EXAM 4

Theodoric

King of Ostrogoths, opposed odacer, raised imperial court and made goths and romans live together, moved capital to Ravenna. supposed to whack Odowhack

Jerome

(Roman Catholic Church) one of the great fathers of the early Christian Church whose major work was his translation of the Scriptures from Hebrew and Greek into Latin (which became the Vulgate)

Augustine

(Roman Catholic Church) one of the great fathers of the early Christian church

Etruscans

- 850-500 BC. - They had large, walled cities that were independent but could function as a confederation. - The Greeks called them Tyrhenoi, but they called themselves Rassena. - It is unknown whether they were natives of the area or from the East, but they seem to have connections (knowledge of mining, drainage, irrigation, and the practice of hepatoscopy). - According to Herodotus, they were from Asia Minor (modern testing seems to agree with this). - The religious practice later evolved into the Roman gladiator practice. - seem to place a fairly high societal role on women, but the Greeks think that the Etruscan women are prostitutes (possibly because they wore makeup and braided their hair). - adapt the Greek alphabet for their language, which is today still unknown/untranslated. - The only Etruscan book still surviving todays is Liber Linteus, which was written on linen and used to mummify somebody. Many settled in Rome and became Roman citizens. - Kings 5 and 6 of Rome were both Etruscans and brought reforms to Rome. - The Etruscans introduced stone buildings and temples to Rome. - They drained the Forum Valley and allowed people to settle between the hills. - They also built the first bridge over the Tiber River and turned Rome into a trading center. - King 6 of Rome introduced hoplite warfare to Rome. He also introduced the census. - The downfall of the Etruscans came when the last Etruscan king, Tarquin the Proud, became a tyrant. He was a poor military leader, and even worse, his son Sextus raped Lucretia, the wife of a Roman nobleman.

Ulfila

- A Goth of Cappadocian Greek descent who served as a bishop and missionary to the Visigoths in 341 AD, is credited with the translation of the Bible into the Gothic Bible, and participated in the Arian controversy. - He is traditionally held to have invented the Gothic alphabet. German missionary, Arian Christian, converts the Germans to Arianism. - Gothic dies out because it is associated with Arianism.

Aeneas

- According to Virgil, Aeneas was sort of the ancestor of what would become Rome. - Accordingly, Aeneas was a refugee of the Trojan War who escaped to Italy. - He was immortalized in the 1st century BC by Virgil's Aeneid. -In the Aeneid, after the Trojan War was fought, the ghost of his dead wife told him to go to where the Tiber River flowed. He headed that direction, but at some point was received by Dido, the widowed queen, to whom he told his story. They fell in love, and he lingered there until he was sharply reminded by Mercury that Rome was his goal. Guilty and wretched, he immediately abandoned Dido, who committed suicide, and Aeneas sailed on until he finally reached the mouth of the Tiber. There he was well received by Latinus, the king of the region, but other Italians, notably Latinus's wife and Turnus, resented the arrival of the Trojans and the projected marriage alliance between Aeneas and Lavinia, Latinus's daughter. War broke out, but the Trojans were successful and Turnus was killed. Aeneas then married Lavinia and founded Lavinium. - Aeneas's descendent was the vestal virgin, Rhea (a flaw in the story, because vestal virgins didn't exist, yet), who had sons with Mars (or possibly Hercules, or an unknown rapist): Romulus and Remus. - Romulus and Remus were sentenced to death at birth, but the servant who was supposed to fulfill the death sentence had mercy and set the twins afloat in a basket on the Tiber River. The river flooded, and Romulus and Remus were found and suckled by a she-wolf.

Paul of Tarsus

- An early Christian apostle and missionary and author of several New Testament epistles. - He grew up and was instructed in strict Judo teaching, under Pharisees, Jewish religious leaders of the time. - He zealously fought against Christianity and was present at the stoning of the first Christian martyr, Stephen. - On the road to Damascus, he was blinded by a bright light and heard a Voice instructing him to go to the house of Ananias. - Ananias prayed over Paul and "something like scales fell from Saul's eyes, and he could see again." (Acts 9:18) Saul was then baptized, and began to "at once preach in the synagogues that Jesus is the Son of God." (Acts 9:20)

Scipio Africanus

- At the Battle of Zama, in 202 BC, fifty miles south of Carthage, Scipio defeated Hannibal. - It was the only battle Hannibal lost since assuming command of the Carthaginian forces but it was a pivotal loss. - Scipio had long been learning from Hannibal's tactics and knew them well. - When Hannibal sent his elephants charging against the Roman lines, Scipio revealed that he had formed them in columns, allowing the elephants to pass harmlessly through the alleys opened by his ranks. - Further, he had his musicians sound their horns loudly and bang on drums which so startled the elephants that many of them panicked and turned back to trample Hannibal's troops. - The cavalry forces of Masinissa and Scipio's old friend and general Gaius Laelius then fell upon the Carthaginian cavalry, driving them from the field and back beyond the Carthaginian lines. - Scipio then advanced his forces, broke Hannibal's front line, and, at the same time, the cavalry of Laelius and Masinissa returned to fall upon the Carthaginian rear. - Around 20,000 Carthaginian forces were killed as opposed to 1,500 Romans. - Hannibal fled back to Carthage and urged surrender, thus ending the Second Punic War. - In adapting Hannibal's tactics, and using his own strategies against him, Scipio changed the way Roman forces would fight from Zama onwards. - He was the only person ever to defeat Hannibal.

Lake Trasimene

- Battle of Trasimene, (June 217 BC), second major battle of the Second Punic War, in which the Carthaginian forces of Hannibal defeated the Roman army under Gaius Flaminius in central Italy. - Many of the Roman troops, mainly infantry, were forced into Lake Trasimene (modern Lake Trasimeno), where they drowned or were massacred. - The battle proved to Rome that Hannibal was a formidable enemy who was best avoided, a realization that inspired the Fabian strategy of nonengagement.

Cato the Elder

- Cato as the hawk in the Senate pushed for war. - After a lengthy siege, Rome took Carthage in 146 B.C. - Carthaginians were carried off as slaves and the city was destroyed. - He brought figs to the Senate (as if he had brought them from Carthage) and shook them onto the Senate floor to scare the people there—Carthage is so close that a man can get fresh figs from there and back? - Carthage is a real threat!

Cincinnatus

- Cincinnatus was and early Roman hero. - He was elected dictator in 458 BC without even realizing it. - In fact, he was out farming in his field when his wife came and told him the news. -When notified he accepted the fasces (in ancient Rome) a bundle of rods with a projecting ax blade, carried as a symbol of a magistrate's power)—defeated the enemy (The reason he was elected was to rescue a consular army that was surrounded by the Aequi on Mount Algidus) and resigned his position. - He is considered a Roman role model, because instead of maintaining his position of power for 6 months, he gave it up in 15 days and returned to farming. - Cincinnatus was kind of the male alternative role model to Lucretia.

Claudius

- Claudius was born with physical ailments and derided hideously by his mother. - Despite this, he was very scholarly. - He wrote a dictionary on the Etruscan language and a history. - He was made co-consul with Caligula, but mercilessly belittled by him. - When Caligula was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard, Claudius figured he was next and cowered behind the curtains. - When the Praetorian Guard discovered him, he was prepared to die, but they instead made him the new emperor. - Claudius was the fourth of five emperors in the First Roman dynasty (27 BC—68 AD). - During his reign, he expanded the empire to include Thrace, Judea, and Britain, and was poisoned in 54 AD, most likely as a result of his wife, Agrippina's instigations.

Cleopatra

- Cleopatra VII ruled ancient Egypt as co-regent (first with her two younger brothers and then with her son) for almost three decades. - She became the last in a dynasty of Macedonian rulers founded by Ptolemy, who served as general under Alexander the Great during his conquest of Egypt in 332 B.C. -Well-educated and clever, Cleopatra could speak various languages and served as the dominant ruler in all three of her co-regencies. - Her romantic liaisons and military alliances with the Roman leaders Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, as well as her supposed exotic beauty and powers of seduction, earned her an enduring place in history and popular myth. - She was the only ruler in the Ptolemaic dynasty to learn and do business in the Egyptian language. - On September 2, 31 B.C., Octavian's forces soundly defeated those of Antony and Cleopatra in the Battle of Actium. - Cleopatra's ships deserted the battle and fled to Egypt, and Antony soon managed to break away and follow her with a few ships. - With Alexandria under attack from Octavian's forces, Antony heard a rumor that Cleopatra had committed suicide. - He fell on his sword, and died just as news arrived that the rumor had been false. - On August 12, 30 B.C., after burying Antony and meeting with the victorious Octavian, Cleopatra closed herself in her chamber with two of her female servants. - The means of her death is uncertain, but Plutarch and other writers advanced the theory that she used a poisonous snake known as the asp, a symbol of divine royalty. - According to her wishes, Cleopatra's body was buried with Antony's, leaving Octavian (later Emperor Augustus I) to celebrate his conquest of Egypt and his consolidation of power in Rome.

