Exam #33
connectionist network approach
Based on to the actual brain mechanism. Distributed representation. Input, hidden, and output units.
"According to Rosch, the ____ level of categories is the psychologically ""privileged"" level of category that reflects people's everyday experience."
Basic
According to Rosch, the ____ level of categories is the psychologically ""privileged"" level of category that reflects people's everyday experience.
Basic
Two different definitions of ________ offered by your book include (a) "the mental representation of a class or individual," and (b) "the meaning of objects, events, and abstract ideas." exemplars concepts units prototypes
concepts
Suppose we ask people to perform the following cognitive tasks. Which is LEAST likely to strongly activate the visual cortex?
Imagine the meaning of the word "ethics."
Which of the following is not one of the types of units found within a parallel distributed processing model? Hidden units Input units Working units Output units
Working units
Learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network hidden units. output units. connection weights. nodes.
connection weights
One of the key properties of the _____ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network. semantic network connectionist hierarchical spreading activation
connectionist
definitional approach
could be useful for categorizing geometric objects but not work for many other cases (ex. fish)
The word "bad" has ______ phoneme(s).
3
Pollack and Pickett's experiment on understanding speech found that when participants were presented with individual words taken out of conversations (single words presented alone with no context), they could identify
50% of the words spoken by their own vices
In evaluating retrieval rates for category information for a concept, Collins and Quillian's semantic network approach would predict the slowest reaction times for which of the following statements using a sentence verification technique?
A field sparrow is an animal
"In a lexical decision task, participants have to decide whether"
A presented stimulus is a word
______ is a "typical" member of a category. A unit A prototype An exemplar A component
A prototype
According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take longest to verify which statement below?
A turtle is an animal
According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take longest to verify which statement below? A turtle is an amphibian. A turtle is related to a fish. A turtle is an animal. Turtles are turtles.
A turtle is an animal.
Which of the following is NOT a property of the connectionist approach? The connectionist model is rather complex, and involves components like units, links, and connection weights. Connectionist networks can explain generalization of learning. The operation of connectionist networks is not totally disrupted by damage. Before any learning has occurred in the network, the weights in the network all equal zero.
Before any learning has occurred in the network, the weights in the network all equal zero.
Which of the following is the best example of a garden path sentence?
Before the police stopped the Toyota disappeared into the night.
The conceptual peg hypothesis would predict enhanced memory for which word pair?
Cake mug
criticisms of semantic network (collins and loftus)
Cannot explain the typicality effect Response times of some sentences do not correspond to the network.
Which of the following statements is NOT cited in your text as a reason why categories are useful? Categories serve as a valuable tool for making inferences about things that belong to other categories. Categories provide definitions of groups of related objects. Categories help us understand behaviors that we might otherwise find baffling. Categories have been called "pointers to knowledge" because once you know an object's category, you know a lot of general things about it.
Categories provide definitions of groups of related objects.
Which term below is most closely associated with semantic networks? Distributed processing Cognitive economy Prototype formation Serial processing
Cognitive Economy
It may be difficult for young Matthew, who is only 4 years of age, to understand the difference between the iPad that his mother uses, the Kindle that his brother uses, and the Galaxy tablet that his sister uses. After all, all of them are tablets, have touch screens, are electronic technology, and run "apps" that include games and educational programs. These similarities remind us of the concept of ________, which refers to the fact that animals tend to share many different properties.
Crowding
One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that
Damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation
If a system has the property of graceful degradation, this means that
Damage to the system doesn't completely disrupt its operation
Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack the feature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. This poses a problem for the _______ approach to categorization.
Definitional
Semantic network model
Each concept is represented as a node and related concepts are connected
_______ are actual members of a category that a person has encountered in the past. Units Prototypes Exemplars Icons
Examplars
The principle illustrated when most people are able to recognize a variety of examples of chairs even though no one category member may have all of the characteristic properties of ""chairs"" (e.g., most chairs have four legs but not all do) is
Family resemblance
Paivio (1963) proposed the conceptual peg hypothesis. His work suggests which of the following would be most difficult to remember?
