan when she goes without it.
(D) Lowell feels relaxed when he smells sunblock because it reminds him of his vacations at the beach.
Lynda stayed out past her curfew. As a result, her parents revoked her driving privileges. Which of the following statements is true of Lynda's parents? (A) Lynda's parents are using negative reinforcement to decrease her behavior of staying out past curfew. (B) Lynda's parents are using positive reinforcement to decrease her driving behavior. (C) Lynda's parents are using positive punishment to increase her good behavior. (D) Lynda's parents are using negative punishment to decrease her behavior of staying out past curfew. (E) Lynda's parents are using negative reinforcement to increase her driving behavior.
(D) Lynda's parents are using negative punishment to decrease her behavior of staying out past curfew.
Which of the following scenarios most accurately describes biofeedback? (A) Taneesha became sick after eating funnel cake at the fair, so now she gags every time she smells funnel cake. (B) Rune conditioned his dog to salivate to a buzzer. He then paired the buzzer with a light flash, and his dog eventually began to salivate to the light flash. (C) Julie's employer stopped paying her, so she stopped coming to work. (D) Stacy participated in an experiment in which she wore a heart-rate monitor, watched the readout of her heart rate, and received points based on how many beats per minute she reduced her heart rate. (E) Meike stopped giving her dog treats from the dinner table. Eventually, Meike's dog stopped begging. Two months later, the dog started begging again.
(D) Stacy participated in an experiment in which she wore a heart-rate monitor, watched the readout of her heart rate, and received points based on how many beats per minute she reduced her heart rate.
Which of the following statements is true regarding the application of operant conditioning to learning? (A) Punishment is the most effective way to increase good study habits, because students do not want to get punished. (B) Immediately reinforcing correct responses hurts students' ability to learn new material, because they learn new material better when their correct responses are reinforced later. (C) Negative reinforcement decreases student focus, because students do want to get negatively reinforced. (D) Modeling good study habits enhances student learning, because students benefit from observing others' study habits. (E) Immediately reinforcing correct responses enhances student learning, because immediate reinforcement has shown to be most effective with regard to learning.
(E) Immediately reinforcing correct responses enhances student learning, because immediate reinforcement has shown to be most effective with regard to learning.
Which of the following scenarios demonstrates stimulus generalization? (A) Martin's brother screams at him when he starts to pet a cat, and now Martin is terrified of cats. (B) Tabitha used to be afraid of flying on airplanes, but after flying often for work she is no longer afraid of flying. (C) Craig's fear of public speaking went away after he gave a good presentation last semester, but his fear of public speaking has returned during the current semester. (D) Julia is scared of golden retriever dogs but not Chihuahua dogs. (E) Markus was stung by a wasp, and now he is scared of not only wasps but also bees.
(E) Markus was stung by a wasp, and now he is scared of not only wasps but also bees.
Learned helplessness
A state that occurs after a person has experienced a stressful situation repeatedly. They come to believe that they are unable to control or change the situation, so they do not try — even when opportunities for change become available. A child who performs poorly on math tests and assignments will quickly begin to feel that nothing he does will have any effect on his math performance. When later faced with any type of math-related task, he may experience a sense of helplessness.
Afterimage
A visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed.
Fixed Interval
Fast extinction of behavior Reward on fixed time basis Leads to average and irregular performance
acquisition
In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
Spontaneous Recovery
Reappearance of an response response after the passage of time, without further conditioning.
Which of the following anatomical structures is involved in the vestibular sense?
semicircular canals
balance is influenced by the
semicircular canals
Knowing that when you ascend into the air in an airplane and the cars stay the same shape is
size constancy