Commodus

- Commodus, born Lucius Aurelius Commodus and died Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus, was Roman emperor with his father Marcus Aurelius from 177 to his father's death in 180, and solely until 192. - In 182 Commodus's sister Lucilla conspired with a group of senators to assassinate him. - The plot failed, and Commodus retaliated by executing a number of leading senators. - Thereafter his rule became increasingly arbitrary and vicious. - In 186 he had his chief minister executed in order to appease the army; three years later he allowed the minister's successor to be killed by a rioting crowd. - Political influence then passed to the emperor's mistress and two advisers. - Meanwhile, Commodus was lapsing into insanity. - He gave Rome a new name, Colonia Commodiana (Colony of Commodus), and imagined that he was the god Hercules, entering the arena to fight as a gladiator or to kill lions with bow and arrow. - On December 31, 192, his advisers had him strangled by a champion wrestler, following his announcement the day before that he would assume the consulship, dressed as a gladiator. - A grateful Senate proclaimed a new emperor—the city prefect, Publius Helvius Pertinax—but the empire quickly slipped into civil war.

De agricultura

- De Agri Cultura, written by Cato the Elder, is the oldest surviving work of Latin prose. - Some of Cato's views are hypocritical, and he's very much opposed to the influx of slaves into the Roman economy (yet he has one of the worst slaves farms in the Republic). - Cato's only surviving work is De agri cultura (On Farming), a treatise on agriculture written about 160 BC. - De agri cultura is the oldest remaining complete prose work in Latin. - It is a practical handbook dealing with the cultivation of grape vines and olives and the grazing of livestock, but it also contains many details of old customs and superstitions. - More important, it affords a wealth of information on the transition from small landholdings to capitalistic farming in Latium and Campania

Tetrachy

- Diocletian secured the empire's borders and purged it of all threats to his power. - He separated and enlarged the empire's civil and military services, and reorganized the empire's provincial divisions, establishing the largest and most bureaucratic government in the history of the empire. - Diocletian also restructured the Roman government by establishing the Tetrarchy, a system of rule in which four men shared rule over the massive Roman Empire. - The empire was effectively divided in two, with an Augustus and a subordinate Caesar in each half. - Diocletian established administrative capitals for each of the Tetrarchs, which were located closer to the empire's borders. - Though Rome retained its unique Prefect of the City, it was no longer the administrative capital. - By 313 AD, therefore, there remained only two emperors: Constantine in the west and Licinius in the east. - The tetrarchic system was at an end, although it took until 324 for Constantine to finally defeat Licinius, reunite the two halves of the Roman Empire, and declare himself sole Augustus.

Domitian

- Domitian conspired against his older brother, Titus endlessly. - He built limes along the Danube. - He also restored the capitol. Domitian was assassinated in. - Suetonius described him as cruel, and that as a child, he would sit in room and stab flies to death. - The authoritarian nature of his rule put him at sharp odds with the senate, whose powers he drastically curtailed. - Despite this, he was a prolific builder. - During his reign (81—96 AD) as last of the Flavian Dynasty, he executed many senators.

Five Good Emperors

- Five Good Emperors, the ancient Roman imperial succession of Nerva (reigned 96-98 CE), Trajan (98-117), Hadrian (117-138), Antoninus Pius (138-161), and Marcus Aurelius (161-180), who presided over the most majestic days of the Roman Empire. - It was not a bloodline. Nerva was raised to the principate by the assassins of Domitian, and the others were successively adopted heirs, each only distantly related to his predecessor if at all. - The last two—Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius—are often called the Antonines, though the term Antonine is sometimes extended also to the coemperors Lucius Verus (adopted heir of Antoninus Pius) and Commodus (son of Marcus Aurelius). - All this was preceded and accompanied by the Romanizing of the peoples of the empire in language and civilization. - Yet, in spite of the internal tranquillity and the good government that have made the age of the Five Good Emperors famous, one can detect signs of weakness. - It was in this period that the centralization of authority in the hands of the emperor was completed; the "dual control" established by Augustus, which had been unreal enough in the 1st century, was now, though not formally abolished, systematically ignored in practice.

Tiberius Gracchus

- From the office of tribune, T. Gracchus will attempt to help the urban poor (he was a populares). - He wants to reinvigorate Rome by providing the landless land and turn Rome back to the citizen farmers. - Tiberius' reforms included reorganizing the ager publicus (public land). - He wants land owned by the state given to the poor. - He also created a Land Commission to give about 300 acres to each family. - Problem: many landlords had been using state land as their own. -Modifications: compensate user if improved land; if more sons, then more land Turn back the clock—small farmer to compete with latifundia. - Make men eligible for military service againTiberius then ran for re-election. - Conservative politicians were afraid, but he wins as a result of a plebeian vote. - A riot then breaks out complete with street violence and bloodshed, and Tiberius is assassinated along with 300 of his followers. 133 BC.

Gaius Gracchus

- Gaius Gracchus, Tiberius' brother, became Tribune from 123 to 122 BC. - He established more land reform, built granaries (to feed the poor farmers who were unable to maintain themselves), built roads, and bridges to improve grain distribution in the city. - He tried to freeze the price of grain, and send Roman farmers abroad. - He was also involved with transmaritime colonization. - Unfortunately, these new commercial colonies needed subsidies. He also opened up courts and provincial administration to the equestrian class—used them against senators. - The main dilemma that both Tiberius and Gaius encountered, and were trying to remedy in their own ways, was the massive joblessness among small-time farmers. - Since the defeat of Carthage 146 BC, Rome had not stopped growing. - With the massive conquering of new lands and peoples, lots of slaves poor into the Roman economy, and Romans monopolize the slaves to build giant farms that put small-time farmers out of the job. - Many senators were deeply suspicious of Gaius' reforms and thought they threatened the Senate. - Eventually, the Senate arranges a state of emergency degree, and Gaius and 3,000 of his followers are killed (Interesting, because as tribunes, both Gaius and his brother were supposed to sacrosanct). - New division in Rome. Who should rule?

Suetonius

- Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (c. 69 - c. 130/140 AD), better known simply as Suetonius, was a Roman writer whose most famous work is his biographies of the first 12 Caesars. - With a position close to the imperial court he was able to access otherwise private sources for his work, and he certainly did not hold back on revealing the sometimes sordid details of Rome's most famously debauched emperors. - Good example of Silver Aged Latin, like Tacitus. - Employment in Hadrian and —-, but does something with the Empreror's wife and is kicked out.

Hadrian

- Hadrian was one of Rome's "Five Good Emperors." - He was the Second Spaniard ever to be an emperor of Rome (after Trajan). He had been dubbed, "The wandering emperor." - He toured the empire during his reign, and is remembered for Hadrian's Wall and Hadrian's Mausoleum, which became a papal hiding place. - His reign lasted from 117 AD until his death in 138 AD.

Hamilcar Barca

- Hamilcar Barca, Barca also spelled Barcas, (died winter 229/228 BC), - A general who assumed command of the Carthaginian forces in Sicily during the last years of the First Punic War with Rome (264-241 BC). - Until the rise to power of his son Hannibal, Hamilcar was the finest commander and statesman that Carthage had produced.

Hannibal Barca

- Hannibal (also known as Hannibal Barca, 247-183 BC) was a Carthaginian general during the Second Punic War between Carthage and Rome (218-202 BCE). - He is considered one of the greatest generals of antiquity and his tactics are still studied and used in the present day. - His father was Hamilcar Barca (275-228 BCE), the great general of the First Punic War (264-241 BCE). - These wars were fought between the cities of Carthage in North Africa and Rome in northern Italy for supremacy in the Mediterranean region and the second war resulted directly from the first. - Hannibal assumed command of the troops following his father's death and led them victoriously through a number of engagements until he stood almost at the gates of Rome; at which point he was stopped, not by the Romans, but through a lack of resources to take the city. - He was called back to Africa to defend Carthage from Roman invasion, was defeated at the Battle of Zama in 202 BCE by Scipio Africanus. - he died in 183 BC by drinking poison

Constantine

- He became the Western emperor in 312 and the sole Roman emperor in 324 AD. - Constantine was also the first emperor to adhere to Christianity, a result of the Battle of Milvian Bridge. - He issued an edict that protected Christians in the empire and converted to Christianity on his deathbed in 337 (This was the best way to be converted, in ancient times, because the people believed that they would be as pure as possible if they were baptized while dying). - During his reign, Constantine also "built" Constantinople. - Constantinople was the capital city of the Roman/Byzantine Empire, and also of the brief Latin, and the later Ottoman empires. - It was reinaugurated in 324 from ancient Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Emperor Constantine the Great, after whom it was named, and dedicated on 11 May 330. - Constantine was against Donatism. - His reign was between 306 and 337 AD.