Freedom
permission schema (Cheng & Holyoak)
If A is satisfied, then B can be carried out. If A is not satisfied, then B cannot be carried out
Which of the following is an example of the sentence verification technique? Fill in the blank in the following sentence: An apple is a(n) ______. Indicate whether the following statement was previously presented: An apple is a fruit. YES NO Indicate whether the following statement is true: An apple is a fruit. YES NO Fill in the blank in the following sentence: A(n) ______ is a fruit.
Indicate whether the following statement is true: An apple is a fruit. YES NO
Which of the following is an example of the sentence verification technique?
Indicate whether the following statement is true: An apple is a fruit. YES/NO
Imagine that a young child is just learning about the category ""dog."" Thus far, she has experienced only two dogs, one a small poodle and the other a large German shepherd. On her third encounter with a dog, she will be LEAST likely to correctly categorize the animal as a dog if that animal
Is a dog that does not bark
According to the typicality effect,
Items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group
Gallese and colleagues (1996) noted that certain types of neurons, now called ________ neurons, activated when a monkey grasped food on a tray, but also activated when they watched the experimenter grasping food on a tray.
Mirror
Olin and Bob are neighbors. Olin loves birds and his father works for the zoo. He has been to a dozen bird sanctuaries, and he and his dad go on bird watching hikes once a month. In contrast, Bob doesn't think much about birds. His only contact with them is in his backyard. One day they go hiking and see many birds which they point out to each other. Which of the following is most likely?
Olin uses subordinate names and Bob uses basic level names
Rosch primed participants with colour names, followed by two colour patches that either matched or mismatched. She found that participants responded more rapidly in the matching task if the colour patches were "good" examples of colours like red and green than if they were "poor" examples like "pink" or "light green". Rosch found that participants respond more rapidly in a same-different task when presented with ""good"" examples of colors such as ""red"" and ""green"" than when they are presented with ""poor"" examples such as ""pink"" or ""light green."" The result of this experiment was interpreted as supporting the _____ approach to categorization.
Prototype
functional fixedness
Restricting the use of an object to its familiar functions
According to the ________ approach, there are certain types of concepts that have specific neural circuits in the brain.
Semantic category
According to the S-F hypothesis, our ability to differentiate living things and artifacts depends on a semantic memory system that distinguishes ________ and one that distinguishes ________.
Sensory attributes; function
If we were conducting an experiment on the effect knowledge has on categorization, we might compare the results of expert and non-expert groups. Suppose we compare horticulturalists to people with little knowledge about plants. If we asked the groups to name, as specifically as possible, five different plants seen around campus, we would predict that the expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level, while the non-expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level.
Subordinate; basic
People playing the parlor game ""20 Questions"" often use hierarchical organization strategies. One player asks up to 20 yes/no questions to determine the identity of an object another player has selected. The player's questions usually start as general and get more specific as the player approaches a likely guess. Initial questions asked by a player are often one of three questions: ""Is it an animal?"" ""Is it a vegetable?"" and ""Is it a mineral?"" Each of these three questions describes which level of categorization?
Superordinate
Based on the information your textbook provided about different category types, jumping from _______ categories results in the largest gain in information.
Superordinate level to basic level
Collins and Quillian's semantic network model predicts that the reaction time to verify ""a canary is a bird"" is _____ the reaction time to verify ""an ostrich is a bird.
The same as
Which of the following has been used as an argument AGAINST the idea that imagery is spatial in nature?
The tacit-knowledge explanation
For the category ""fruit,"" people give a higher typicality rating to ""banana"" than to ""kiwi."" Knowing that, we can also reason that
The word ""fruit"" will lead to a larger priming effect for banana than for kiwi
When a participant is asked to list examples of the category vegetables, it is most likely that a carrot would be named before eggplant. an eggplant would be named before carrot. a carrot and eggplant would have an equal likelihood of being named first. the order of examples is completely random, varying from participant to participant.
a carrot would be named before eggplant.