Donatism

- In Carthage a dispute arose around the bishop Caecilian who had been consecrated by a traditor (a "betrayer"), someone who had either made sacrifice to the emperor or had delivered books over to the authorities to be burned. - More was involved in this situation, but during this time a man named Donatus was moving around the region of Numidia in Northern Africa rebaptizing priests who had lapsed and giving them commission to preach and administer the Eucharist again. - In previous times of persecution it had been determined that it was not necessary to rebaptize people, even if they had been baptized into a less than orthodox sect. - But here Donatus was doing this within the region of a "catholic" bishop, and without authority. - It caused a great stir. - The more strident movement of believers following Donatus would not accept the sacraments from someone who had lapsed during persecution. - The Numidian bishops called a council in 312 AD and deposed Caecilian, but the controversy was not over. - Shortly after this local council, Constantine ruled in favor of Caecilian and his appointees. - The Donatists appealed to the Emperor for another council to decide on the controversy, asking that he get bishops from Gaul who had not been involved in persecutions. - Constantine granted this request and had Miltiades, the bishop of Rome, as the head of the council. - This Roman council decided in favor of Caecilian, but the Donatists appealed on the grounds that Miltiades had been initially appointed by Marcellinus, who had also lapsed during persecution. - Constantine was getting impatient with the dissidents, but relented, calling for a larger council to meet at Arles, hoping to put the issue to rest.

Marcus Lepidus

- In October 43 Lepidus formed a triumvirate with Antony and Octavian (later the emperor Augustus) at Bononia (modern Bologna). - Lepidus received both Hither and Further Spain, along with southern Gaul, as his portion, and he celebrated his victories in Spain. - He was consul again in 42, but his two colleagues soon deprived him of most of his power. - His provinces of Gaul and Spain were taken from him, and he was confined to the government of Roman Africa and only formally included in the renewed triumvirate of 37. - In 36 he attempted to raise Sicily in revolt against Octavian, but his soldiers deserted his cause. - He was removed from even nominal membership in the triumvirate, and, although he was allowed to remain pontifex maximus until his death, he was forced to retire from public life. - He died in 12 BC.

Jewish Revolt

- In the fall of AD 66 the Jews combined in revolt, expelled the Romans from Jerusalem, and overwhelmed in the pass of Beth-Horon a Roman punitive force under Gallus, the imperial legate in Syria. - A revolutionary government was then set up and extended its influence throughout the whole country. - Vespasian was dispatched by the Roman emperor Nero to crush the rebellion. - He was joined by Titus, and together the Roman armies entered Galilee, where the historian Josephus headed the Jewish forces. - Josephus' army was confronted by that of Vespasian and fled. - After the fall of the fortress of Jatapata, Josephus gave himself up, and the Roman forces swept the country. - On the 9th of the month of Av (August 29) in AD 70, Jerusalem fell; the Temple was burned, and the Jewish state collapsed, although the fortress of Masada was not conquered by the Roman general Flavius Silva until April 73. - Lasted from (66-60 AD)

Pyrrhus of Epirus

- Invasion of Pyrrhus 280-274 B.C. - Pyrrhus attacks Rome to preserve independence of Greek city states in southern Italy. Introduces Rome to war elephants. - Pyrrhus also attacks the Carthaginians in Sicily thus setting the backdrop for the Punic Wars. - Pyrrhus was a Greek general and statesman of the Hellenistic period. - He was king of the Greek tribe of Molossians, of the royal Aeacid house, and later he became king of Epirus. - He was one of the strongest opponents of early Rome.

Commentaries on the Gallic Wars

- Julius Caesar's firsthand account of the Gallic Wars, written as a third-person narrative. - He wrote a chapter every year he was out fighting in Gaul. - Usually what students learn in second course of Latin. - He keeps his political career alive while fighting in Gaul by means of Commentaries on the Gallic Wars.

Jupiter

- Jupiter is the supreme god of the Roman pantheon, called dies pater, "shining father". - He is a god of light and sky, and protector of the state and its laws. - He is a son of Saturn and brother of Neptune and Juno (who is also his wife)

Latin League

- Latin League - ancient alliance of Latin states, Rome emerged as leader. After Allia, after Samnites, Latin League attempted to shake off Roman domination. - SAMNITE WARS Resulted in Roman victory. - Roman disbands the League and incorporates the territory into the republic.

Livy

- Livy, Latin in full Titus Livius, (born 59/64 BC, Patavium, Venetia [now Padua, Italy]—died AD 17, Patavium), - with Sallust and Tacitus, one of the three great Roman historians. -His history of Rome became a classic in his own lifetime and exercised a profound influence on the style and philosophy of historical writing down to the 18th century. - Livy was unique among Roman historians in that he played no part in politics. - He died in 17 BC.

Lucretia

- Lucretia was the wife of a Roman nobleman, and daughter of the prefect of Rome. - When her husband, Collatinus (nephew of the king) was away at a wine party on furlough, he encountered Sextus (son of the king), and they got into a debate on the virtue of wives. -Collatinus volunteered to settle the debate by all of them riding to his home to see what Lucretia was doing. - She was weaving with her maids. - The party awarded her the palm of victory and Collatinus invited them to visit, but for the time being they went back to camp. - He returned from camp a few days later with one companion to take Collatinus up on his invitation to visit and was lodged in a guest bedroom. - At night, he appeared to Lucretia while she lay in bed, identified himself, and offered her two choices: she could submit to his sexual advances, or he would kill her and one of her slaves and place the bodies together, then claim he had caught her having adulterous sex. - She submitted to his rape, but in morning sent for her father and her husband and explained what had happened to her. - In one version of the story, the her father and husband sympathize with her and tell her that the defilement was not her fault. Despite this, she cannot bear the shame that her rape will bring to her family name, and while her husband and father are debating the matter, she stabs herself to death. - There are multiple versions of this story, but it all ends with her stabbing herself. - Her death inspired a revolt against the kingship of Rome, and her virtue made her a sort of legendary figure for Romans to tell their children about. - She died in 510 BC

Mani

- Mani was the founder of Manicism, a dualistic religion with two gods—good and bad that spread throughout the Roman Empire. - A mystery religion. Augustus is a Manicist for a while, who liked it because it explained why evil existed. - Became dienchanted when he met with a Manicist priest who was clueless. - Augustus became a Christian. - Mani was 2nd, early century. - Similarities between Zoroastrianism.

Marcus Aurelius

- Marcus Aurelius, called the Philosopher, was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 AD. - He ruled with his adoptive brother, Lucius Verus, until Verus' death in 169, and with his son, Commodus, from 177. - He was the last of the rulers traditionally known as the Five Good Emperors (following Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius). - He was a practitioner of Stoicism, and wrote The Meditations. - In 167 or 168 Marcus and Verus (co-ruler) together set out on a punitive expedition across the Danube, and behind their backs a horde of German tribes invaded Italy in massive strength and besieged Aquileia, on the crossroads at the head of the Adriatic. - The military precariousness of the empire and the inflexibility of its financial structure in the face of emergencies now stood revealed; desperate measures were adopted to fill the depleted legions, and imperial property was auctioned to provide funds. - Marcus and Verus fought the Germans off with success, but in 169 Verus died suddenly, and doubtless naturally, of a stroke. - Three years of fighting were still needed, with Marcus in the thick of it, to restore the Danubian frontier, and three more years of campaigning in Bohemia were enough to bring the tribes beyond the Danube to peace, at least for a time.

Brutus

- Marcus Junius Brutus, also called Quintus Caepio Brutus, (born probably 85 BC—died 42 BC, near Philippi, Macedonia [now in northwestern Greece]), Roman politician, one of the leaders in the conspiracy that assassinated Julius Caesar in 44 BCE. - Brutus was the son of Marcus Junius Brutus (who was treacherously killed by Pompey the Great in 77) and Servilia (who later became Caesar's lover.) - Long optimistic about Caesar's plans, Brutus was shocked when, early in 44, Caesar made himself perpetual dictator and was deified. - Always conscious of his descent from Lucius Junius Brutus, who was said to have driven the Etruscan kings from Rome, Brutus joined Cassius and other leading senators in the plot that led to the assassination of Caesar on March 15, 44 BC. - Driven from Rome by popular outrage, Brutus and Cassius stayed in Italy until Mark Antony forced them to leave

Marius

- Marius brings Jurgurtha to Rome in chains. - He (even though he was an equestrian) held the office of consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. - The first Roman to illustrate the political support that a successful general could derive from the votes of his old army veterans. - The people who don't meet the basic level for military service, "Marius' Mules," are now allowed in his army. - Died in 86 BC.