When a participant is asked to list examples of the category vegetables, it is most likely that *
a carrot would be named before eggplant.
In the phonemic restoration effect, participants "fill in" the missing phoneme based on all of the following EXCEPT
a mental "skimming" of the lexicon to find likely words
According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take longest to verify which statement below?
a pig is an animal.
Mental-scanning experiments found
a positive linear relationship between scanning time and distance on the image.
______ is an average representation of a category.
a prototype
Prototype approach
a single 'average' representation of the members of a category
A task for determining how prototypical an object is would be
a task where participants rate the extent to which each member represents the category title.
A task for determining how prototypical an object is would be a task where participants rate the extent to which category members resemble one another. a fill-in-the-blank task where participants generate the category classification for a list of members. a task where participants rate the extent to which each member represents the category title. a fill-in-the-blank task where participants generate paired members within a category.
a task where participants rate the extent to which each member represents the category title.
How is cognitive economy represented in the following example? The property ________ is stored at the _______ node. a. can fly; bird b. can fly; canary c. has feathers; ostrich d. bird; penguin
a. can fly; bird
back propagation
adjustment based on feedback
Mia has lived in New York City all her life. She has noticed that people from upper Manhattan walk really fast, but people from lower Manhattan tend to walk slowly. Mia's observations are likely influenced from a judgment error based on her using
an illusory correlation
The ability to shift experience from one problem solving situation to a similar problem is known as
analogical transfer
Consider the following sentences: "Captain Ahab wanted to kill the whale. He cursed at it." These two sentences taken together provide an example of a(n)
anaphoric reference
Derrick purchased a new car, a Ford Mustang, less than a month ago. While sitting in traffic, Derrick says to his girlfriend, "Mustangs must be the best-selling car now. I can't remember seeing as many on the road as I have recently." Derrick's judgment is most likely biased by a(n)
availability heuristic
According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take longest to verify which statement below? a. Turtles are turtles. b. A turtle is an animal. c. A turtle is related to a fish. d. A turtle is an amphibian.
b. A turtle is an animal.
You completed a CogLab experiment for lexical decision-making in which you were asked to distinguish between words and non-words. What does the demonstration predict? a. That people will distinguish between words and non-words equally well regardless of how it is related to preceding words. b. Participants will be faster to identify words when they are preceded by a semantically related word then it is preceded by an unrelated word c. Mental lexicons (i.e., mental representation of words) do not affect word and non-word distinction. d. That lexical decisions are not related to the semantic priming
b. Participants will be faster to identify words when they are preceded by a semantically
The semantic network model predicts that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information about a concept should be determined by _____________________________________. a. the amount of information contained in each concept. b. the distance that must be traveled through the network. c. the typicality of the information contained in each concept. d. the representativeness of the information contained in each concept.
b. the distance that must be traveled through the network.
Learning takes place in a connectionist network through a process of _____ in which an error signal is transmitted starting from the property units. spreading activation graceful degradation error verification back propagation
back propagation
According to Rosch, the ____ level of categories is the psychologically "privileged" level of category that reflects people's everyday experience. prototypical superordinate basic subordinate
basic
The typical purpose of subgoals is to
bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state
Collins and Quillian's semantic network model predicts that the reaction time to verify "a canary is a bird" is ______ the reaction time to verify "an ostrich is a bird." a. interfered with by b. faster than c. the same as d. slower than
c. the same as
The prototype approach to categorization states that a standard representation of a category is based on
category members that have been encountered in the past.
Which property below is NOT one of the characteristics that makes human language unique?
communication
It may be difficult for young Matthew, who is only 4 years of age, to understand the difference between the iPad that his mother uses, the Kindle that his brother uses, and the Galaxy tablet that his sister uses. After all, all of them are tablets, have touch screens, are electronic technology, and run "apps" that include games and educational programs. These similarities remind us of the concept of ________, which refers to the fact that animals tend to share many different properties. obstruction overlapping crowding convergence
crowding
Learning takes place in a connectionist network through a process of ________ in which an error signal is transmitted starting from the property units. a. graceful degradation b. error verification c. spreading activation d. back propagation
d. back propagation
One of the key properties of the _______ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network. a. semantic network b. hierarchical c. spreading activation d. connectionist
d. connectionist
One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that learning can be generalized between similar concepts to facilitate future learning. these networks learn by a process that is analogous to the way a child learns about the world by making mistakes and being corrected. damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation. learning a new concept does not interfere with remembering a previously learned concept.
damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation.
One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that these networks learn by a process that is analogous to the way a child learns about the world by making mistakes and being corrected. learning a new concept does not interfere with remembering a previously learned concept. damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation. learning can be generalized between similar concepts to facilitate future learning.
damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation.
If a system has the property of graceful degradation, this means that it is either functioning at 100 percent, or it is not functioning at all. it can be set to operate at "low efficiency" or "high efficiency" depending on the demand of the current task. damage to the system doesn't completely disrupt its operation. it loses information at a very slow rate.
damage to the system doesn't completely disrupt its operation.
framing effect
decisions are influenced by how a decision is stated with a highlight on one aspect (gain or loss) of a situation
Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack the feature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. This poses a problem for the _______ approach to categorization. family resemblance prototype definitional
definitional
Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack the feature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. This poses a problem for the_____ approach to categorization
definitional
Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack the feature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. This poses a problem for the _______ approach to categorization.
defintional
Metcalfe and Wiebe gave participants problems to solve and asked them to make "warmth" judgments every 15 seconds to indicate how close they felt they were to a solution. The purpose of this experiment was to
demonstrate a difference between how people solve insight and non-insight problems.
The definitional approach to categorization is not well suited for geometrical objects but works for familiar everyday objects. was proposed to replace the prototype approach. sets definite criteria called family resemblances that all category members must have. doesn't work well for most natural objects like birds, trees, and plants.
doesn't work well for most natural objects like birds, trees, and plants.
The definitional approach to categorization ___
doesn't work well for most natural objects like birds, trees, and plants.
immediate emotions
emotions experienced at the time a decision is being made
expected emotions
emotions that people predict that they will feel concerning an outcome
If you say that "a Labrador retriever is my idea of a typical dog," you would be using the _____ approach to categorization.
exemplar
Research suggests that the _____ approach to categorization works best for small categories (e.g., U.S. presidents). semantic network prototype definitional exemplar
exemplar
Priming occurs when presentation of one stimulus
facilitates the response to another stimulus that usually follows closely in time.
Priming occurs when presentation of one stimulus relates to a prototype in a way that is unrelated to associated exemplars. acts as a cue that tells the participant when his or her response was correct. facilitates the response to another stimulus that usually follows closely in time. disrupts the processing of another stimulus
facilitates the response to another stimulus that usually follows closely in time.
Which of the following represents a basic level item? Guitar Rock guitar Paul McCartney's bass guitar Musical instrument
guitar
Noam Chomsky proposed that
humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language.
Shepard and Meltzer's "image rotation" experiment was so influential and important to the study of cognition because it demonstrated
imagery and perception may share the same mechanisms.
Making probable conclusions based on evidence involves ________ reasoning
inductive reasoning
In the two-string problem, tying the pliers to one of the strings best represents a(n) ___ state
intermediate
In the two-string problem, tying the pliers to one of the strings best represents a(n) _____ state. intermediate initial goal analogy
intermediate
Heuristic
intuitive decision making process based on past experiences. Faster and more efficient than exhaustive and careful search
Imagine that a young child is just learning about the category "dog." Thus far, she has experienced only two dogs, one a small poodle and the other a large German shepherd. On her third encounter with a dog, she will be LEAST likely to correctly categorize the animal as a dog if that animal matches an exemplar of one of the dogs she has experienced. is a dog that does not bark. matches the size of the poodle but is of a different breed. is similar to an "average" for the dogs she has encountered.
is a dog that does not bark
Imagine that a young child is just learning about the category "dog." Thus far, she has experienced only two dogs, one a small poodle and the other a large German shepherd. On her third encounter with a dog, she will be LEAST likely to correctly categorize the animal as a dog if that animal
is a dog that does not bark.