Nero

- Nero was the fifth and final emperor of the First Roman dynasty. - He was a nephew of Caligula, and great-grandson of Augustus. - Initially had warm relations with the Senate. - Removed capital punishment, reduced taxes and secret trials. - Nero's mother, Caligula's sister, married Claudius. - She had a strong influence over her son. - Guided by praetorian commander Burrus and tutor Seneca, also dominated by his mother's strong influence. - An example of the strong influence that Nero's mother had was the fact that she appeared on the Roman coin with her son, when it was minted. - Five years into his reign, he had her murdered. - According to the Roman historian Suetonius, he attempted to murder her by sending her out on a "collapsible ship," but she swam to shore. -His second attempt to kill her was successful. - In addition, Nero ordered his tutor, Seneca the Younger, to commit suicide. - Rumor has it that he went around the city at night and murdered civilians for kicks. - He also may have been involved with the burning of Rome. - According to Tacitus, Nero blamed the fire on the Christians, took an active part in the relief after the fire in Rome, and was in Antium when the actual fire occurred. - According to Suetonius, he played and sang while Rome burned. - A rumor spreads that Nero's Senate wants to kill him —not necessarily true. - He tries to commit suicide by running into the river and drowning himself, but is too afraid. - He asks his secretary to kill him, instead. - With his death (68 AD) comes the end of the First Roman Dynasty.

First Triumvirate

- Pompey, Crassus, Caesar (60—49 BC)— five year and unofficial (more of a gentleman's agreement than anything legal). - Caesar gets consulship in 59 BC then command of Gaul. - Crassus gets tax contracts as leader of the equestrians. - The First Triumvirate was an informal political alliance of three prominent men between 60 and 53 BC, during the late Roman Republic: Gaius Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great), and Marcus Licinius Crassus. - Julius Caesar was a prominent politician with the populares faction and was eventually renowned for his conquest of Gaul (58-50 BC). -Pompey was considered the greatest military commander of his time and commanded armies in the Third Servile War (73-71 BC) in Italy and the Third Mithridatic War (73-63 BC) against the Kingdom of Pontus in West Asia. - This gave him great prestige and popularity. - Crassus was a property speculator, the largest landlord, and the richest man in Rome. - Pompey and Crassus had extensive patronage networks. - The three men formed an alliance with which they could gather sufficient popular support to counter the stranglehold the Roman Senate had over Roman politics. - The Senate had thwarted some bills these men had sponsored. -With this alliance they aimed to overcome the senate's resistance to these bills and to have them passed. - The alliance had been kept secret until Pompey and Crassus publicly supported a land law proposed by Caesar in 58 BC. - According to Goldsworthy, the alliance was "not at heart a union of those with the same political ideals and ambitions", but one where "all [were] seeking personal advantage." - The triumvirate lasted from 59 BC until Crassus' death at the Battle of Carrhae, where he was defeated during his campaign against the Parthians in 53 BC, leaving behind an increasingly fractious relationship between Caesar and Pompey as they now had no buffer.[1] - A civil war ensued after Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon with his army in northern Italy in 49 BC. - The conflict eventually led to Caesar's victory over Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC and the latter's assassination in Ptolemaic Egypt where he fled after the battle. - In 44 BC Caesar was assassinated in Rome and the following year his heir Octavian (later known as Augustus) formed the Second Triumvirate with Marcus Antonius and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus.

Virgil

- Publius Vergilius Maro, usually called Virgil, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. - He wrote three of the most famous poems in Latin literature: the Eclogues, the Georgics, and the epic Aeneid. - The Aeneid was Virgil's attempt to tie Roman history in with the infamous Trojan War. - Virgil died in 19 BC. Virgil was so highly regarded by those authors who followed him that the early 14th- century AD Italian author, Dante Alighieri, chose Virgil as his guide through the nine levels of hell in The Inferno.

Spartacus

- Revolt by Spartacus 73 BC. - thought to have been born in Thrace (modern day Balkan region) and it has been suggested he was in the Roman army. - He was sold into slavery and trained at the gladiatorial school in Capua, north of Naples. - Spartacus escaped in 73 BC and took refuge on nearby Mount Vesuvius, where large numbers of other escaped slaves joined him. - Their insurrection came to be known as the Third Servile War, or the Gladiators' War. - Leading his army of runaway slaves, which has been estimated to have reached 100,000 men, Spartacus defeated a series of Roman attacks using tactics which would now be called guerrilla warfare. - In 72 BC Spartacus and his army marched north towards Gaul. - They fought off a series of attacks from Roman forces, but then turned south. - By the end of 72 BC, they were camped at Rhenium, (now Reggio di Calabria) probably intending to go on to Sicily. - The administration in Rome now began to take the threat from Spartacus seriously and the Roman politician and general Marcus Licinius Crassus led an army south. - The slaves managed to break through the fortifications that Crassus had built to trap them, but were pursued to Lucania where the rebel army was destroyed. - Spartacus is thought to have been killed in the battle. - Around 6,000 of his followers who escaped were hunted down and crucified. - Thousands of others were killed by the army of the Roman general Pompey, who then claimed the credit for suppressing the rebellion.

Third Samnite War (298-290 BC)

- Romans continued to expand territory and power. - Samnites attacked Roman ally, Rome pledged to aid and declared war. - - Represented an attempt by Italic peoples to resist Roman expansion (Samnites joined by Etruscans, Umbrians, Gauls). - Battle of Sentinum 295. - After this war, Rome emerged dominating most of the Italian peninsula. - - Victory over a unified force of Italians led to incorporation of that territory into the republic. - End of the wars means that Rome becomes the central power in Italy.

Second Samnite War (326-304 BC)

- Rome instigated war with the Samnites by founding colonies in Samnite territory. Battle of the Caudine Forks 321. - Humiliating defeat. Made to pass under the yoke at the Battle of Caudine Forks. - Outright reorganization of the military into maniples. - Back and forth battle with victories and defeats on both sides, ultimately Rome victorious. - Great Samnite War - became a battle for control of much of Italy.

Patres

- Romulus created a Senate of 100 patres (fathers). - According to Livy, a Roman historian, the patres were the origin of the patrician class. - The Senate of 100 was in existence with the era of Roman kingship, 753-509 BC.

Romulus

- Romulus is forever linked with the legend of him and his brother, Remus, who were both raised by a she-wolf. - When they grew up, Romulus and Remus both wanted to build a city, but they couldn't decide who should do it (typically, the first born would have the right of choosing to build a city). - They decide to each build a city. Romulus gets to work laying the walls of his city, but his brother mocks him while he does it. - Romulus tells Remus that if he steps one foot over his walls, he'll kill him. - - Remus takes Romulus up on his dare and his murdered. - When Romulus completes the building of Rome, he has the trouble of finding people to colonize it. - He makes citizenship free to anybody who wants it, and less-than-desirables populate his city. -This leads to the problem of finding wives for these types (fathers don't want their daughters to marry men with these kinds of reputations), which leads to the Rape of the Sabines. - Romulus (probably a real person that had a monstrous legend built around him) founded Rome in 753 BC.

First Samnite War (343-341 BC)

- Samnites threatened wealthy region of Campania (Capua), a Roman ally. Romans asked Samnites not to attack Roman territory and Capua. - Samnites refused and set out to attack immediately. - Romans declared war. Short war. - Not decisive, neither party gained much. - Campania now under Roman sphere of influence (part of Rome's territory). - Defensive or offensive war?

Servius Tullius

- Servius Tullius was the legendary sixth king of ancient Rome, and the second of its Etruscan dynasty. -He reigned 578-535 BC. - Roman and Greek sources describe his servile origins and later marriage to a daughter of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, Rome's first Etruscan king, who was assassinated in 579 BC. - Servius was said to have been the first Roman king to accede without election by the Senate, having gained the throne by popular support, at the contrivance of his mother-in-law. - Several traditions describe Servius' father as divine. - Livy depicts Servius' mother as a captured Latin princess enslaved by the Romans; her child is chosen as Rome's future king after a ring of fire is seen around his head. - The Emperor Claudius discounted such origins and described him as an originally Etruscan mercenary who fought for Caelius Vibenna. Servius was a popular king, and one of Rome's most significant benefactors. - He had military successes against Veii and the Etruscans, and expanded the city to include the Quirinal, Viminal and Esquiline hills. - He is credited with the institution of the Compitalia festivals, the building of temples to Fortuna and Diana, and the invention of Rome's first true coinage. - Despite the opposition of Rome's patricians, he expanded the Roman franchise and improved the lot and fortune of Rome's lowest classes of citizens and non-citizens. - According to Livy, he reigned for 44 years, until murdered by his treacherous daughter Tullia and son-in- law Tarquinius Superbus. - In consequence of this "tragic crime" and his hubristic arrogance as king, Tarquinius was eventually removed. - This cleared the way for the abolition of Rome's monarchy and thefounding of the Roman Republic, whose groundwork had already been laid by Servius' reforms

Caligula

- Son of Germanicus (who became a famous general) Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus was beloved by the military soldiers that he grew up with, and was nicknamed Caligula (Little Boots). - He was the great nephew of Tiberius and the great-grandson of Augustus. - Everybody loves him, but for some reason (some say epilepsy), he went insane. - He deified himself as emperor, tried to make his beloved horse, Incitatus, a member of the consul. - The Praetorian Guard assassinated him in 41 AD.