The "imagery debate" is concerned with whether imagery
is based on spatial or language mechanisms.
According to the typicality effect, objects in a category have a family resemblance to one another. we remember typical objects better than non-typical objects. objects that are not typical stand out and so are more easily remembered. items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group.
items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group
According to the typicality effect, objects in a category have a family resemblance to one another. objects that are not typical stand out and so are more easily remembered. items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group. we prefer typical objects to non-typical objects.
items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group.
Yoda, a central character of the Star Wars movies created by George Lucas, has a distinctive way of speaking. His statement, "Afraid you will be," violates which property of the English language?
language has a structure that is governed by rules
Shepard and Metzler measured the time it took for participants to decide whether two objects were the same (two different views of the same object) or different (two different objects). These researchers inferred cognitive processes by using
mental chronometry
Gallese and colleagues (1996) noted that certain types of neurons, now called ________ neurons, activated when a monkey grasped food on a tray, but also activated when they watched the experimenter grasping food on a tray. mirror redundant anticipatory imitative
mirror
Exemplar approach
multiple actual members of a category
In the semantic network model, a specific category or concept is represented at a
node
In the semantic network model, a specific category or concept is represented at a output unit. node. input unit. link.
node
2. Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a
novel object
Perky's imagery study (1910) had participants describe images of objects that were dimly projected onto a screen. The significance of Perky's results was that
people were influenced by the projected images when forming their mental images, even when they were unaware that the projected images were present.
"3x + 9 = 16" is a ___________ representation
propositional
Rosch found that participants respond more rapidly in a same-different task when presented with "good" examples of colors such as "red" and "green" than when they are presented with "poor" examples such as "pink" or "light green." The result of this experiment was interpreted as supporting the _____ approach to categorization. prototype exemplar parallel processing network
prototype
Which approach to categorization involves forming a standard representation based on an average of category members that a person has encountered in the past? Exemplar Prototype Network Typicality
prototype
B.F. Skinner, the modern champion of behaviorism, proposed that language is learned through
reinforcement
According to the ________ approach, there are certain types of concepts that have specific neural circuits in the brain. sensory-functional semantic category neuronal limitation multiple-factor
semantic
Which of the following is a connectionist model proposing that concepts are represented by activity that is spread across a network? Semantic network theory Parallel distributed processing theory The prototype approach Enhancement due to priming
semantic
The _____ model includes associations between concepts and the property of spreading activation. semantic network connectionist network parallel distributed processing neural network
semantic network
The_______ model includes associations between concepts and the property of spreading activation.
semantic network
According to the S-F hypothesis, our ability to differentiate living things and artifacts depends on a semantic memory system that distinguishes ________ and one that distinguishes ________. sequential networks; familial resemblance sensations; facts serial nodes; familiar concepts sensory attributes; function
sensory attributes; function
Griggs and Cox (1982)
showed that people are better at judging the validity of syllogisms when real-word examples are substituted for abstract symbols
The word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more
slowly to low-frequency words than high-frequency words.
Which of the following members would most likely be ranked highest in prototypicality in the "birds" category? Hummingbird Goose Sparrow Crow
sparrow
Kosslyn interpreted the results of his research on imagery (such as the island experiment) as supporting the idea that the mechanism responsible for imagery involves ____ representations.
spatial
Kosslyn interpreted the results of his research on imagery (such as the island experiment) as supporting the idea that the mechanism responsible for imagery involves________representations.
spatial
Collins and Quillian explained the results of priming experiments by introducing the concept of _____ into their network model. spreading activation cognitive economy typicality back propagation
spreading activation
Many people receive unsolicited calls from telemarketers or unwanted "junk" mailers advertising offers for products such as cable or internet services or cellular phone companies. Most people do not consider these offers and do not make a change to the plans or services that they receive because they do not want to make a decision that requires serious consideration or thought. This is an example of the_________bias.