Tacitus

- Tacitus, in full Publius Cornelius Tacitus, or Gaius Cornelius Tacitus, (born AD 56—died c. 120), Roman orator and public official, probably the greatest historian and one of the greatest prose stylists who wrote in the Latin language. - Among his works are the Germania, describing the Germanic tribes, the Historiae (Histories), concerning the Roman Empire from AD 69 to 96, and the later Annals, dealing with the empire in the period from AD 14 to 68. - Tacitus was the one who wrote that Nero was away at Actium during the Great Fire of Rome, and that he blamed the fire on the Christians, and played an active part in the relief of the fire.

Tarquin the Proud

- Tarquin the Proud was an Etruscan and a poor military leader who attempted a tyranny of Rome. - He was the seventh and last king of Rome, and reigned from 535-509 BC. - He was the father of Sextus, and the son Lucious Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of Rome. - He was said to have gained the throne through the murders of both his wife and his elder brother, followed by the assassination of his predecessor, Servius Tullius.

Messana

- The Battle of Messana in 265-264 BC was the first military clash between the Roman Republic and Carthage. - It marked the start of the First Punic War. - In that period, and after the recent successes in southern Italy, Sicily became of increasing strategic importance to Rome. - OR, Rebels take Messana and ask for Roman air—the Romans decide to help, fearing that they'll be taken over by Carthage otherwise.

Veii

- The Battle of Veii was a battle between the Romans, who were led by Marcus Furius Camillus who had been elected dictator, and the Etruscan city of Veii. - Veii was an Etruscan city that had been engaged with the Romans in a long and inconclusive war during which it had often been under siege. - In order to break the siege once and for all, a tunnel was constructed by the Romans beneath the city. - While this was occurring, Camillus attacked the city on all sides so as to distract the soldiers and residents of Veii from the tunnel construction by forcing their soldiers to defend the walls. - The Romans then emerged from the entrance of the tunnel and the Roman forces quickly overwhelmed Veii. - Ten-year battle. Minute after the city is taken, the Gauls show up, and Celtic sack. - The Romans use the rubble from the city to help build the Republic Walls. 396 BC.

Battle of Milvian Bridge

- The Battle of the Milvian Bridge took place between the Roman Emperors Constantine I and Maxentius on 28 October 312. - It takes its name from the Milvian Bridge, an important route over the Tiber. - Maxentius left Rome to meet Constantine in one final, crucial battle - the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 AD. - On the day before the battle began, Constantine reportedly looked to the sky where he saw the sign of the cross superimposed over the sun. - Under it was the inscription In Hoc Signo Vinae or "conquer by this sign." - That night, in a dream, he received an explanation of the sign - Christ appeared before him telling him to carry the sign of the cross into battle. The following day old banners were replaced with new ones displaying the sign of the cross. - Although outnumbered, Constantine easily defeated Maxentius who fled back to Rome, however, before reaching the city, he fell into the river and drowned; his body was discovered the next morning among the corpses of many others. - This victory is seen by historians as a turning point in history, a fusion of church and state. - Constantine immediately assumed complete control of the west. - As the new augustus in the west, he marched into Rome; one of his first acts was to issue the Edict of Milan, a toleration of all religions (it would later be co-signed by Licinius). - Modern day historians doubt that a vision ever occurred, as no mention of it appears in the first records of the battle.

Great Persecution

- The Diocletianic or Great Persecution was the last and most severe persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. - In 303, the Tetrarchic Emperors Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, and Constantius issued a series of edicts rescinding Christians' legal rights and demanding that they comply with traditional religious practices. - Later edicts targeted the clergy and demanded universal sacrifice, ordering all inhabitants to sacrifice to the gods. - The persecution varied in intensity across the empire—weakest in Gaul and Britain, where only the first edict was applied, and strongest in the Eastern provinces. - Persecutory laws were nullified by different emperors at different times, but Constantine and Licinius's Edict of Milan (313 AD) has traditionally marked the end of the persecution.

Social Wars

- The Italian Social war (91-88 BC) was a conflict between Rome and her Italian allies, - triggered by the refusal of the Romans to give their allies Roman citizenship, - and with it a say in the government of the empire that the allies had helped create and defend. - Lex Julia: All freeborn Italian men south of the Po River become Roman citizens.

Julian calendar

- The Julian calendar, proposed by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, was a reform of the Roman calendar. - It took effect on 1 January 45 BC, by edict, and, with minor modification, is the same calendar system used in Western culture today.

Pax Romana

- The Pax Romana, or Roman Peace was a period of peace that lasted the length of the Augustan Empire, from 27 BC to 180 AD. - During the Pax Romana, the gates of the temple Janus remained closed, a sign that symbolized peace. - princeps—Princpes meants "First Citizen". - This was the title that Octavian, or Augustus, preferred to go by, and fell in line with his approach of publicly denouncing power, but privately getting lots of it.

Battle of Cannae (216 BC)

- The Romans after the tremendous loss at Cannae would not meet Hannibal in battle. - Instead, they besieged those cities that had revolted in favor of Hannibal (Tarentum, Syracuse, and Capua). - a major battle of the Second Punic War that took place on 2 August 216 BC in Apulia, in southeast Italy. - The army of Carthage, under Hannibal, surrounded and decisively defeated a larger army of the Roman Republic under the consuls Lucius Aemilius Paullus and Gaius Terentius Varro. - It is regarded both as one of the greatest tactical feats in military history and as one of the worst defeats in Roman history. - Having recovered from their losses at Trebia (218 BC) and Lake Trasimene (217 BC), the Romans decided to engage Hannibal at Cannae

Samnites

- The Samnites were an ancient Italic people who lived in Samnium in south-central Italy. - They became involved in several wars with the Roman Republic until the 1st century BC. - An Oscan- speaking people, the Samnites probably originated as an offshoot of the Sabines. - The First, Second, and Third Samnite Wars (343-341 BC, 326-304 BC and 298-290 BC) were fought between the Roman Republic and the Samnites, who lived on a stretch of the Apennine Mountains to the south of Rome and the north of the Lucanians. - The first of these wars was the result of Rome's intervening to rescue the Campanian city of Capua from a Samnite attack. - The second one was the result of Rome's intervention in the politics of the city of Naples and developed into a contest over the control of much of central and southern Italy. - The third war also involved a struggle over the control of this part of Italy. - The wars extended over half a century and the peoples to the east, north and west of Samnium (land of the Samnites) as well as the peoples of central Italy north of Rome (the Etruscans, Umbrians and Picenti) and the Senone Gauls got involved to various degrees and at various points in time. - The Samnites were one of early Rome's most formidable rivals.

Council of Nicaea

- The council of Nicaea was called by the emperor Constantine I, an unbaptized catechumen, who presided over the opening session and took part in the discussions. - He hoped a general council of the church would solve the problem created in the Eastern church by Arianism, a heresy first proposed by Arius of Alexandria that affirmed that Christ is not divine but a created being. - Pope Sylvester I did not attend the council but was represented by legates.

ekklesia

- The ecclesia or ekklesia was the principal assembly of the democracy of ancient Athens. - It was the popular assembly, open to all male citizens as soon as they qualified for citizenship. - In 594 BC, Solon allowed all Athenian citizens to participate, regardless of class, even the thetes. - The ekklesia elected and dismissed magistrates and directed the policy of the city. - It declared war, and it made peace. - It negotiated and approved treaties and arranged alliances. - It chose generals, assigned troops to different campaigns, raised the necessary money, and dispatched those troops from city to city. - It was an assembly in which all members had equal right and duty. - As the Roman Empire rose and supplanted the Greeks, the Romans adopted the term into Latin. - Becomes "house church,"/"widows hchurch."

Equestrian class

- The equestrian were sort of "financial knights" in the Roman Republic. -They collected public revenues, indirect taxes, and contracts for construction. - Many publicans were from the order of Equestrians - Literally, they were called equestrians, because when the censuses were done, these Roman citizens were dubbed eligible to bring a horse in battle. - Not the highest class, (they ranked below the senatorial class) but not the lowest, either

Roman kingship

- The first Roman records stated that they were a monarchy (the monarchy was founded by Romulus). - The monarchy lasted until the seventh king, Tarquin the Proud, became a tyrant, and his son raped Lucretia. - When Lucretia committed suicide, the Romans chased the Tarquins out of the city and founded Rome on a new government. -Kingship would forever be linked to tyranny. - Heretofore, all kings had been elected by the Senate of 100 Patres. This period of elected kingship during Rome's early days - lasted from 753-509 BC. - The kings were not all Roman; some were Etruscan and at least one was a Sabine.

Patricians

- The patricians, or descendants of the Patres composed a small part of the Roman society (6%) but executed control over the rest of Roman society—the plebeians. - They monopolized the law (for one, by not writing it down), the Senate (which was restricted to patricians), and the consul. - They were the aristocrats of the Roman Republic. - When the laws were first written down (a plebeian victory), one of the laws stated that patricians and plebeians could not intermarry. - Because of the small percentage of patricians however, this law was later revoked. - The relevance of being a patrician declined after the Conflict of Orders, but was at it's height during the Early Roman republic (509 BC)

Plebeians

- The plebeians was pretty much everybody besides the patricians, excluding slaves. - They probably made up the majority of the population during the Early Roman republic, although they were submissive to the ruling class, the patricians. - The conflict between the two groups, called the "Struggle of the Orders," or, the "Conflict of the Orders," resulted in some Plebeian gains. -- The plebeians threatened to fight, and even secede from Rome to get their early gains. - The first of these gains included electing officials, known as tribunes, to represent plebeian interests. - The second of the gains included the Council of the Plebs. In 470 BC, the Plebs established their own council (Cases that weren't heard in the Senate could be heard by the Council). - The third of these gains included the Twelve Tables in 451/450 BC, which was the writing down (making available for all literate) of a pre- existing law code.

Dictator

- The position of dictator was an elected position in the Roman Republic, which lasted for a duration of six months, and could be enacted whenever Rome was in a state of emergency crisis. - The dictator gained authority over all the armies, the Senate, Council, consuls, citizens, slaves, and treasury, and was expected to make decisions that would rescue Rome from whatever perilous, emergency position it was in.

Adoption and succession

- The practice of adoption (as an heir to the throne) was given up in favor of succession in Rome, after the First Roman Dynasty came to an end (68 BC). - Adoption/ succession used for the Julio-Claudians and Five Good Emperors. - Like Tiberius being a stepson and stuff like that. - Claudius was made emperor because he was hiding behind the curtains. - Nero was adopted by Claudius. Trajan adopts Hadrian, Hadrians adopts Antius Pius, Antius Pius adopts Marcus Aureliues. - The cycle is broken with Marucs Aurelius. - Used in 1st century and 2nd century

Heptascopy

- The reading of omens specifically from the liver is also known by the Greek term heptoscopy. - The Roman concept is directly derived from Etruscan religion, as one of the three branches of the disciplina Etrusca. - So, it's checking your goat's liver for spots to see where the fate of your future lies. - Supposedly tells you (not the will of the gods ) but what the gods think at that moment in time. - Some Etruscans divided the liver into 50 compartments. - By Cicero's day 101—43 BC, drops to 2 compartments. - Still used for divination by that point, though.

Twelve Tables

- The twelve tables was the writing down of the Roman laws, and a plebeian victory, since now all literate could know the laws. - This didn't mean that the laws were changed, just that pre-existing laws were written down. - Some of the laws found in table four are provided below: 1. A dreadfully deformed child shall be quickly killed. 2. If a father sell his son three times, the son shall be free from his father. the inheritance. This next one is from table eight: A person who had been found guilty of giving false witness shall be hurled down from the Tarpeian Rock. - According to the twelve tables, also, women were not allowed to wail nor "tear their faces," on account of a funeral.

Theodosius I

- Theodosius I, also known as Theodosius the Great, was Roman Emperor from AD 379 to AD 395, as the last emperor to rule over both the eastern and the western halves of the Roman Empire. - On accepting his elevation, he campaigned against Goths and other barbarians who had invaded the empire. - In vigorous suppression of paganism and Arianism, established the creed of the Council of Nicaea (325) as the universal norm for Christian orthodoxy and directed the convening of the second general council at Constantinople (381) to clarify the formula. - He also made Christianity the national religion of Rome—no other religion was allowed except for Judaism, (Since the Jews were a holy people, and since, for the end times to come, the Jews will convert to Christianity) - He died in 395 AD.

Titus

- Titus was the second of three in the Flavian Dynasty, after Vespasian but before Domitian. - During his reign he had to deal with the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, another Roman fire (serious, but not so much when compared to the Great Roman Fire under Nero), and a plague. - In 70 AD he captured Jerusalem, sacked the city, and destroyed the temple. - He returned in a triumph. - Titus completed the Colosseum which Vespasian had started in 80 AD (Vespasian started it in 72 BC). - When he opened the colosseum, the first 100 days were devoted to opening games. - (In the beginning, the Romans could flood the colosseum and sail in ships for mock naval battles).

Trajan

- Trajan was Roman emperor from 98 to 117 AD. - Officially declared by the Senate optimus princeps, Trajan is remembered as a successful soldier-emperor who presided over the greatest military expansion in Roman history, leading the empire to attain its maximum territorial extent by the time of his death (117 AD). - Known as a benevolent ruler, his reign was noted for public projects which benefitted the populace such as improving the dilapidated road system, constructing aqueducts, building public baths and extending the port of Ostia. - First Spaniard as emperor; Trajan's column, empire at its height; worked well with Senate.

Vespasian

- Vespasian fought in Britain under Claudius. - He was the first emperor from an equestrian family. - He restored stability to the Roman empire, and instituted some major construction projects, including the Temple of Peace, and the Colosseum. - He instituted senatorial and equestrian reform, and ruled that if a free woman was caught in adultery with a slave, she would become a slave herself. - He also established that teachers should be paid an annual salary. - Vespasian was Roman emperor from 69-79 AD, the fourth, and last, (after Galba, Otho, and Aulus Vitellius) in the Year of the Four Emperors (68-69 AD). - He founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Empire for 27 years. - The historian Suetonius records him as just, but greedy.

First Punic War—264-341 BC

- Wars called Punic because Phoenician in Latin is Poeni. - Word used alternately to describe Phoenicians or Carthaginians. - ROME DID NOT INITIALLY WANT TO GET INVOLVED IN THE WAR. - But some Roman mercenaries claimed territory for themselves outside of Rome (at Messana) and called for Roman backup. - The Romans decided to aid them against the Carthaginians, since they realized that they were the last line of defense from actual Roman territory. - They were not good at naval fighting, but developed a tactic based off of a wrecked Carthaginian sailing vessel—a tactic involving a corvus (bridge). - At the end of the war, Rome finally wins a decisive naval battle and the war ends. - Rome gets Sicily and an indemnity. - Carthage's mercenary troops revolt when return to Africa. - From 241-238 B.C., Civil war in Africa as mercenary revolt is put down. - In the chaos, Rome takes the islands of Sardinia and Corsica. - In the intervening years, Carthage becomes more active in Spain, mining it for silver and recruiting mercenaries. - Rome and Spain agree on spheres of influence in Spain with the Ebro River as the dividing line. But Rome allied with Saguntum south of the Ebro.

Mark Antony

- a Roman general and statesman best known for his love affair with Cleopatra VII (c.69-30 BC) of Egypt. - As Julius Caesar's friend and right-hand man, he gave the funeral oration after Caesar's assassination which turned the tide of popular opinion against the assassins. - As part of the Second Triumvirate of Rome, he ruled uneasily with Octavius Caesar and Lepidus, famously fell in love with Cleopatra VII of Egypt, and, after his defeat at the Battle of Actium (31 BC), committed suicide in 30 BC. - With no other contenders for power, Octavius became Rome's first emperor and the Roman Republic became the Roman Empire.

Trebia River

- a resounding Roman defeat with heavy losses, with only about 10,000 out of 40000 Romans surviving and retreating to Placentia (Piacenza). - In this battle, Hannibal got the better of the Romans by exercising the careful and innovative planning for which he was famous. - The impetuous and short-sighted opposing general, the consul Tiberius Sempronius Longus, allowed himself to be provoked into a frontal assault under physically difficult circumstances and failed to see that he was being led into a trap. - December 218 BC. - First campaign in Italy. Series of forced marches on the Romes, they haven't written, it was foggy. - Serious defeat on Roman part.

Arians

- an influential heresy denying the divinity of Christ, originating with the Alexandrian priest Arius ( c. 250- c. 336) and popular among the Visigoths. - Arianism maintained that the Son of God was created by the Father and was therefore neither coeternal with the Father, nor consubstantial.

Tribunes

- an official in ancient Rome chosen by the plebeians to protect their interests. - 5th century plebiean victory. - 490's tribunes, 470's counsels, although counsel probably predates councils. - Story that all records were held in the houses of the Tribunes. - Probably no records, but a plebeian could run to their house at any time to demand justice. - Protected plebeians from magistrate. - Creation of tribunes is step one in the whole evential success in the Struggle of the Orders.