status quo
cognitive economy
storing shared properties just once at a higher-level node.
risk-aversion
strategy used when problem is stated in terms of gains (ex. 200 people will be saved)
risk-taking
strategy when problem is stated in terms of losses (400 people will die)
Items high on prototypicality have ____ family resemblances. moderate strong no weak
strong
If we were conducting an experiment on the effect knowledge has on categorization, we might compare the results of expert and non-expert groups. Suppose we compare horticulturalists to people with little knowledge about plants. If we asked the groups to name, as specifically as possible, five different plants seen around campus, we would predict that the expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level, while the non-expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level. subordinate; basic superordinate; basic superordinate; subordinate basic; subordinate
subordinate; basic
People playing the parlor game "20 Questions" often use hierarchical organization strategies. One player asks up to 20 yes/no questions to determine the identity of an object another player has selected. The player's questions usually start as general and get more specific as the player approaches a likely guess. Initial questions asked by a player are often one of three questions: "Is it an animal?" "Is it a vegetable?" and "Is it a mineral?" Each of these three questions describes which level of categorization?
superordinate
People playing the parlor game "20 Questions" often use hierarchical organization strategies. One player asks up to 20 yes/no questions to determine the identity of an object another player has selected. The player's questions usually start as general and get more specific as the player approaches a likely guess. Initial questions asked by a player are often one of three questions: "Is it an animal?" "Is it a vegetable?" and "Is it a mineral?" Each of these three questions describes which level of categorization? Superordinate Basic Typical Subordinate
superordinate
Based on the information your textbook provided about different category types, jumping from _______ categories results in the largest gain in information. basic level to subordinate level subordinate level to basic level superordinate level to basic level basic level to superordinate level
superordinate level to basic level
An advantage of the exemplar approach over the prototype approach is that the exemplar approach provides a better explanation of the ________ effect. resemblance priming reaction-time typicality
typicality
In their imagery study, Finke and Pinker presented a four-dot display briefly to participants. After a two-second delay, participants then saw an arrow, and their task was to indicate whether the arrow would have pointed to any of the dots in the previous display. The significance of their results was they called into question the ____ explanation of imagery.
tacit-knowledge
confirmation bias
tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to our hypothesis and overlook information that argues against it
The semantic network model predicts that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information about a concept should be determined by the amount of information contained in each concept. the distance that must be traveled through the network. the typicality of the information contained in each concept. the representativeness of the information contained in each concept.
the distance that must be traveled through the network.
conjunction rule
the probability of a conjunction between two independent events should be smaller than the probability of each individual event
representative heuristic
the probability that A (a person) comes from B category (a specific profession) can be determined by how well A resembles properties of B.
goal state
the problem is solved
Categorization
the process by which things are place into groups
intermediate state
the process of solving the problem
Failing to consider the law of large numbers most likely results in errors concerning
the representativeness heuristic
Mental Set
the tendency to keep using an approach that worked previously to similar problems on a new problem
initial state
thinking about the unsolved problem
falsification principle
to test a rule or hypothesis, you must look for situations that can falsify the rule (instead of just keep searching for evidence that would support the rule)
A researcher had participants read each of the sentences below and measured the time it took to read each sentence. Trial 1: The lamb ran past the cottage into the pasture. Trial 2: The dog ran past the house into the yard. The participants' response times were longer for_________because of the_________effect.
trial 1; word frequency
Behaviorists branded the study of imagery as being unproductive because
visual images are invisible to everyone except the person experiencing them.
People tend to overestimate what negative feelings will occur following a decision more so than positive feelings. what positive feelings will occur following a decision more so than negative feelings. what positive and negative feelings will occur following a decision to the same degree. subjective utility values following a decision.
what negative feelings will occur following a decision more so than positive feelings.
Availability heuristic
when we estimate the likelihood or probability of events, we base our judgments on how easily we can think of the examples of the events
Which of the following is NOT influenced by meaning?
word frequency effect
Which of the following is not one of the types of units found within a parallel distributed processing model? Hidden units Output units Input units Working units
working