Celtic sack of Rome

- began when the young city became embroiled in a conflict with a band of Gallic Celts led by the warlord Brennus. - On July 18, 387 B.C., the two sides met in battle along the banks of the River Allia. - The Romans had yet to perfect the fighting style that would make their legions famous, and many of their men scattered at the first charge of the wild-haired, bare-chested Gallic army. - The rest were butchered, leaving Brennus with a clear road to Rome. - His men entered the city a few days later and commenced with an orgy of rape and pillage. Buildings were burned or plundered of all their valuables, and most of the Roman senate was put to the sword at the Forum.

Octavian

- first emperor of Rome. - Octavian defeated Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium, and in 27 BC took the title of Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus. -Princeps was the title that he used most, which meant 'First citizen." He is also commonly known henceforward as Caesar Augustus. - He was excellent at pretending he didn't want power (No, I'm just a princeps—citizen), and at the same time getting all of it. - Octavian/Augustus claimed to restore the republic. - He redivided the provinces into Senatorial and Imperial divisions, combined offices, established the Praetorian Guard (imperial body guards), made a regular census, began massive rebuilding efforts, formed a bureaucracy (Rome—14 new administrative regions), and new offices for upkeep in city and Tiber. - His reign (27 BC—14 AD) founded the Pax Romana (or Roman Peace, 27 BC—180 AD), during which the gates of the temple Janus were closed (that meant peace).

Clientage

- in ancient Rome, the relationship between a man of wealth and influence (patron) and a free client; - the client acknowledged his dependence on the patron and received protection in return. - Clientage became the most important social relationship in the Roman provinces as well as in Rome. - Social relations between plebs/those who don't have a status in Rome yet.

Jugurtha

- king of Numidia from 118 to 105, who struggled to free his North African kingdom from Roman rule. - Jugurtha was the illegitimate grandson of Masinissa (d. 148), under whom Numidia had become a Roman ally, and the nephew of Masinissa's successor, Micipsa. - Jugurtha became so popular among the Numidians that Micipsa tried to eliminate his influence by sending him in 134 to assist the Roman general Scipio Africanus the Younger in the siege of Numantia (Spain). - Jugurtha, however, established close relations with Scipio, who was the hereditary patron of Numidia and who probably persuaded Micipsa to adopt Jugurtha in 120. - After Micipsa's death in 118, Jugurtha shared the rule of Numidia with Micipsa's two sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal, the first of whom Jugurtha assassinated. - When Adherbal was attacked by Jugurtha, he fled to Rome for aid—Rome's approval being required for any change in the government of Numidia. - A senatorial commission divided Numidia, with Jugurtha taking the less-developed western half and Adherbal the richer eastern half. - Trusting in his influence at Rome, Jugurtha again attacked Adherbal (112), capturing his capital at Cirta and killing him. - During the sack of Cirta, a number of Italian traders were also slain. - Popular anger in Rome at this action forced the Senate to declare war on Jugurtha, but in 111 the consul Lucius Calpurnius Bestia made a generous settlement with him. - Summoned to Rome to explain how he had managed to obtain the treaty, Jugurtha was silenced by a tribune of the plebs. - He then had a potential rival killed in the capital, and even the best of his Roman friends could no longer support him. - When war was renewed, Jugurtha easily maintained himself against incompetent generals. - Early in 110 he forced the capitulation of a whole army under Aulus Postumius Albinus and drove the Romans out of Numidia. - Antisenatorial feeling caused the terms of this surrender to be disavowed by Rome, and fighting again broke out. - One of the consuls for 109, Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus, won several battles but did not drive Jugurtha to surrender. - After the arrival of a new consul, Gaius Marius, in 107, Jugurtha continued to achieve successes through guerrilla warfare. - Bocchus I of Mauretania, however, encouraged by Marius' quaestor, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, trapped the Numidian king and turned him over to the Romans early in 105. -He was executed the following year.

Consuls

- one of the two annually elected chief magistrates who jointly ruled the republic, in ancient Rome after the deposition of the kings. - The importance is that they're elected annually. - The consuls end during the Gothic Wars in the sixth century BC. After that Rome is such a mess, the senate stops meeting. - No need for consuls.

Petrine Succession

- the handing down of the throne of St. Peter, supposedly the first Pope. - In Catholocism, it is the succession of Popes from St. Peter onwards. - The Catholic Church doctrine holds that the papacy has authority delegated from Jesus to rule over the entire Church.

Senate

- the state council of the ancient Roman republic and empire, which shared legislative power with the popular assemblies, administration with the magistrates, and judicial power with the knights. - Service within the Senate was for a lifetime; however, the Senate was for elder statesmen. - The Patricians, however, monopolized the Senate, the consulship, and the law, preventing the plebeians from obtaining a political vote. - Although the Senate existed in various forms throughout all of the duration of Rome, it initially started as the Senate of 100 patres, which began with the founding of Rome in 753 BC. -Founded by Romulus 6th century BC, not initally a legislative body, but becomes primary legislative body for the Roman people.

Crassus

-politician who in the last years of the Roman Republic formed the so-called First Triumvirate with Julius Caesar and Pompey to challenge effectively the power of the Senate. - His death led to the outbreak of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey (49-45). - Crassus fled from Rome when Gaius Marius captured the city in 87. - As a young officer, he supported Sulla during the civil war (83-82) between Sulla and the followers of Marius, returning to Rome to help Sulla seize power in 82. - The hostility between Pompey and Crassus probably originated in Sulla's clear preference for Pompey. - Crassus held the praetorship c. 73, and in 72-71 he put down the slave uprising led by Spartacus, although Pompey managed to take the credit. -Crassus and Pompey cooperated to pressure the Senate to elect them to the consulship for 70; once in office they overthrew parts of the Sullan constitution. - During the 60s, while Pompey was scoring military victories abroad, Crassus was building a political following at Rome. - He used his great wealth—derived largely from the sale of property confiscated by Sulla—to extend credit to indebted senators. - The young Julius Caesar was helped in this fashion in 62. - In 65 Crassus served as censor. In 60 Crassus joined with Pompey and Caesar to form the so-called First Triumvirate. - Crassus entered this informal coalition partly to effect passage of laws helpful to his business ventures in Asia. - From 58 to 56 he supported efforts to neutralize Pompey's power. He and Pompey were reconciled at a meeting of the three leaders at Luca, Etruria, in 56, and in the following year they were both again made consuls. - As governor of Syria in 54, Crassus attempted to gain military glory by embarking on an unwarranted invasion of Parthia, to the east - He was defeated and killed at the Battle of Carrhae (see Carrhae, Battle of) in southern Anatolia. - Died in 53 BC.

Tiberius

Augustus' stepson, being married to his daughter Julia. - Augustus' two grandsons die, and Tiberius is adopted as Augustus' full son and heir. - As the second emperor of Rome, (after Augustus) Tiberius attempted a policy of reluctance, like his former had. - Instead of appearing humble, however, the Senate and those surrounding him got upset with his seeming indecisiveness. - During his reign, Tiberius adopted his nephew, Germanicus, as his son. - Tiberius lived a reportedly depraved like, retired to the Isle of Capri, and was murdered by an unknown culprit in 37 AD.

Julius Caesar

Caesar was a member of the First Triumverate who later became sole dictator of Rome. - He was assassinated in March, 44 BC, but managed to establish a 365-day calendar with a leap year (Julian calendar), stabilized the economy (by cancelling all debt that occurred during the civil war), settled veterans all over Mediterranean (Africa, Spain, Gaul), and extended citizenship to many (Brought in many Gauls). - Back in Rome, however, The First Triumvirate had disintegrated. -Crassus was killed in battle against the Parthians in 54 BCE and, that same year, Julia died in childbirth. -Without Caesar's daughter and his financial and political backer tying him to Pompey, the latter aligned himself with the Optimate faction in Rome which he had long favored. -Pompey was now the sole military and political power in Rome and had the senate declare Caesar's governorship of Gaul terminated and, further, ordered him to return to Rome as a private citizen. - This would mean Caesar could be prosecuted for his actions when he was consul. - Rather than returning to Rome as ordered, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River with his legions and marched on the city in 49 BC. - This was considered an act of war as the Rubicon was the border between the province of Gaul and Rome. Pompey, rather than meet Caesar's legions in battle, fled to Spain and then to Greece where he was defeated by Caesar's much smaller force at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. - Pompey himself escaped from the battle and went to Egypt where he expected to find friends from his time spent there. - News of Caesar's great victory reached Egypt before him, however, and the Egyptians, believing that the gods favored Caesar over Pompey, had Pompey killed as he stepped on shore. - At some point, Caesar did the shocking act of deifying himself.

Second Triumvirate

Consisted of Mark Antony, Octavian and Lepidus. - Lasted from 43-33 BC. Unlike the First Triumvirate, the Second Triumvirate was legitimate (Not a gentleman's agreement). - However, in 36 BC Octavian forces Lepidus into retirement. - In 31 BC, there is war between (Octavian) and (Mark Antony and Cleopatra), which is settled at the Battle of Actium. - The Second Triumvirate was a political association of convenience between three of Rome's most powerful figures: Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian in the 1st century BCE. - Following the assassination of Julius Caesar the three vowed revenge on his killers and attempted to stabilize the Roman Republic in what would turn out to be its death throes. - However, the egos of these three men would soon clash, they would eventually meet in battle and, as a result, a single emperor would emerge.

rock/keys

Petrine theory, the basis of Roman Catholic doctrine on papal primacy, resting partly on Christ's bestowing the "keys of the Kingdom" on Peter (1-68 AD) (the first pope, according to Roman Catholic tradition) and partly on Christ's words: "And I tell you, you are Peter [Greek: Petros], and on this rock [Greek: petra] I will build my church" (Matthew 16:18) Vulgate—The principal Latin version of the Bible, prepared mainly by St. Jerome in the late 4th century, and (as revised in 1592) adopted as the official text for the Roman Catholic Church. Translated while Jerome is in Bethlehem (supported by wealthy widows)

Pompey

Pompey becomes a member of the first Triumvirate with Crassus and Julias Ceasar. - Together they reverse Sulla's legislation Restore tribunes. - Restore Council of the Plebs. - Roman constitution once more flexible. - Agreement: Crassus increases stature in Rome; Pompey given two commands; 1) to clear the Mediterranean Sea of pirates; 2) to defeat Mithridates VI of Pontus. - In his commission to clear the Mediterranean Sea of pirates, he conquers much of the Mediterranean coast. - In the Second Mithridatic War, Pompey annexes Pontus, Syria, and Judaea. - Old Seleucid empire absorbed. - Pompey later quarrelled with Caesar, who defeated him at Pharsalus (48). - He fled to Egypt and was murdered.

Vulgate

St. Jerome's fifth-century Latin translation of the Bible into the common language of the people of his day

Sulla

Sulla—commander during the Social War. - Allies (socii) break out in revolt because the want Roman citizenship. - Sulla wins the war, but Marius is upset because he wanted to end it. - Sulla was elected consul in 88 and sent to defeat King Mithridates. - Marius is jealous and has the Council of Plebs revoke the command and give it to him. - Sulla then marches on Rome with army— Marius flees. - When Sulla leaves for Asia, Marius returns and is elected for a 7th consulship. - In November, 82 BC, Sulla enters Rome. - He issues the Prescriptions—publishes lists of persons in the Forum who were automatically condemned to death without a trial. - He gives awards for people who bring the heads of those on the Prescription to him (radical populare). - As dictator, Sulla increases the Senate to 600 men, reduces the power of the Tribunate (The tribunate lost its veto power). - Once tribune, politicians debarred from holding any other state office. - Tribunate = political dead end. Equestrians removed from juries.

Ides of March

The Ides of March is a day on the Roman calendar that corresponds to 15 March. - It was marked by several religious observances and was notable for the Romans as a deadline for settling debts. - In modern times, the Ides of March is best known as the date on which Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC. - Caesar was stabbed to death at a meeting of the Senate. - This meeting is famously dramatized in William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar, when Caesar is warned by the soothsayer to "beware the Ides of March."

Crisis at Saguntum

The Siege of Saguntum was a battle which took place in 219 BC between the Carthaginians and the Saguntines at the town of Saguntum, near the modern town of Sagunto in the province of Valencia, Spain. - The battle is mainly remembered today because it triggered one of the most important wars of antiquity, the Second Punic War. - Saguntum resisted the siege valiantly behind its impressive fortifications, even wounding Hannibal with one of their famous spears which they drenched in flaming pitch and hurled down on their attackers. - After eight months the citizens finally gave up hope, though, and committed mass suicide by setting fire to the town. - Saguntum fell to the Carthaginians. - While Hannibal moved off into Italy and won spectacular victories there, Saguntum was retaken by a Roman force led by P. Cornelius Scipio and Gn. Cornelius Scipio Calvus in 212 BC.

Episcopacy

The office of bishop in the Catholic Church; from the Greek episkopos ("overseer"), from which also is derived the word "bishop."

Second Punic War—218 BC - 201.

The war that made Hannible, son of Barca, famous. - The first of Hannibal's large battles: Trebucum River. - Second of Hannibal's large battles: Lake Trasimeme. - Fabius Maximus was appointed dictator in Rome. - He never wanted to encounter Hannibal, so he was known as "Cantator,"—the delayer. - The Battle of Cannae was a notable battle in the Second Punic War. - In fact, more Romans died in that battle than Americans in the entire course of the Vietnam War. - The Romans after Cannae would not meet Hannibal in battle. - Instead, they besieged those cities (including Tarentum, Syracuse, and Capua) that had revolted in favor of Hannibal. - Roman general Publius Cornelius Scipio defeats the Carthaginians in Spain and then launches an African offensive. - In fear, Carthage recalls Hannibal despite the fact that he had never lost a battle. - Hannibal is finally defeated, and killed, at the battle of Zama in 202.

Simeon Stylites

crazy monk who perched alone for 37 years atop a stone pillar over 50 feet high --- pillar hermit

Attila the Hun

- Attila the Hun (reigned 434-453 AD) was the leader of the ancient nomadic people known as the Huns and ruler of the Hunnic Empire, which he established. - His name means "Little Father" and, according to some historians, may not have been his birth name but "a term of affection and respect conferred on his accession" (Man, 159). - This name was synonymous with terror among his enemies and the general populace of the territories that his armies swept through. - Attila's incursions into the regions of Germania drove the populations across the borders of the Western Roman Empire and contributed to its decline in the late 5th century AD. - The influx of the Visigoths, in particular, and their later revolt against Rome, is considered a significant contributor to Rome's fall. - The Visigoth victory over the Romans at the Battle of Adrianople in 378 AD was an event the Roman military never fully recovered from. Further, that victory encouraged the Huns to join the Visigoths (their former adversaries) in plundering Roman territories. - The apparent weakness of Rome encouraged Attila, once he became leader of the Huns, to make and break treaties (such as the Treaty of Margus in 439 AD) without fear of consequences, and his wide-scale destruction of Roman cities and towns met with little or no resistance for the most part, making it clear that the Roman army was no longer the kind of invincible fighting force it once had been.

Huns

- Historians believe that the Huns are related to the Xiongnu, a tribe who lived on the steppes of eastern Asia near modern-day Mongolia. - In the early fourth century, they began moving westward across the steppe into Europe until the Roman border stopped their advance. - By 430 AD, the Huns had established a vast, if short-lived, dominion in Europe.

Ostrogoths

- The Goths remained divided - as Visigoths and Ostrogoths - during the 5th Century. - These two tribes were among the Germanic peoples who clashed with the late Roman Empire during the Migration Period. - The Visigoths were settled south of the Danube in 376. - The Ostrogoths traced their origins to the Greutungi - a branch of the Goths who had migrated southward from the Baltic Sea and established a kingdom north of the Black Sea, during the 3rd and 4th centuries. - They built an empire stretching from the Black Sea to the Baltic.

Visigoths

- a member of the branch of the Goths who invaded the Roman Empire between the 3rd and 5th centuries AD and ruled much of Spain until overthrown by the Moors in 711. - The Visigoths were settled agriculturists in Dacia (now in Romania) when they were attacked by the Huns in 376 and driven southward across the Danube River into the Roman Empire. - They were allowed to enter the empire but the exactions of Roman officials soon drove them to revolt and plunder the Balkan provinces, assisted by some Ostrogoths. - On Aug. 9, 378, they utterly defeated the army of the Roman emperor Valens on the plains outside Adrianople, killing the emperor himself. - For four more years they continued to wander in search of somewhere to settle. - In October 382 Valens' successor, Theodosius I, settled them in Moesia (in the Balkans) as federates, giving them land there and imposing on them the duty of defending the frontier. - It was apparently during this period that the Visigoths were converted to Arian Christianity. - They remained in Moesia until 395, when, under the leadership of Alaric, they left Moesia and moved first southward into Greece and then to Italy, which they invaded repeatedly from 401 onward. - Their depredations culminated in the sack of Rome in 410 AD. ——> Late Rome: Emperor Valens (375-8) Visigoths as foederati or federates—in fear of Huns Treated poorly (Sold dog meat in exchange for a Visigoth child) 378 Adrianople defeat Romans, Valens killed. - Wander throughout Balkans retaining federate status 410 sack Rome, eventually settling in Spain. But shock of sack reels throughout empire

Franks

A Germanic people who settled in the Roman province of Gaul.

Ambrose

Augustine's mentor, he helped Augustine understand the value of the Old Testament

Valens

Roman emperor who reluctantly lets Visigoths into Rome as refuge from the Huns, but they must convert to Christianity and serve Rome, and eventually become self-sustaining